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Emergent literacy: why should we beconcerned?M.W. de Witt aa Department of Teacher Education , University of South Africa ,Pretoria, South AfricaPublished online: 07 Jul 2009.
To cite this article: M.W. de Witt (2009) Emergent literacy: why should we be concerned?, EarlyChild Development and Care, 179:5, 619-629, DOI: 10.1080/03004430701453671
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Early Child Development and CareVol. 179, No. 5, July 2009, 619–629
ISSN 0300-4430 print/ISSN 1476-8275 online© 2009 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/03004430701453671http://www.informaworld.com
Emergent literacy: why should we be concerned?
M.W. de Witt
Department of Teacher Education, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South AfricaTaylor and Francis LtdGECD_A_245247.sgm(Final version received 16 May 2007)10.1080/03004430701453671Early Child Development and Care0300-4430 (print)/1476-8275 (online)Original Article2009Taylor & Francis0000000002009Prof. Mde [email protected]
Recent reports on the quality of education in South Africa seem to be negative,indicating a downwards trend on a yearly basis. Consequently, early literacy islacking in the majority of learners who enter the formal school environment. Aspart of the South African government’s literacy campaign, Read EducationalTrust, an NGO involved in literacy programmes, launched a literacy initiative toincrease the level of reading ability of learners. To determine the extent of theproblem, a baseline study was undertaken in five provinces in South Africa. Botha qualitative and a quantitative research approaches were followed. It is clear fromthe results that the quality of preschool programmes in South Africa in general isbelow standard. The programmes offered, as well as the knowledge andunderstanding of caregivers regarding young children, need urgent attention fromthose concerned about the standard of literacy in formal schools.
Keywords: emergent literacy; programmes; methodology; language; resources
During the early years, children develop the dispositions and attitudes toward educationand themselves as learners that will stay with them all their lives. (Kostelnik, Soderman,& Whiren, 2004, p. 4)
Introduction
Recent reports on the quality of education in South Africa seem to be negative sincethey indicate a downwards trend on a yearly basis. A result of this is that early literacyis lacking in the majority of learners entering the formal school environment. Onemust admit that schools are not the only agent in the education of children since vari-ables like parents’ income and their socio-economic and educational status would alsohave an effect on the development of the child. This article concentrates only on theimplementation of programmes offered in preschools and day care centres (Kostelnik,Stein, Whiren, & Soderman, 1993, p. 13).
To confirm the above statement regarding early literacy, research conducted by DeWitt, Lessing, and Lenyai (2006, p. 1) indicates that only 35% of Grade R learnersmeet the minimum criteria for early literacy development. This implies that the major-ity of learners will enter Grade 1 without the necessary skills or concepts to masterreading competency. Research findings of the Department of Education in SouthAfrica (2002, p. vii) on systemic evaluation of Grade 3 learners substantiate this view,
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since they show that 54% of learners are below par in terms of reading competency atthis level.
To foster early literacy skills and concepts, good quality preschool programmesseem to be the solution. In this respect, the warning of Al Otaiba and Fuchs (2002,p. 300) is most appropriate: ‘Given the pivotal role reading plays in and out of schooland the cumulative long-term cost of literacy, early literacy intervention is critical.’Research done by Love, Schochet, and Meckstroth (1996, p. iii) shows that higherlevels of preschool quality care result in enhanced social skills, reduced behaviourproblems, increased cooperation and improved language skills in children. Hendrick(2004, p. 379) says the following on acquiring literacy: ‘Literacy doesn’t just happen– it depends on learning a huge repertoire of subskills usually referred to as emergentliteracy skills.’ Therefore, it seems in every figure that there will be a link betweenquality preschool preparation and competency in early literacy skills (Barone,Mallette, & Hong Xu, 2005, p. 81).
Although one can presume that quality programmes will be beneficial to children’swell-being, there is an increasing concern worldwide that young learners may notreceive the benefit of quality programmes needed to foster their developmental well-being and that these programmes are generally implemented ineffectively. Therefore,throughout the world researchers in this field fear that, early childhood care is inade-quate, mediocre and even detrimental to children’s well-being (Love et al., 1996,p. iii). The close link between the implementation of a programme and its outcome interms of quality relies on the educator as the programme implementer.
Within the South African context, one can raise a similar concern regarding theimplementation of programmes. The questions arise: What is the quality of preschoolprogrammes in home-based and centre-based sites? Is the implementation of theseprogrammes of such a nature that early literacy is fostered to the extent that younglearners are ready to cope with the formal learning structures, reading, writing andarithmetic, when they enter school?
