FEM 3001(INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT)
FEM 3001 is the basic course in your entire studies
INSTRUCTOR DR SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB
JPMPK, FEM
CONTACT NOPHONE: 03-89467088
E-MAIL: [email protected]
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UNIT 1 - PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY, RELIGION & THEORY
UNIT 2 - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL CONTEXTS
UNIT 3 - LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT UNIT 4 - FITRAH AND POTENTIALS UNIT 5 - VALUES AND CULTURE
OUTLINE
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What is Human Development? The Concept of Insan & Human Beings Human Development The Creation of Human Beings The Scientific Approach The Religious Perspective
UNIT 1:PHYLOSOPHY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: HISTORY,
RELIGION & THEORY
What is Human Development?
Definition:
• Scientific study of processes of change and stability of human beings (from conception till death)
• Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, or from “womb to tomb.” (from book Sigelman & Rider, 2009)
• The systematic changes and continuities fall into three broad domains:
• Physical development: growth of body
• Cognitive development: changes in perception, language, memory.
• Psychosocial development: motives, personality traits, interpersonal skill and relationship.
Basis philosophy and concepts of human development human as God-created being INSAN
In this course, insan refers to universal understandings of human-beings
Insan in the context of their environments; where interactions & transactions take place; which will in turn influence & will be influencing quality of life & quality of the environment.
Focus on human beings across life cycle Ecological perspective – broad “tool” to understand
human beings as person- in-environment Base: Faith in God; Goals: Quality of life, quality of
environment Through scientific processes of describing,
explaining, predicting & modifying of behaviour
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The creation of human beings
Using developmental approach, studies on human development normally have been focussing on child development
During the 6th – 15th century , children were assumed as mini adults, preformationism; children are known as persons who need protection
16th century : The religious perspective (Protestan) demanded parents to be strict in nurturing their children in order for them to be able to tell right from wrong
17th century: John Locke pointed the importance of human dignity; respects; > behavioural
Children, known as tabula rasa (blank slate); originally “pure”; strated form nothing; need to be guided through experiences
Children were viewed as passive mechanistic, development occurred continuously; and parents mould their children’s behaviour through warmth nurturing
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Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) – a French philosopher; claimed that children are noble savages (have natural tendency/sense of differentiating right from wrong; can grow to become healthy adults
Children have internal senses; cognitive ability & unique emotions that are prone to be abused / corrupted by adults who trained them
Rousseau introduced the stages of development and maturity concepts
Aristotle: HumChildren are organismic (active designer of their own destiny); development does not occur continuously, but in stages; nature’s role in determining changes in life
Human beings are the thinking, social, political animal who run various functions in order to live
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THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH…
The first scientific investigations of development were undertaken on late 19th century. Scholars observe the growth and development of their own children, and publish in the form of baby biographies. The most influential baby biographer was Charles Darwin.Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882), British “naturalist” Darwin studied variations in plants and animal speciesNo 2 items/individuals/specimens that are 100% the sameThe founder of the evolution theoryDarwin’s evolutionary perspective and studies of the development of embryos strongly influenced early theories of human development, which emphasized universal, biological based maturational changes.
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2 basic principles of the evolution theory: natural selection & survival of the fittest
Natural selection: some species are naturally selected to survive in certain environment because they have the fit with characteristic able to adapt; Others … died / perished
Those who survived will continue to live for a long time reproduce & continue to generate quality characteristics for their next generations
Focus: Physical & behavioural adaptations Darwin claimed that at the early stage (prenatal) some species
are similar He concluded that all species including human beings have the
same ancestors This has created debates and finally proven to be false. 9
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Normative Era
• G. Stanley Hall (1846 – 1924), American psychologist, fore father of research on child development, first president of the American Psychological Association.
• He collects more objective data on large samples of individuals questionnaire
• Influential book: adolescence (1904)• Adolescence was a time of emotional ups and downs and rapid
changes. • Substantial changes in brain and in cognitive and social functioning
do take place during adolescence. • With Arnold Gesell (1880 – 1961) – they claimed human development
as “genetically determined, develop automatically.. Just like flowers”• The normative method refers to research on human behaviour based
on responses from MANY respondents; often linked with certain age group. 10
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Mental/Cognitive Testing Era
• Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911), French Psychologist, applied normative method to test human intelligence
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test• It initiated heated debates over the issue of
nature versus nurture
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THE RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVE
• Human beings are not machines (there are mind & spirit); not animals nor angels, and not GOD who creates himself
• In Islam, human beings are created by Allah in the best form of creation, to become khalifah
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• Surah Al-Hijr (26) yang bermaksud:
• “Dan sesungguhnya kami (Allah) telah menciptakan manusia (Adam) dari tanah liat kering, (yang berasal) dari tanah lumpur hitam yang diberi bentuk
• Surah At-Tin: (4) yang bermaksud:
• “Sesungguhnya telah kami (Allah) ciptakan manusia itu di dalam sebaik-baik cara, kami menjadikan sesuatu kelengkapan sesuai dengan keadaannya”
• Surah Al-Mu’minun (12 – 14) yang bermaksud:• “Dan sesungguhnya Kami telah menciptakan manusia dari
(saripati) tanah. Kemudian Kami jadikan (saritanah) itu airmani yang tersimpan dalam tempat yang kukuh (rahim). Lalu kami jadikan air mani itu segumpal darah, lalu gumpalan darah itu Kami jadikan segumpal daging, dan Kami jadikan gumpalan daging itu tulang belulang, lalu kami lapisi tulang belulang itu dengan daging. Kemudian Kami bentuk ia menjadi makhluk yang lain. Maha Suci Allah, sebaik-baik pencipta 13
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Men were created with certain purpose (amanah) – to function as khalifah who obeys his Creator. The coordination of both mind and spirit forms INSAN
Spiritual = related with 4 elements: spirit, the nafs, mind, and qalb
Roh = it’s God’s business;
Nafsu – bases for the reality of human beings: 3 levels of nafsu that urge or motivate behaviour: Ammarah, Lawwamah, Mutmainnah)
Akal – bases for kemuliaan; mengetahui segala sesuatu
Qalbu (hati)- merasa; asas keperibadian
Men have tendencies for good and bad deeds. Originally pure and clean, given mind to think, able to strive, given the urgency to need & want; and bestowed with energy
The QALB plays a big role in determining personality & behaviour where a person has to be responsible for
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A PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Every age period of life is important
Focus: processes that took place
Perspectives that support this philosophy:
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1. Development is multi dimensional & inter disciplinary2. Development continues through the life span 3. Both heredity & environment influence development 4. Development reflects both continuity & discontinuity 5. Development is cumulative 6. Development reflects both stability & change 7. Development is variable 8. Development is sometimes cyclical & repetitive 9. Development reflects individual differences 10. Development reflects cultural differences11. Development influences are reciprocal
VARIOUS PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT…
Development involves changing of allocation & resources.
