FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Landscape Restoration:
Insights and Design Principles Gained From 25 Years Of Co-Evolution Of Science, Industry, and
Regulation, Related to Florida’s Phosphate Mining
Mark T. Brown
Center for WetlandsDepartment of Environmental Engineering Sciences
University of Florida
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
OR:
The ecological engineering of
adaptive self-organization
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Description of phosphate mining
Emergy evaluation of mining and reclamation
Quick photographic overview
25 years of Research
Organization of the lecture...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
I. Phosphate Mining and Reclamation
Description, historical perspective, phosphate facts...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Overburden
Reclaimed Land
Clay Slime Pond
Superphosphate
OriginalEcosystem
Chemical Plant
BeneficiationPlant
Gypsum StackGranular CalciumPhosphate
Phosphates & Clays Clay Slimes
Overburden
Reclaimed Land
Clay Slime Pond
Superphosphate
OriginalEcosystem
Chemical Plant
BeneficiationPlant
Gypsum StackGranular CalciumPhosphate
Phosphates & Clays Clay Slimes
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Main phosphate formation…the “bone valley”(1.3 million acres)
Secondary area of mining(50,000 acres)
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Mining began in late 1800’s
Mined Peace River bottom
Until late 1930’s small scale - wide spread
Large scale mining began in 1950’s
Currently about 5000 acres /year are mined
Historical Perspective
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Mined area to date………………….320,000 acres
Mining rate…………………...5 - 6,000 acres/yr
Total to be mined…….….700,000 acres
Investment in facilities………...$10 billion
Yearly wages…………………………….$300 million/yr
Taxes paid………………………………..$800 million/yr
Operating expenses (2001)
Equip and supplies……….$990 million
Electricity…………………….$100 million
Services………………………..$178 million
Phosphate mining facts...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Phosphate Mining vs Everglades Restoration
Phosphate Reclamation
Everglades Restoration
Total Area 0.7 million Acres 1.5 million acres
Total cost $3.6 billion $7.8 billion
Yearly Op. Costs $0.0 $182 million
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
II. Quick Photographic Overview
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FIPR Restoration Workshop
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FIPR Restoration Workshop
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FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
FIPR Restoration Workshop
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FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Emergy Evaluation of Phosphate Mining and
Reclamation
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
AcidH2O
PVegetationO. M.
gd.H2O
P
Rain P
PO5
CalciumCarbonate
Sun
Mining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac
1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
AcidH2O
PVegetationO. M.
gd.H2O
P
Rain P
PO5
CalciumCarbonate
Sun
Mining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac
1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
Systems View and Emergy of Mining
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
PlantMaterial
EarthMoving
Infor.Services
Spoil Structure
Soils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej
160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
PlantMaterial
EarthMoving
Infor.Services
Spoil Structure
Soils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej
160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
Emergy in Restoration...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
.
AcidH2OPVegetation O. M.
gd.H2OP
RainP
PO5CalciumCarbonate
SunMining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
0 100 200 300 400 500
Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr
3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction with
Reclamation
.
AcidH2OPVegetation O. M.
gd.H2OP
RainP
PO5CalciumCarbonate
SunMining
3.8 E19 sej
6,000 Mt/ac1.3 E22 sej
Transpiration
160 acres
0 100 200 300 400 500
Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr
3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction with
Reclamation
Benefits of Restoration...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Loss without Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 500 yr * 0.5
= 12.0 E18 sej
Loss with Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 100 yr * 0.5
= 2.4 E18 sej
Net benefit reclamation = 12.0 E18 sej - 2.4 E18 sej
= 9.6 E18 sej
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Loss without Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 500 yr * 0.5
= 12.0 E18 sej
Loss with Reclamation = 3.0 E14 sej/ ac/ yr * 160 ac * 100 yr * 0.5
= 2.4 E18 sej
Net benefit reclamation = 12.0 E18 sej - 2.4 E18 sej
= 9.6 E18 sej
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
Benefits of Restoration...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Reclamation costs = 1.5 + 3.0 + 1.2 = 5.7E18 sej
Reclamation benefits = 9.6 E18 sej
Net benefit ratio = 9.6 / 5.7 = 1.68/ 1
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
0 100 200 300 400 500Years
Mining Occurs 3.0 E14 sej/ac/yr3.0
1.5
0
Production withoutReclamationProduction withReclamation
Net Benefit of Reclamation:
Reclamation costs = 1.5 + 3.0 + 1.2 = 5.7E18 sej
Reclamation benefits = 9.6 E18 sej
Net benefit ratio = 9.6 / 5.7 = 1.68/ 1
PlantMaterial EarthMoving Infor.Services
Spoil StructureSoils
EcosystemsSun
(assumes 100 years) E 18 sej160 acres
12.0
1.53.0 1.2
EcosystemServices
Net Benefits Ratio...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
III. Phosphate Mine Restoration Research
25 years of studying self organization at one level and contributing to it at
another...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
No reclamation until 1975
1975 - 1980... “pushed dirt around”, planted 10% of area in trees, made lakes
Success criteria = “ hide evidence of mining”
1980 - 1985…required to reclaim wetlandsSuccess criteria = 400 trees/acre, 80% cover by desirable species, no visible erosion
1985-1995…wetland reclamation, type for typeSuccess criteria = more descriptive, but still counting.
1995- present…Success criteria = more prescriptive..with some numerical criteria
Historical Perspective…Reclamation
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Studies of the Interaction of Phosphate Mining and
Wetlands
1979-1981
Cataloged wetland responses to mining
Evaluated wetland succession on clay settling areas
Studied wetland succession
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Seed rain is significantly affected by distance...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Studies of succession on clay settling areas
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Dry
Wet
Dry
Tree ring analysis suggested that growth rates taper off in about the 20th year, and that variable growth rates result from wet and dry years
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Studies of a Method of Wetlands Reclamation Following Phosphate
Mining.