This article is based on a baseline assessment of the current position ofprogrammes offered at different preschool sites that was intended to evaluate thequality of preschool programmes.
The implementation of quality preschool programmes
A programme is a static structure and quality can only be visible in its implementation.Gordon and Browne (2004, p. 206) believe that the single most important factor indetermining programme quality would be teachers and the way they implement theprogramme. They also state that it is necessary to assess teachers to ensure the highestquality of teaching.
In evaluating preschool programmes and the implementation thereof, our conclu-sions may be limited and may even underestimate the importance of quality. Severalauthors have described what quality programmes really entail, and what would beconsidered a high-quality programme for young learners.
Theoretical framework
Researchers agree that to determine the quality of preschool programmes, theprogrammes should be developmentally appropriate. Moreover, educators shouldencourage children to be actively engaged in a variety of activities, and have frequent,
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positive interactions with the educators (Hendrick, 2004, pp. 379–384). They alsoagree that caregivers in high-quality settings listen attentively, ask open-ended ques-tions and extend children’s actions and verbalisation with complex ideas or materials,interact with children individually, use positive guidance techniques and encourageappropriate independence (Love et al., 1996, p. 5).
From these criteria, it is clear that the participation and involvement of the care-giver contributes to the quality of the implementation of the programme. In planningquality programmes for young learners caregivers need to know what the children cando and how the task is performed (Hendrick, 2003, p. 90; Mindes, 2003, p. 242). Inthe evaluation of programmes, different aspects are of relevance. In this regard,Decker and Decker (1997, p. 50) are of the opinion that the quality of a programmerelates directly to the development and fulfilment of programme goals.
Love et al. (1996) define quality in terms of three sets of classroom processes:
● the pattern and content of activities and group activities during the day;● behaviour and interactions of teaching staff (cf. Decker & Decker, 1997, p. 51);● behaviour and interaction of children.
Love et al. (1996, p. 10) see the training of caregivers as another indication of qualityofferings.
This survey, which was done in different provinces in South Africa, reflected onthe eventual readiness of young children’s emergent literacy skills. Therefore, thefocus within programmes should be on skills to enhance emergent literacy.Emergence of literacy, and the so-called ‘natural’ reading should go hand-in-handwith many stimulating activities in the environment (Best Practices, 2001, p. 1), andshould include informal interactions that use literacy concepts, involvement in readingand writing and the exploration of literacy material where the caregiver acts as a medi-ator (Bank Street, S.a., p. 2). According to Mason and Sinha (1993, p. 141), literacyis the product of various literacy-related activities in the preschool years. Activitiesinitiated and mediated by caregivers provide opportunities to develop language, readyknowledge and memory skills necessary for emergent literacy.
However, although one can identify different criteria for quality programmes, onlythe one criterion, namely ‘implementation of the programme’ was at stake in thissurvey. Drawing on the existing literature, some statements were formulated withembracing questions to verify the different statements on the implementation ofquality preschool programmes.
Aim of the baseline assessment
It is fundamental to know the quality of teaching before the training programme starts.The assessment of the current position of programmes offered at the different sitesintend to evaluate the quality of programmes before starting with the training andintervention programme at these sites.
As part of the government’s literacy campaign, Read Educational Trust, an NGOinvolved in literacy programmes, launched a literacy initiative to increase the level oflearners’ reading ability. As this specific initiative is aimed at emergent literacy, theywanted to start with a baseline study to be able to address the specific needs and short-comings of young children. At the end, altogether 243 learning sites will be involvedin the envisaged intervention programme planned by Read Educational Trust. For the
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purpose of this baseline assessment, only five of the nine provinces of South Africawere included. Because of the financial implications, as well as the time restriction tovisit all these sites, only 70 sites were included in the baseline assessment. Theprovinces are Gauteng, Western Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and LimpopoProvince.