Investment of resources (time, energy, talent, money & social support) are varied across life span
Resources are used for GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, RECOVERY, DEALING WITH LOSS
During childhood / young adulthood - resources go for growth; mid-life - balanced use; old age – regulations of losses.
New (additional) perspective:
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UNIT 2:HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN ECOLOGICAL
CONTEXT
Ecological Background We do not live in isolation – we interact Environment: everything outside the system that we (the
organism) live in Human beings = biological organism + social organism
that interact and have transactions with(in) the environment
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The History Behind Ecological Approach
Many proponents of ecological concepts.Aristotle and PlatoThe word “ecology” was introduced by Ernest Haeckel (1969) –
German zoologistOriginated from Greek term – Oikus (home/family)
Human ecology – the study of individual in the context of family, household and environment.
Individual development - interaction between the environment and heredity.
A Chemist, Ellen Swallow Richards proposed a Scientific field of study to examine the influence of home environment on the family.
Ellen studied air and water quality, sanitation, food & nutrition.
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General System Theory
Basic concepts from the General Systems theory are applied Holistic perspective = holism, looking at living nature as interacting
wholes (the whole is greater than the sum of the parts) Every system has 4 elements:
Objects = parts of the system; what the system is made of (in a family – each member = object); basic element of the system
Attributes = qualities/properties of the system & its members; indicate characteristics; uniqueness
Relationships = connection between / among the elements of the system (between object-environment)
Environment = anything that surrounds; can affect systems understanding person-in context
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What is ECOSYSTEM? ..
A type of system .. Ecological system Made up of living organism (O) with their environments (E) originates from ecology: a science that investigate & describe
reciprocal relationships between O & E) Basis: a survival unit never consist of O or species in a static
environment; but rather, that it is an ecosystem with all O in reciprocal relationships with each other & with E
Human behavior is influenced by the environment and vice versa Even though the environment changes due to technology, human
beings need to impose control on life & environment to ascertain quality of life
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Ecosytem seek a steady / stable / balanced state of existence HOMEOSTASIS
Organism adapts to reach homeostasis
ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT
OutputInput
Processing
Feedback
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Bases: Human development is studied from the context of person-in-environment
The principle: all growth & development occur in the context of relationships
It’s an inter-disciplinary concept. To integrate & link various human & family issues holistic & in a
comprehensive manner to ensure a global plan of action. Human ecology = a field of study that considers individuals & families
within their environment & the relationships between them
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Human Ecological System Perspective
System Theory
Objects + Attributes +
Relationships + Environment +
Human Ecology
Ecological Theory
Organism + Environment + Interaction +
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6 assumptions for the human ecological framework
1. Human-beings are not passive receivers of information & inputs
2. Systems are dynamic always changing
3. Individuals & social systems have the capacity to change (they also wish to change)
4. Changing one element of a system will cause change(s) to other parts
5. Systems rely interdependently on one another to operate
6. All systems have boundaries
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Pioneer:
Beatrice Paolucci (Michigan State University) employed the home-economics approach
Suggested that family is a social system that depend on:
The natural environment for physical maintenance
Social environment for human values; meaning and quality of life.
Margaret Buboltz & Susan Sontag (Michigan State University) continue Paolucci’s work
Proposed 3 environments that surround human beings:
Natural - biophysical
Socio-cultural
Technology-human constructed
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ENVIRONMENT
Physical, biological, social, economic, political, esthetics & structure surroundings; contexts for human behavioral & growth/development
Can be classified according to resources within them.
Natural / bio-physical environment
Mother-nature resources Water, earth, snow, time, plants, animals, fossil, minerals Can be beneficial for human consumptions
Socio cultural environment Social institution - kinship, religion, politic, economy, legal, recreation
or symbolic group
Determines civilization & cultural system
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Technology – Human Constructed Environment
Buildings, bridge, hydro-electric, houses, highway
Built using materials from the natural environment
Science and technology advancement helps to improve quality of life; abuse of it may destroy life
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Family Ecosystem Model [Bubolz & Sontag; 1990]
Family
Technology-human
constructed
Socio-cultural
Natural-bio-physical
TIME – Past, Present, Future
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Human Ecology:
Urie Bronfenbrenner (Cornell University) focused on contextual aspects of human development
He introduced 5 environmental systems: micro, meso, exo, macro & chrono.
Classification based on size of the environment MICRO small MACRO big
Bronfenbrenner (1979): the ecology of human development based upon the relationships between human beings & context where they interact or make transactions (exchange resources)
The 5 systems are embedded within each other; the nearest environment is the environment where the individual resides & develops
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MICROSYSTEM
An immediate physical and social environment in which the individual interact with and influences by them.