1981-1982
Study of the use of muck from “donor” wetlands as a innoculum for
constructed wetlands.
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
The first studies of “mucking”... ca 1981
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April 3, 2008
Vegetation growth with differing amounts of applied muck
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April 3, 2008
Wetland vegetation on mucked plots….
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April 3, 2008
Relation of plant diversity to landscape diversity (standard deviation of 30 measures of elevation within each plot) .
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Development of Techniques and Guidelines for the Reclamation of
Phosphate Mined Lands1982-1987
Studied the physical and biological characteristics of native Florida ecosystems….
Developed a handbook of restoration/construction
techniques...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Studies of Florida ecosystems lead to development of guidelines for constructing ecosystems on mined lands….
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Studies of drainage basin morphology lead to a “cookbook” for creating functional watersheds….
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April 3, 2008
0 1 2
kilometers
0 2 4
kilometers
High Relief Landscape….small area of wetlands
Low Relief Landscape….larger area of wetlands
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April 3, 2008
Biogeomorphology of stream channels...
Headwaters - no defined stream channel, broad flow-way, large accumulations of organic soils.
Mid-reaches - more defined channel with moderate floodplain moderate accumulations of organic soils
Lower reaches - defined channel, large floodplain with natural levies, mineral soils with little or no organic matter.
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Geomorphology of Florida ecosystems….
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
COMMUNITIES
UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric pine
Mesic hardwood
Flatwoods Lake fringe
Marsh Cypress dome
Bayhead Hardwood swamp
Number of transects 1 5 29 1 8 4 3 4 Hydrologic regime: Average distance from ground surface (cm): -80.4 -136.4 -75.8 - 44.5 6.8 -6.6 3.4 Range of fluctuation (maximum water level – minimum water level in cm): 46.0 195.8 149.0 - 171.6 169.3 84.0 89.2 Hydroperiod: Average depth of inundation (cm): 76.9 69.5 30.4 13.0 36.2 Percent time of inundation: 100 94.7 77.1 65.9 93.6
COMMUNITIES
UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric pine
Mesic hardwood
Flatwoods Lake fringe
Marsh Cypress dome
Bayhead Hardwood swamp
Number of transects 1 5 29 1 8 4 3 4 Hydrologic regime: Average distance from ground surface (cm): -80.4 -136.4 -75.8 - 44.5 6.8 -6.6 3.4 Range of fluctuation (maximum water level – minimum water level in cm): 46.0 195.8 149.0 - 171.6 169.3 84.0 89.2 Hydroperiod: Average depth of inundation (cm): 76.9 69.5 30.4 13.0 36.2 Percent time of inundation: 100 94.7 77.1 65.9 93.6
Hydrologic regime and hydroperiod of Florida ecosystems
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
COMMUNITIES UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric
pine Mesic
hardwood Flatwoods Lake
fringe Marsh Cypress dome Bayhead Hardwood
swamp Number
of transects
9 11 30 2 7 6 4 11
Overall Basal Area (m2/ha):
15.73 21.96 13.97 65.72 6.27 35.66 27.68 38.89
Overall Density (stems > 5 cm DBH/ha): 589.7 471.7 553.2 1239.4 308.8 1809.2 1183.2 1290.3
Species Richness (number of tree species/transect): 2.8 5.1 3.0 8.5 5.4 7.2 6.8 13.5
Species Diversity (Shannon-Weaver Index): 0.36 1.33 0.71 2.30 0.94 1.08 1.92 2.07
COMMUNITIES UPLAND WETLAND
Xeric
pine Mesic
hardwood Flatwoods Lake
fringe Marsh Cypress dome Bayhead Hardwood
swamp Number
of transects
9 11 30 2 7 6 4 11
Overall Basal Area (m2/ha):
15.73 21.96 13.97 65.72 6.27 35.66 27.68 38.89
Overall Density (stems > 5 cm DBH/ha): 589.7 471.7 553.2 1239.4 308.8 1809.2 1183.2 1290.3
Species Richness (number of tree species/transect): 2.8 5.1 3.0 8.5 5.4 7.2 6.8 13.5
Species Diversity (Shannon-Weaver Index): 0.36 1.33 0.71 2.30 0.94 1.08 1.92 2.07
Vegetative characteristics of Florida ecosystems...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Range of hydrologic variation in Florida ecosystems...
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Study sites used to compare naturally “reclaimed” ecosystems
Naturally Reclaimed Ecosystems
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Ecosystems that develop on mined lands are SOMEWHAT SIMILAR (about 60%) to ecosystems that develop on abandoned agricultural lands..
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Integrated landscape approach to reclamation design….
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Snags provide bird perches…. The seed rain below perches was from 50 to 100 times that found in areas without perches.
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Successional Trajectories and Nuisance Species in
Wetlands1994-2000
Studied the role of “nuisance species”
Evaluated the function of micro-topographic relief
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Classical Succession… beginning w/ annuals… ending w/ long lived, climax species...
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April 3, 2008
Nuisance Species
&
Nutrient storage…
PHOSPHORUS
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April 3, 2008
Nuisance Species
&
Nutrient storage…
NITROGEN
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Soils develop with age but depend on:
vegetative cover…
hydrologic regime
Soils….
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Simulation model of Pioneer Species…
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Simulation Results w/ Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Pioneer Species
Simulation Results w/ Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Pioneer Species
Simulation Results w/out Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Simulation Results w/out Early Successional Species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1 25 49 73 97 121 145 169
Years
% of Maximum
Climax Species
Organic Matter
Soil Nutrients
Simulation results…
FIPR Restoration Workshop
April 3, 2008
Thank You…Questions?