As most of the sites are in the deep rural areas as well as in informal settlementsnear urban areas, the one common attribute is the poverty level of the communities.For the purpose of the baseline assessment, the following residential areas wereincluded in the survey:
● Gauteng: Protea Park – informal settlement, Katlehong and Greater Soweto● Western Cape: Guguletu, Langa and Nyanga● KwaZulu-Natal: Umbumbulu and Illovo, Bhekulwandle and Umlazi● Limpopo Province: Lonsdale Juno, Bakone, Moletjie, Dzaniani, Nzhelele,
Fondwe, Makhado and Mungomani● Mpumalanga: Moretele area
In preparation of the implementation of a training programme by the differenttrainers of Read Educational Trust, the researcher visited the different sites betweenMay and September 2006. The eventual intervention programme will include 364classes and affect 9470 learners. For the training to follow this baseline study, 542practitioners will participate in the training.
Objectives
With the envisaged training in mind, objectives were set that could also guide thetraining of the practitioners to enable them to implement quality preschoolprogrammes, following the baseline assessment. These objectives are linked veryclosely with the established criteria for the implementation of a quality programme,and these were used as a basis to compile the research instrument for the baselineassessment. The objectives were:
● to establish whether practitioners had improved their methodological approachto teaching young children;
● to assess whether the benefits of home language education for small childrenhad become evident and were being implemented in the classroom;
● to assess whether classrooms had appropriate books and equipment to enhanceyoung children’s early literacy skills;
● to establish whether outreach actions aimed at the families of the learners hadgiven them support mechanisms for raising and educating their children;
● to see to the implementation of a quality early child development (ECD)programme at the different sites.
Research design and methods
The researcher decided to conduct a survey to determine the quality of preschoolprogrammes offered at the different selected sites. A multi-method mode of inquiry,involving a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods (De Vos, 2003,p. 363; Neuman, 2000, p. 121) was used. The questionnaire sought answers to ques-
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tions related to preschool programmes in order to determine the standard of preschoolprogrammes at the identified sites. The questions included in the questionnaire werederived from the objectives, and were based on a thorough knowledge of preschooltraining, as well as training programmes for teachers.
For triangulation, a qualitative method of research formed part of the survey.Observations were made and a number of photos and videos were taken to get an over-all impression of the provisioning of facilities and types of programmes available forpreschool learners in the selected sites.
Sample selection
For the purpose of the current investigation, Read Educational Trust instructed thetrainers in the different provinces to select suitable sites for the interventionprogramme. A convenience sample (Mouton, 2003, p. 100; Rossouw, 2003, p. 114)was drawn to evaluate as many sites as possible in the different provinces in a giventime period. All Read Educational Trust training staff in the different provincesselected sites that could be included in the training and the provisioning of resourcematerials. The researcher used the trainers to act as interpreters in those areas wherethe practitioners spoke the vernacular. The trainers in the next phase of the projectwill implement and monitor the intervention programme in the different selectedsites.
Data collection, investigation, data analysis and results
The researcher carried out on-site observation and took some photos of the differentsites. This comprised the qualitative part of the research. The quantitative part of thestudy entailed the administration of a questionnaire on matters such as previous train-ing of practitioners, the number of learners involved, school fees, financing of salaries,access to grants, the highest qualifications of the practitioners and the performance ofthe caregiver in implementing a quality programme (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison,2000, p. 244).
In order to ensure that professional ethical standards were being met, theresearcher validated two aspects as important for this research and assured that thesewere part of the survey (Mouton, 2003, p. 238). Firstly, the agreement with ReadEducational Trust was confirmed, and ethical principles of ownership and mattersconcerning the publication of findings were emphasised. Secondly, participants werefully informed of the purpose of the survey. Their consent to participate wasobtained and they were assured that their anonymity would be protected in everyrespect.
Trustworthiness of qualitative data
According to Guba (in Poggenpoel, 1998, p. 331) as well as Mouton (2003, p. 107),the trustworthiness of the results of the qualitative research should be ensured. Thiswas facilitated by the use of dependable and reliable fieldworkers (trainerscontracted by Read Educational Trust). The trainers were familiar with the differentselected areas as well as with the languages used by the participants. A relationshipof trust between the trainers and the participants was a high priority set by theresearcher.
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Findings and discussion of the results
In the light of the research question: ‘What is the quality of preschool programmes inhome-based and centre-based sites?’ the concern rightfully arises whether imple-mented programmes actually foster early literacy and whether young learners areconsequently ready to cope with the formal learning structures (reading, writing andarithmetic) upon entering school.
If the above-mentioned aims are not met, the implication is that most learners willenter Grade 1 without the necessary skills or concepts to master reading competency.According to the literature, the fostering of early literacy skills and concepts, as wellas good-quality preschool programmes, seems to be the solution to emergent literacy.In this respect, the previously stated viewpoint of Al Otaiba and Fuchs (2002, p. 300),namely that reading plays an important role in and out of school, and that in view ofthe cumulative long-term cost of literacy, intervention programmes are critical, is vital(Barone et al., 2005, p. 81).