The nearest environment to the individuals A pattern of activities, roles & interpersonal relations
experienced by the developing person in a given setting with particular physical & material characteristics
Eg: Home environment & classroom are micro environments for primary school children
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MESOSYSTEM
Comprises the interrelations among 2 or more settings in which the developing person actively participates
Example: Mesosystem for a child is the relationship between home,
neighbor, and school Marital conflict (one microsystem) influence child
performances in school (a second microsystem) Child: relations between home-school & neighborhood; Adults: family-work-social life
It is a system for the micro system
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EXOSYSTEM
Refers to > 1 settings that do not involve the developing person as an active participant, but in which events occur that affect, or are affected by what happens in the setting containing the developing person
Eg: exosystem of a child might include the parent’s place of work, a school attended by his older siblings, activities of the neighborhood etc
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MACROSYSTEM
Abstract in nature : refers to consistencies, in the form & content of lower order system (micro, meso, exo) that exist, or could exist, at the level of subculture or the culture as a whole along with any belief systems or ideology underlying such consistencies.
eg: socio-cultural / customs; legal systems, religion, education, defense system. space is perceived differently across cultures – what
determined the differences? Law? Religion? Custom?
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CHRONOSYSTEM
Refers to patterns of events & transitions that take place in individual’s environment through-out his/her life
An idea that changes in people and their environment occur in time frame and unfold in particular patterns over a person’s lifetime.
The element of TIME is important in this system
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INDIVIDU
MICROSYSTEM
MESOSYSTEM
EXOSYSTEM
MACROSISTEM
CHRONO-SYSTEMPattern of events & changes in structure according to time
Value system Pattern of behaviour
Belief system
SchoolFamily
Friends
Work place
Government agenciesCommunity
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The importance of the ecological perspective in understanding human development:
It takes the holistic approach (considers multiple factors regarding person – in – context). Focuses on wholeness..
Any phenomenon is seen from multiple perspectives - aiming to get the obtain high quality of life / environment
Allows for an integrated plan of action – balanced & holistic; lend to improve Quality of life (individual, family, community…)
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Environments do not DETERMINE human behavior; but they can influence them through : limiting / blocking/ allowing/ facilitating / opening for opportunities & possibilities
Families do not exist in isolation from the other environments, rather, they have a degree of control and freedom on their interactions / transactions with the environment & acquisition of resources
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Decisions & actions that are taken by individual/ families will give an impact on the community, culture, other environments … the WORLD.
The world’s ecological well-being depends on the decisions & actions by the nation… down to the individual & families
Decisions made at macro level or even at the WOLRD’s platform, will directly or indirectly impacting the individual & families.
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Basic principles in ecological model (Conrad & Novick, 1996)
Human development is studied through the person-in-environment perspective
Multiple & different environments experienced by individuals influenced the growth & development of individuals
Every environment has its risks & protective factors The interactions between individuals & environment are two-way /
reciprocal. It creates a complex feedback system Individual & family will always face changes & growth. Stress, coping &
adaptation are normal developmental experiences.
The general human/family ecological focused on the near environment (people, materials) which provide physical context & prime base for personal & familial activities
The community system (neighborhood, market, schools, mosques/church/temple are included
The macro (bigger) environments may also influence individual & family.
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Human development occurs within the family context through family processes & activities
These processes & activities are needed and influenced by the reciprocal interactions with & within the natural-physical; human constructed & socio-cultural environments
The outcome QUALITY OF LIFE & ENVIRONMENT Human Q of life: To what extend human needs, values &
goals are met & how are they obtained Q of environment = safety, health, coping strategy,
adequacy, justice… in providing natural resources, economic, social needs & support.
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SUMMARY
The ecological perspective encourages the followings criteria in order to understand human beings:
1. An integrated thinking
Creative thinking
A comprehensive focus of dynamic
Systemic understanding
Ethical reasoning
Variability
Practical action
Self understanding
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OTHER THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Definition Issues in Human Development Freud and Erikson: Psychoanalytic Theory Learning Theory Piaget: Cognitive Theory
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A set of interrelated statements that provides an explanation for a class of events. (from book Crandell, Crandell, & Zanden, 2009)
A set of ideas proposed to describe and explain certain phenomena. (from book Sigelman & Rider, 2009)
A good theory helps us to describe, predict, and explain human development.
Definition
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Issues in Human Development
Nature-nurture Is development primarily the product of genes, biology, and maturation-or of experience, learning, and social influences?
Goodness-Badness of Human Nature
Are humans innately good, innately bad, neither, or both?
Activity-Passivity Do humans actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own development-or are they passively shaped by forces beyond their control?
Continuity-Discontinuity
Do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways-or do they progress through qualitative different stages and change dramatically into different beings?
Universality-Context Specificity
Is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture- or do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social contexts?
From book Sigelman & Rider, 2009, pg33
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Freud (1856-1939): Psychoanalytic Theory He proposed that people are driven by motives and emotional
conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their earliest experiences in life.
Each people has certain amount of psychic energy that can be used to satisfy basic urges. They are divided into three components:
Id: an impulsive, irrational part of the personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. People seek immediate gratification. Example: infants cry when they are hungry until their needs are met.
Ego: rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic way of gratifying the instincts. Ego emerged during infants. Example: toddler lead dad to kitchen and say “cookie” when he/she hungry.
Superego: internalized moral standards. From 3-6 years old. Example: not violating the rules and may feel shame if they do.
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Freud’s Psychosexual TheoryOral stage (birth to 1 year)
Lobido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to later development.
Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts between the child’s biological urges and the society’s demands.
Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)
Libido centers on the genitals. Resolution of the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego.
Latent period (6 to 12 years)
Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same-sex friends.
Genital stage (12 years and older)
Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youth seek to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of reproduction.
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Erikson (1902-1994): Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory
Concern with inner dynamics of personality and it evolves through systematic stages.
He proposed that personality continues to develop over the entire life span.
Erikson concerned with psychosocial development, or development of the person within a social context.
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Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesTrust vs. mistrust (birth to 1 year)
Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. Responsive parenting is critical.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1 to 3 years)
Children must learn to be autonomous- to assert their wills and do things for themselves-or they will doubt their abilities
Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years)
Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans, but they must be learn not to impinge on the right of others.
Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years)
Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers, otherwise, they will feel inferior.
Identity vs. role confusion (12 to 20 years)
Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities, otherwise, they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults.
Intimacy vs. isolation (20 to 40 years)
Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs. stagnation (40 to 65 years)
Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as parents or as workers, otherwise, they will become stagnation and self-centered.
Integrity vs. despair (65 years and older)
Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death with out worries and regrets.
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LEARNING: Watson (1913): classical conditioning He believed that human development and functioning
should be based on observations of overt behaviours rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional process.
Classical conditioning: simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicit the response.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): An unlearned stimulus Unconditioned response (UR): a response come from UCS Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus come first
and following by UR. Then the neutral stimulus will become CS
Conditioned response (CR): a response come from CS
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LEARNING: Skinner: Operant Conditioning He emphasized on the role of environment in
controlling behavior. Positive punishment: occurs when an unpleasant
event is added to the situation following a behavior. Negative punishment: occurs when something
pleasant is removed from the situation following the behavior.
Positive reinforcement: something has been added to the situation, reinforcement means strengthened.
Negative reinforcement: occurs when a behavioral tendency is strengthened because something negative or unpleasant is removed from the situation.
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Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Human are cognitive beings whose active
processing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development.
This theory highlighting that observational learning as the most important mechanism through which human behavior changes, Bandura made his cognitive emphasis clear.
Observational learning: learning by observing the behavior of other people (or call models).
Example: a child may learn how to speak a language, tackle math problems, smoke, and others, by imitating others.
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Piaget (1896-1980): Cognitive Development Theory
Emphasized on cognitive development.
Constructivism: Piaget viewed intelligence as a process that helps
an organism adapt to its environment. A children actively construct new understandings
of the world based on their experiences. Children use their current understandings of the
world to help them solve problems, they also revise their understandings to make them fit reality better.
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Piaget’s four stages of cognitive developmentSensorimotor (birth to 2 years)
Infants use their sense and motor actions to explore and understand the world. At the start they have only innate reflexes, but they develop increasingly “intelligent” actions. By the end, they are capable of symbolic though using images or words and can therefore plan solutions to problems mentally.
Preoperational (2 to 7 years)
Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. Their thinking is not yet logical. They are egocentric and are easily fooled by perceptions because they cannot rely on logical operations.
Concrete operations (7 to 11 years)
School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.
Formal operations (11 to 12 years and older)
Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.
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UNIT 3:LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Focus on development across life stages of life). It begins with conception and ends with death. Divided into various stages; based on growth & changes . In general, there are common/ universal characteristics for
each stage; however, there are also unique characteristics amongst individuals: (characters, time, duration).
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Stages in life:1. Conception & pregnancy2. Birth3. Infant (1st two years following birth)4. Early childhood (toddler) (3 - 6 years of age)5. Middle childhood (7 – 12 years of age) 6. Early adolescence (13 - 15 years of age)7. Late adolescence (16 – 19 years of age)8. Early adulthood (20-30’s)9. Middle adulthood (40-50’s)10. Late adulthood (above 60)
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CONCEPTIONS & PREGNANCY
Prenatal stage; the 1st stage of life Starts with the conception between ovum & sperm forming zygote Developmental stages during prenatal:
a) Germinal Period – starts from conception to implantation (takes about 14 days).
b) Embryonic period – from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception
c) Fatal period – from 8 weeks to the end of pregnancy
A normal pregnancy lasts for 9 months & 10 days; divided into 3 trimesters (basically for medical purposes):
1. 1st Trimester (early pregnancy – 3rd month) – very crucial stage
2. 2nd Trimester (4th – 6th month)
3. 3rd Trimester (last 3 months)
Fetus develops throughout pregnancy; Influenced by both genetic & environmental factors; Mothers-to-be experienced tremendous changes – physical, emotional; particularly due to the changes in hormonal level
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Challenges: Environment may influence fetal development Teratogens = an agent in the environment that can
cause fetal defect/ abnormalities/ death (miscarriages)
The effect is varied, depending upon: Amount & period of exposure.
Time of exposure.
Genetic factors (of mother & fetus).
The present of other teratogens .
Critical period during prenata:
1. Germinal/(zygote) = before implantation; teratogens < effect; If exposed; the cells collapsed (miscarriage)
2. Embrionic: Most critical stage – major development occur rapidly during this period
3. Fetal: Not as severe, but main organs can be easily damaged: brain, eyes; genital
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Types of teratogens (examples)
Medication (e.g.: thalidomide, diethylstilbestrol, aspirin) – may cause bodily defect; harm reproductive function; cancer, low birth weight, death
Drugs – various physical & mental damages Cigarettes – (primary & secondary): low birth weight;
premature birth, miscarriage; death; cancer
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Types of teratogens (examples)
Alcohol – brain damage, abnormal feature (facial), eyes are widely apart, thinner upper lip, small head size
Radiation – cancer, miscarriage, abnormal physical growth, brain damages,, physical & mental retardation; harm formation of skull & eyes
Others: rubella, STD - HIV/AIDS, bacteria/parasite i.e. toxoplasmosis (raw meat, cat’s feces)
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Figure 2.2
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Other factors:
Food & nutrition
Stress/depression (emotional health)
Rh. factor (mismatch between fetus & mother) Rh. factor – is a blood protein
Mother’s age
Number of pregnancy / gaps in-between
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Infant stage (0-2 years following birth)
Infants develop tremendously – physical (motor); senses; emotional; social & emotional
Primary social agents play significant role to establish various development of the infant
Infant learns to trust or distrust people; learns how to express love & affections; tries to master stages of development (esp. physical)
Infants temperaments can be detected at this stage
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Early childhood (3 - 6 years)
Preschool age (++ toddler) Rapid growth – physical; social, cognitive &
language. Develops self concept, identity (early stage);
gender role; loves to play with others Effective parent-child relationship is critical
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Middle Childhood (7- 12 years)
Ability in reading, writing, maths is developed
Tries to think logically, to understand the “world”
School is another importan micro system
Rapid growth in psycho-social & moral dev.