The point of departure of this survey was the assumption that it is imperative thatquality programmes be used to enhance early literacy. The findings that were madewith reference to the attributes that would complement emergent literacy skills (teach-ing and learning in the mother tongue) and the availability of the written word arepresented in Figure 1.Figure 1. The benefits of home language education for young children will have become evident and are implemented in the classroom.In most of the provinces, the teachers were using the dominant home language ofthe children. However, in 11 of the 70 sites, mixed groups were found, and the teach-ers used English as the medium of instruction. During the observation, it was evidentthat English as the medium of instruction was more often used at sites in the urbanareas. The reason for this seems to be the fact that there is usually quite a mixture ofcultural groups at these preschool sites. As shown in Figure 1, 49% of caregivers indi-cated that they themselves could speak the language of the dominant language groupin the class and 50% presented activities in the vernacular of the children. Only 39%of the caregivers presented stories to the children in the dominant home language.
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homogeneous languageof learners?
home language of teachersame as children?
present activities inhome language?
present stories inhome language?
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Figure 1. The benefits of home language education for young children will have becomeevident and are implemented in the classroom.
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From observations, it is evident that most sites had very few books available and if so,the books were usually in English and not the vernacular of the children.
The availability of resources including appropriate storybooks for young childrento nurture their emergent literacy skills is a prerequisite for early literacy. The nextstatement in the survey addressed this issue.
In these very poor communities, resources and equipment are urgent needs. Thebasic equipment to provide quality education just does not exist. Even for those care-givers who want to do justice to quality teaching find it very difficult because of thelack of resources. In Figure 2, it is clear that only 28 of the visited sites qualified interms of the basic resources necessary for quality teaching. Toys were not available atmost of the sites and, if available, they were in a bad condition. At 54 of the 70 sites,no books were available. This explains the fact that at very few sites, children wereallowed to handle books themselves. At the other sites, there were no books at all. Thefact that caregivers at only 19 of the total sites told stories every day can be under-stood, as there were no storybooks available at other sites.Figure 2. Extent to which classrooms have appropriate books and equipment to foster early literacy.From the literature, it is quite clear that caregivers should know the methodologicalapproaches applicable to the education of young children. According to Decker andDecker (1997, p. 51), the behaviour and interactions of teaching staff are crucial for qual-ity teaching. The situation regarding educators’ knowledge is represented in Figure 3.Figure 3. How well practitioners know the methodological approach to teaching young children.To teach young children the basic skills required for the formal learning structures,reading, writing and arithmetic, the caregiver should at least know the differentmethodological approaches on how to teach preschool children. From the survey, itwas clear that at only 13 of the sites caregivers were aware or partly aware of thedifferent approaches. It was also evident that caregivers did not use the approachessuitable for teaching young children and that they demonstrated very little knowledgeof children in this phase. A positive aspect that was experienced during the visits andobservations was that at only eight of the sites caregivers were identified as not fit towork with young children.
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classroom structureappropriate for
teaching?
equipment fulfillsrequirement?
story books available? let children handlebooks themselves?
tell stories regularly?
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Figure 2. Extent to which classrooms have appropriate books and equipment to foster earlyliteracy.
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To apply their knowledge in a structured way, educators should use a quality ECDprogramme. The formulated outcome addressing the implementation of a quality ECDprogramme at the different sites is demonstrated in Figure 4.Figure 4. A structured ECD programme is implemented in the classrooms and contributes to the improvement of the way in which the children spend their days.Knowledge of a programme for young preschool children was lacking and care-givers at only 7 of the 70 sites demonstrated an understanding of an ECD programme.Caregivers at another 28 sites knew an ECD programme to some extent. At 29 of the70 sites, caregivers followed an ECD programme only to some extent. In 41 of the
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Figure 3. How well practitioners know the methodological approach to teaching youngchildren.
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Figure 4. A structured ECD programme is implemented in the classrooms and contributes tothe improvement of the way in which the children spend their days.
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Early Child Development and Care 627
sites, the programme was not appropriately developed and, in most of the cases, itentailed a formal programme that was not suited to learners of that age. At only 16 ofthe sites, the caregivers created a learner-friendly environment. It was evident thatlearning took place at only 12 of the sites while learning took place to a limited extentonly at 32 of the sites.
The last outcome formulated was the whole issue of outreach actions aimed at thefamilies of the learners to give them support mechanisms for raising and educatingtheir children, as shown in Figure 5.Figure 5. Outreach actions by caregivers aimed at the families of the learners will give families support mechanisms for raising and educating their children.The parent involvement did not seem to be common at the different ECD sites. Alack of involvement in managing and maintaining the sites was evident at most sites.In some cases, the caregivers at the sites (40) did to some extent reach out to parentsto become involved. At 36 sites caregivers to some extent invited parents to meetings.Caregivers indicated at only 10 sites that they usually addressed parents on issuesrelated to the upbringing of their children. In addressing the growing problem of chil-dren without parents, orphans were recorded at 43 of the sites.
Results of qualitative findings
From observations, it is evident that most of the facilities were not fit for youngchildren. It was almost impossible to maintain health standards, and basic health andsafety practices were not evident. In most of the buildings, it was extremely hot in thesummer and very cold in winter. Toilet facilities for young children were not availableat a number of sites and, in some instances, the children had to relieve themselves onthe playground. Most of the classroom facilities did not fulfil the requirements foraccommodating young learners. Overcrowding was the rule at most of the sites.
Very few of the sites had the basic resources needed to teach young children. Mostof the sites lacked toys or had toys that were in a very bad condition. Children thereforehad very few toys to play with. There were no resources for use in presenting art, music
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Figure 5. Outreach actions by caregivers aimed at the families of the learners will givefamilies support mechanisms for raising and educating their children.
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or movement. As a result, the practitioners did no more than look after the children.No books were available for the children to handle or for the practitioner to read stories.Thus, the children were in no way exposed to the written word.
Conclusion and recommendations
The results obtained in answering the research questions, namely What is the qualityof preschool programmes in home-based and centre-based sites and is it fosteringearly literacy to the extent that these learners are ready to cope with the formal learn-ing structures when entering school?, clearly indicate that the quality of preschoolprogrammes is below standard. The programmes offered, as well as the practitioners’knowledge and understanding of young children, need urgent attention from thoseconcerned about the standard of literacy in formal schools.
As most of the sites are in the poorest of poor environments and cater for learnersfrom these areas, resources hardly exist. This sector is not state funded and owners andcommunities have to provide for themselves. In most cases, the school fees are usedto buy food for the learners and pay the salaries of the staff. It is not possible to presenta quality programme for young learners without the basic resources. It is also unfairto expect practitioners to provide for these resources themselves.
The following can be recommended to address the existing problem: Caregiverswho work with young children should be trained as a matter of urgency. Interventionprogrammes ought to be put in place to address their total lack of understanding ofchildren in this phase. Sensitivity to the needs of young learners will have to beestablished and practitioners will have to become aware of the implications of theirteaching for young children.
Practitioners should become aware of the responsibility of providing at least a safeand healthy environment, if they want to provide for these learners. The fact that toiletfacilities were not available at a number of the sites is unacceptable and emphasisesthe need to sensitise providers to their responsibilities.
The intervention programme will have to focus on enhancing the caregivers’knowledge and understanding of young children and their specific needs as well as therelevant methodological approaches and the implications thereof for teaching.
The intervention programme should focus on equipping practitioners with theknowledge and understanding needed to work with young learners and to promoteearly literacy and numeracy skills and concepts. The provisioning of books and toysis crucial to fulfilling this objective.
Preschool programmes are of a poor quality and unless all role players areprepared to do something about the standard, the level of emergent literacy will neverimprove and cost this country dearly. An already increasing number of learners in thesystem who cannot read must be alarming to any government that is serious abouteducation. Unless preventative measures are taken as part of the planning of teachingstrategies to ensure successful learning, our literacy rate in this country will stand nochance of improving.
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Mindes, G. (2003). Assessing young children (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: MerrillPrentice Hall.
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Neuman, L.W. (2000). Social research methods. Qualitative and quantitative approaches (4thed.). London: Allyn and Bacon.
Poggenpoel, M. (1998). Data analysis in qualitative research. In De Vos, A.S. (Ed.), Researchat grass roots: A primer for the caring professions (pp. 334–356). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Rossouw, D. (Ed.). (2003). Intellectual tools: Skills for the human sciences (2nd ed.). CapeTown: Creda Communications.
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