Good family relationship is critical
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Early adolescence (13 – 15)
Transitional period between childhood & adulthood Rapid growth – earlier among girls (puberty) Sexual maturity; formal operations thinking Wanting freedom, autonomy; prefer peers ? Earlier & stablished relationships since small will ease the
adjustments for adolescents & parents
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Late adolescence (16 - 19 years)
Formation of self identity is critical aspect of development at this stage
Plan for future career ; academic pursuits; working
Establish relationship with partners of opposite sex special relationship
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Early adulthood (20’s & 30’s)
Biggest challenge: to establish intimate realtionship; determine career of choice & get the job
Various major life decisions: marriage, becoming parents, establishment of career
Some early adults dace divorce at this stage; remarriage Many major life decisions at this stage will influence later
stages
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Middle adulthood (40’s – 50’s)
Running out of time Self reflect, causes mid-life crisis Obtain > freedom esp. if all children left home Obtain personal & social responsibilities, successful career Adaptations are done especially if there are changes (in any
other aspects) – i.e. promotions moving to another state
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Late adulthood (> 60)
Need to adjust & adapt since major changes occur in almost all aspects of life
Focus on health care to maintain overall well-being Some late adults use their time wisely by giving back to the
family / society/ country using their knowledge & experiences.
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Challenges across life-cycle:
Various capacity, types, durations, timing
Various factors may influence them or influence the impact of the challenges
Risc factors; protective factors
A resilient person can survive best
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Robert Havighurst (1953) – theory of developmental tasks.
Emphasized the interrelationship of physical, social, emotional, and intellectual aspects of development.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
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Definition:
A developmental task is a task to be performed or achieved during a certain period in a person’s life.
It represents culture's definition of "normal" development at different points in the life span.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
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Definition:
It consist of a set of skills and competences that are acquired as the person gains increased mastery over the environment.
Many developmental tasks are related to the society in which an individual lives .
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
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Most people accomplish developmental tasks in a certain order.
Successfully accomplish one task before going on to a task at the next level.
Interrelationship of the factors.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE NO DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
1 INFANCY 1 Social attachment
2 Sensori-motor intelligence and primitive causality
3 Object permanence
4 Maturation of motor function
2 TODDLERHOOD 1 Self-control
2 Language development
3 Fantasy and play
4 Elaboration of locomotion.
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE NO DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
3 EARLY SCHOOL AGE 1 Sex role identification
2 Early moral development
3 Concrete operations
4 Group play
4 MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE 1 Social cooperation
2 Self-evaluation
3 Skill learning
4 Team play
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE NO DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
5 EARLY ADOLESCENCE 1 Physical maturation
2 Formal operations
3 Membership in the peer group
4 Heterosexual relationships
6 LATER ADOELSCENCE 1 Autonomy from parents
2 Sex role identity
3 Internalized morality
4 Career choice
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE NO DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
7 EARLY ADULTHOOD 1 Marriage
2 Childbearing
3 Work
4 Lifestyle
8 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD 1 Management of the household
2 Child rearing
3 Management of a career
4
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DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ….
NO LIFE STAGE NO DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
9 LATER ADULTHOOD 1 Redirection of energy into new roles
2 Acceptance of one life
3 Developing a point of view about death
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PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS….
NO LIFE STAGE PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS
1 INFANCY Trust versus mistrust
2 TODDLERHOOD Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3 EARLY SCHOOL AGE Initiative versus guilt
4 MIDDLE SCHOOL AGE Industry versus inferiority
5 ADOLESCENCE Identity versus role diffusion
6 YOUNG ADULTHOOD Intimacy versus isolation
7 MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Generativity versus stagnation
8 LATER ADULTHOOD Integrity versus despair
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Human nature:
An innate natural predisposition which cannot change – exist at birth in all human beings.
natural/ innate characteristics; BORN with us
Examples: talent, physical ability; cognition & emotion
Bestowed by the CREATOR - for the benefit of mankind
Every human beings born into this world has natural characteristics that are “pure” & “perfect”
UNIT 4:Human Nature – “FITRAH” & POTENTIAL
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Literal meaning – creation, cause a thing to exist for the first time, and the natural constitution with which a child is created in mother’s womb.
Fitrah – is not a dormant potential.
Fitrah (religious) – faculty (ability, power) created in mankind.
Human Nature – “FITRAH”
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Negative influences by the nurturing processes & low quality environment may disturb the purity
2 types of human’s natural characteristics:
Physical
Spiritual
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Human beings need 3 basic elements to survive:
Food Clothing Shelter
Without all these / insufficiency of any may limit chances for human beings to live comfortably
PHYSICAL
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It is part of human nature to seek for the truth & belief in God
In accord with the nature: men are created by GodSpiritual nature = human’s instinct about believing in God, the CreatorThe instinct to find faiths / religion is born within every mankind;Men need to fulfil this need in order to live accordingly
SPIRITUAL
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To ensure the growth of human’s natural characteristic; there are several basic needs that need to be fulfilled
Abraham Maslow identified 5 basic needs of human beings
The needs are arranged in a hierarchical order showing the existence of levels/stages
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
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Starts with first level, most basic = physiological needs; highest level is the self-actualization needs.
Each human beings must fulfil the most basic needs before proceeding to the next level.
The needs are not necessarily fulfilled in any particular order; some needs may be fulfilled simultaneously
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• The ability or inability of individuals to fulfil all 5 level of needs will influence his / her perceptions about life & the environments
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Human potentials = latent ability / capability
Also known as possibilities in oneself
Potentials need to be stimulated in order for it to be tapped / made known and grow
Like Fitrah, potentials are also bestowed by God, the Creator.
HUMAN POTENTIALS
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• Potentials are part of Fitrah; at a lower stage than fitrah• Fitrah will continue to grow even without stimulation; but
potentials will be hindered / limited or never made known unless stimulated
• Quality development is an outcome of quality stimulation• e.g.: a normal child will know how to talk eventually even
without proper training, which is Fitrah’ • However, if the child is trained in other language than his /
her own, he or she may master that language eventually • Stimulation through proper training / exposure to
communication with others, reading materials, computers or other media
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Fitrah = i.e men do not fly
Potential = men design means & ways to enable them to fly (aircraft)
Men have ability & capability to work on the means & ways to achieve their ambitions
It’s fitrah for human being that potentials can be molded / honed to grow
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Potentials can also be viewed from the physical & spiritual perspectives
Physically, men have potentials to be involved in physical activities like sports, farming, recreation, exercise etc.
Spiritually, men have potentials to understand concepts, thinking creatively & critically; innovative; debate etc in accord with his or her fitrah
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Drive & regulate efforts towards excellence
According to human’s fitrah, men are born to make good deeds; therefore no one is born to destroy or involved in bad things
Men are born “pure” in all aspects == physical, mental, social & emotional
The importance of understanding fitrah & potentials …..
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Dysfunctional environment may disrupt the purity.
• Eg; Fitrah: to get married & generate; “pure” means ways to generate the future generations; failing to do so in accord with the religious perspective / socio-cultural guidelines may produce bad generations, uncivilized (as a product of incest / rape & adultery), or
• marrying someone of the same sex…
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Potentials may differ from person to person; some may be highly potential in certain area and not in others
Proper planning, quality training may stimulate development of potentials to the maximum level; in accord with the God's rules
Other than quality stimulations; genetic, age, & other environmental actors may also influence human’s potentials
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Men are born into this world - equipped with fitrah & potentials
Fitrah is the natural characteristics; potentials refer to latent ability in human beings = must be made known
Fitrah is related with the fulfilment of human needs; as suggested in Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Various factors in the environment may influence the growth & development of both fitrah & potentials
Good planning of stimulations are needed to balance up t he growth of both fitrah & potentials
Conclusions
UNIT 5:VALUES & CULTURE
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Values are what we prize in lifeWhat we consider most important to usHelp make up the self and affect our self-conceptAre usually based on ideas/ feelings about conditions.Ideas WE HAVE OF RIGHT OR WRONGInternalized concepts of the desirable (i.e. honesty, sharing, cleanliness, safety, love, cherish, being alone, having status, committed to, etc.)
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DEFINITIONS
Values are not just ideas…. must be part of action and way of life.
Guides in what we do, how we do it Gives directions and security in making and
following our decisions It influences: perceptions, goal settings and
means to achieve them It is a criterion in making choices and in
prioritizing the choices
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Value is a concept that act as a system of ideas and beliefs, gives guidance about the worth of something, influences our beliefs about what is right or best, and impacts our decision making process.
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DEFINITIONS
VALUING is a process by which information, resources and
energy are selected, ordered by importance or assigned priority in terms of values.
It includes prizing an idea and acting according.
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Characteristic of values:1. Influence behavior and decisions
Tell what is important; Influence the way we act, react &make decisions.2. Are general rather than specific
Certain value will be a factor in many aspects of one’s life.3. Are complex
Difficult to know which values cause us to act; Problems can arise when more than one value is influencing thoughts and behavior.
4. Are expressed in strong feelings Closely related to emotions; A discussion based on opposing beliefs may
become heated.5. Are important - Have a forceful qualities that directs actions.
6. Rank differently at different times
• Depending on the situation, certain values can be very important at one time but less important at other times.
7. Can change - Result from learning and from experiences and relationships with others.
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Some other definitions:
Linton, (1954):
“Anything capable of influencing the individual’s decisions in choice situations and anything capable of producing an emotional response”
Kluckhohn (1971):
“An explicit or implicit conception; distinctive of an individual or characteristics of a group, of the desirable which influences the selection from available means and ends of action”
Rokeach, (1973):
“An enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence”
Modes of conduct = instrumental values
End-state of existence= terminal values (ends or goals)
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Terminal values Wealthy life Revital life Achievement (continuous contribution) Peaceful world (war free) World beauty (natural well-being, arts) Equity (brotherhood, equal opportunity) Family safety/security (care of members) Freedom (independent, right to make
choice)
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Happiness (satisfaction)
Internal harmony (free from internal stress)
Matured love (sexual & spiritual)
Safe nation (protection against attact)
Pleasure in life (happy life/ luxury)
Safety
Self dignity (self concept)
Social dignity (recognition, respect)
True friendship
Wisdom (maturity)
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Instrumental values Highly ambitious Open Capable (efficient, effective) Cheerful Clean & proper Resilient Forgiving Helpful Honest, truthful Imaginative, creative
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Independent
Intelligent
Logic, rational
Loving, caring
Obedient
Polite
Responsible, trustworthy
Self-control, discipline
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VALUE CLASSIFICATION
Paolucci (1977) classifed values into 3 categories:
1. personal values
2. moral values
3. social values
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1. PERSONAL VALUES
Personal values = “character”• The manner in which individual copes with
everyday living by applying one’s beliefs and values• Expressed through behaviours.
• self-discipline, self-motivation, punctuality, orderliness, self-evaluation of one’s efforts, decisiveness & goal orientation
• Unique for each individual; - parts of personality
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• Give a sense of right and wrong• Concerned with good & right behaviour• Related with the responsibility to live in ways
that protect the freedom & rights of others• Reflect one’s concepts of moral decency• Shown in honesty, dependability, tolerance,
peace of mind, integrity, a sense of fair play, concern for long range benefits & consistency between ideals & actions
2. MORAL VALUES
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Shown in relationships with others
support, cooperation, recognition, independence, justice, benevolence, equity, respect for law, acceptance of majority rule, sense of interdependence, recognition of the worth & dignity of every human being
3. SOCIAL VALUES
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Ways/style in which beliefs and values are assimilated from life experiences forming pattern(s).
• Kluckholm (1951) introduced 5 types of value orientations
1. Activity orientation2. Human nature orientation3. People nature orientation4. Time orientation5. Relational orientation
VALUE ORIENTATION
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I. ACTIVITY ORIENTATION
It answers Q about the nature of human behaviour
The answers often related to cultural preferences, may be either:
Being, or
Being-in-becoming, or
Doing
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Being = a spontaneous expression of personality, allowing expression for individuality as a human being for what people are, rather than for what they can accomplish.being-in-becoming – concern for the person as a human being & what that person is becoming as a person Doing = emphasizes accomplishment,& how well can individual perform.Cultural factors may influence the types of activity orientation (focus more on accomplishment)
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Focus on individual’s qualities of good or evils. Some belief systems viewed human beings as
evil, mixture of both, or good. Socialization plays a dominant role in shaping
the qualities. Ethics & religions as factors of concern
it is understood that human beings make mistake --- but ?…
2. HUMAN NATURE ORIENTATION
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It deals with the relationships between individuals & nature/environment
Subjugation to nature (have no control over destiny)
Harmony with nature (interdependent) Mastery over nature (master & control)
3. PEOPLE NATURE ORIENTATION
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Reflects preferences for past, present, or future time orientation
Influenced by culture & religion Chinese, > past orientation, ancestors are
respected, strong family traditions The American: future oriented?
ALL elements of time are important; Generally, educated people are future oriented & place
high value on change as long as it does not threaten existing order
4. TIME ORIENTATION
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Manners of relating with others. 3 manners:
1. Linear preference
2. Collateral preference
3. Individualist preference
5. RELATIONAL ORIENTATION
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1.Linear preferenceBased on behavioural similarities while permitting some differences within fixed customs.
Group goals & traditions are important …. continuity through traditions & family lines.
When problems arises: the oldest (male) member take charge
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2. Collateral preference Emphasizes on problem solving
Individual is considered to be part of a social order
The goals of extended family including siblings, cousins are primary - “for the good of the group”
When problems arises: the family as a group and extended family are involved in achieving a common solution.
A leader – qualified by expertise, not age or tradition
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3. Individualist preference Emphasizes problem solving ability of an individual, yet the individual still
has responsibility to the total society
The individual’s place & responsibilities are structured interdependently of collateral groups.
Use spacing in relationship to the other groups to develop individualistic orientation
US people… > individualistic?
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FUNCTIONS OF VALUES
Provide an orientation & set a framework for people to guide actions & behaviour
3 main fucntions:1. Standards of conduct • Helps us to take positions on social, religious &
political issues• Provides standards for comparisons – as guides, to
praise, to judge, to behave, to choose, etc..• Implies a pattern of consistent behaviour
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2. Decision making & conflict resolution
Decisions are made by processing inputs from environment using information received through perceptions in which are influenced by value orientations, conflicts too are resolved based on values
Can be difficult due to our perceptions of the situation, the meaning seen through our values & emotional factors
Holistic view helps in understanding situations from various perspective.. Helps to resolve conflict
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3. Motivation • Values have a strong motivational components• Instrumental values are immediate values that
facilitate reaching goals• Terminals values are the greater goals beyond
the immediate goals• Values motivate through their influence which
leads to decision that help people gain self respect / esteem; guide in making adjustments & help in developing personal growth
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PATTERNS OF VALUES
Values are embedded by the family system within a specific culture, in an historical time period.
• Social influences are present for all families• Values guide the extent to which outside preferences
from the society will influence family… Diversity, globalization
• Value patterns are related to specific time & situations … I.e > self awareness vs actions out of wish for other’s approval
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PROCESS OF VALUING Values exist on a personal, family or cultural levels; we
develop values to guide our decision making at each level How do we acquire a value orientation? Children acquires values primarily within the family system
(trust; aproval, praise & rewards) Cultural values are transmitted primarily within the family Value transmission process operates through 3 mechanisms:
reinforcement, modelling & adoption
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1. Reinforcement
A child is rewarded for behaviour that reflects desired values; punished if otherwise
2. Modelling
Children learn values through modelling from their significant others esp parents (what they do is modelled more that what they say)
3. Adoption
values are absorbed & adopted; people are not passive receivers.. Internalized values, become personal standards, they grow from experiences..
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3 approaches of acquiring values:
Traditional - Authoritarian Approach
1. Based in absolute values that have meaning apart from & external to people
2. People are responsible to learn these values & live accordingly
3. They are part of social traditions; acceptance of the authority & leaders is critical
4. Everyone knows what is right & wrong; socialization is based on indoctrination, fear, punishment, rewards, praise, blames.
5. People are passive reactors; must accept & comply
6. Relates with fundamentalistic thinking
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The Absolute Relativity Approach
1. Emphasizes that all values are relative, no absolute ethical principles or moral values.
2. People are considered as supreme or central; must assert themselves, & construct own reality
The Organismic-structural-developmental approach
3. Based on different view of people, the environment & the relationships between them
4. Human being as a functional whole (organized, integrated, systematic)
5. Rejects the idea that people are being controlled by external sources
6. > related with ecological thinking & decision making
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CLARIFYING VALUES Value system exists through 3 processes: choosing,
appreciating & acting on it Choosing involves judging, evaluating freely over a
few alternatives & the consequences of the choice Appreciating involves feeling of satisfaction with
one’s choice and acknowledging Acting or doing involves using/employing the values
in all aspects of life - consistently
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• One’s values may change depending upon changes that occur in one’s life
• Traditional values are challenged especially in the post industrial era
• I.e = “mind your own business” vs. “caring for one another”
??? What else?
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PARADIGM SHIFT
Refers to restructuring basic values on the way how we perceive the world
Social paradigm comprises a group of values, beliefs & experiences that are shared by the majority of the people in the society
Social paradigm may change across time; progress in a “slow” manner (not abruptly)
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OLD VALUES NEW VALUES
Lack of self appreciation ethic Achievement ethic
Higher life status Better quality of life
Traditional gender roles Vague gender roles
Success according to cultural definitions
Success according to own definitons
Traditional family life Alternative family life
Belief in industries, institution Belief in oneself
Live to work Work to live
Worshipping heroes Admiring ideas
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Old Values New Values
Expansionism Pluralism
Patriotism Less nationalistic
Unparallel growth High awareness of boundary
Industrial Growth Development of information & Services
Technology acceptance Technology orientation
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UNIVERSAL VALUES
There are universal values across race & culture LOVE & CARE
- Bases of moral behaviour are harmony, love & care, helping.
- “Ihsan” is a concept to explain the values
- With love & “ihsan”, human beings can help each other
TRUTHFULNESSJ
USTICE
FREEDOM
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VALUE CLASSIFICATION
Paolucci (1977) classifed values into 3 categories:
1. personal values
2. moral values
3. social values
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1. PERSONAL VALUES
Personal values = “character”• The manner in which individual copes with
everyday living by applying one’s beliefs and values• Expressed through behaviours.
• self-discipline, self-motivation, punctuality, orderliness, self-evaluation of one’s efforts, decisiveness & goal orientation
• Unique for each individual; - parts of personality
137FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
• Give a sense of right and wrong• Concerned with good & right behaviour• Related with the responsibility to live in ways
that protect the freedom & rights of others• Reflect one’s concepts of moral decency• Shown in honesty, dependability, tolerance,
peace of mind, integrity, a sense of fair play, concern for long range benefits & consistency between ideals & actions
2. MORAL VALUES
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Shown in relationships with others
support, cooperation, recognition, independence, justice, benevolence, equity, respect for law, acceptance of majority rule, sense of interdependence, recognition of the worth & dignity of every human being
3. SOCIAL VALUES
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Ways/style in which beliefs and values are assimilated from life experiences forming pattern(s).
• Kluckholm (1951) introduced 5 types of value orientations
1. Activity orientation2. Human nature orientation3. People nature orientation4. Time orientation5. Relational orientation
VALUE ORIENTATION
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I. ACTIVITY ORIENTATION
It answers Q about the nature of human behaviour
The answers often related to cultural preferences, may be either:
Being, or
Being-in-becoming, or
Doing
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Being = a spontaneous expression of personality, allowing expression for individuality as a human being for what people are, rather than for what they can accomplish.being-in-becoming – concern for the person as a human being & what that person is becoming as a person Doing = emphasizes accomplishment,& how well can individual perform.Cultural factors may influence the types of activity orientation (focus more on accomplishment)
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Focus on individual’s qualities of good or evils. Some belief systems viewed human beings as
evil, mixture of both, or good. Socialization plays a dominant role in shaping
the qualities. Ethics & religions as factors of concern
it is understood that human beings make mistake --- but ?…
2. HUMAN NATURE ORIENTATION
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It deals with the relationships between individuals & nature/environment
Subjugation to nature (have no control over destiny)
Harmony with nature (interdependent) Mastery over nature (master & control)
3. PEOPLE NATURE ORIENTATION
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Reflects preferences for past, present, or future time orientation
Influenced by culture & religion Chinese, > past orientation, ancestors are
respected, strong family traditions The American: future oriented?
ALL elements of time are important; Generally, educated people are future oriented & place
high value on change as long as it does not threaten existing order
4. TIME ORIENTATION
145FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
Manners of relating with others.
3 manners:
1. Linear preference
2. Collateral preference
3. Individualist preference
5. RELATIONAL ORIENTATION
1.Linear preference
Based on behavioural similarities while permitting some differences within fixed customs.
Group goals & traditions are important …. continuity through traditions & family lines.
When problems arises: the oldest (male) member take charge
146FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
2. Collateral preference Emphasizes on problem solving
Individual is considered to be part of a social order
The goals of extended family including siblings, cousins are primary - “for the good of the group”
When problems arises: the family as a group and extended family are involved in achieving a common solution.
A leader – qualified by expertise, not age or tradition
147FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
3. Individualist preferenceEmphasizes problem solving ability of an individual,
yet the individual still has responsibility to the total society
The individual’s place & responsibilities are structured interdependently of collateral groups.
Use spacing in relationship to the other groups to develop individualistic orientation
US people… > individualistic?
148FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
FUNCTIONS OF VALUES
Provide an orientation & set a framework for people to guide actions & behaviour
3 main fucntions:1. Standards of conduct • Helps us to take positions on social, religious &
political issues• Provides standards for comparisons – as guides, to
praise, to judge, to behave, to choose, etc..• Implies a pattern of consistent behaviour
149FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
2. Decision making & conflict resolution
Decisions are made by processing inputs from environment using information received through perceptions in which are influenced by value orientations, conflicts too are resolved based on values
Can be difficult due to our perceptions of the situation, the meaning seen through our values & emotional factors
Holistic view helps in understanding situations from various perspective.. Helps to resolve conflict
150FEM3001/PJJ/JAN2012/SNY
3. Motivation • Values have a strong motivational components• Instrumental values are immediate values that
facilitate reaching goals• Terminals values are the greater goals beyond
the immediate goals• Values motivate through their influence which
leads to decision that help people gain self respect / esteem; guide in making adjustments & help in developing personal growth