Identification of Local Solutions for Specific Biodiversity
Conservation and Climate Change Adaptation
Submitted to
@ PRASHANTPAUDEL
Disclaimer: This report is made possible by the generous support of
the American people
through the United States Agency of International Development
(USAID). The contents of this
report are the responsibility of Vijay B Kunwar and Prashant Paudel
and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the USAID or the United States
Government.
iii
Climate Change Adaptation
Produced by Vijay B Kunwar
Prashant Paudel
Baluwatar, Kathmandu Nepal
Project Support Team Shree Hari Bhattarai, NawarajPokhrel, Tara P
Shiwakoti
Review Team Sunil Sakya, Shalu Adhikari
Version Preliminary Draft
Copyright 2017 © Hariyo Ban Program, WWF Nepal
Citation Kunwar V. B. and P. Paudel, 2017. Documentation of
Indigenous
Knowledge and Identification of Local Solutions for Specific
Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change Adaptation in
TAL and CHAL area, WWF Nepal (Hariyo ban Programme),
Kathmandu Nepal.
Indigenous and traditional knowledge and practices have been
recorded being applied by
local people for reducing human wildlife conflict, conserving soil
and water resources and
adapting to climate change. Proper documentation of such knowledge
of locally applied
solutions and stocktaking of replicable practices are supposed to
contribute to
biodiversity conservation and also achieving the overall goal of
the Hariyo Ban Program.
An assessment of indigenous knowledge and traditional practices
(IKTP) was undertaken
along three locations of Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and Chitwan
Annapurna Landscape
(CHAL). Bardia Nation Park (BNP) and its buffer zone was selected
to document
knowledge and practices in reducing human wildlife conflict (HWC).
Bhirkot VDC of
Tanahu district was chosen for documenting soil and water
conservation practices.
Likewise, Lete VDC of Mustang district was selected for recording
indigenous knowledge
and traditional practices regarding climate change
adaptation.
Indigenous people have learnt the art of adapting to stemming
changes in existing
environment. The legacy of such knowledge or skill can help the
present generation to
fight against environmental stresses. Indigenous knowledge and
traditional practices are
important in various levels from personal to societal and national
to universal. It is a
diversified knowledge system, having unique tools and approaches
practiced to adapt
with the changing environment. Some of the practices documented
along the study
locations are most effective and their effectiveness has led to
develop modern medicinal
technologies. The continuous evolution in IKTP has led to the
discovery of new techniques.
These techniques have significantly contributed in biodiversity
conservation.
The report identifies a number of IKTP and their effectiveness
based on application for
specific purposes at local and site level. This report is based on
identified measures
adapted at local level and analysis of case studies of four
different sectors of biodiversity
conservation – i.e. reduction in HWC, soil and water conservation,
climate change
adaptation and ethnobotany. The cases are selected (presented in
report) on the basis of:
a) traditional practices; b) relevance of these practices for
specific purposes; and c)
potential for replication/ scaling up. Primary data and information
for the study were
collected through consultation workshop, focused group discussion
key informant
interviews, and direct field observation. Secondary information was
collected through an
extensive literature review.
The lifestyle and livelihood of Nepali people is considered as
nature based and most
people have a practice of living close to nature. Nepal is rich in
biological, ethnic and social
diversity, which has contributed to development of specific skills
and practices at local
level for livelihoods. The traditional practices, evolved through
generations and modified
by testing and learning, are helping many communities cope with and
adapt against
v
growing challenges posed by natural and anthropogenic activities.
Issue- wise accounts of
notable knowledges and location –specific solutions can be
summarized as under:
Human wildlife conflict: Human-wildlife conflict in BNP area is
causing many social,
economic and ecological problems. Crop and property damage and
livestock depredation
are common occurrences throughout the study area. Mainly large
carnivores and
herbivores requiring extensively large habitat frequently cross
over to farmlands thus
destroying agriculture crops, livestock, housing and even causing
human casualties. These
incidents sometimes undermine conservation needs and question the
rationale of political
support for wildlife conservation.
There are various tools and approaches used by different agencies
to reduce HWC evolved
in recent years, But local communities of the BNP area were found
adapting various
solutions against HWC since long . According to local communities
all of the currently
applied measures were not effective. However, the people did not
have other alternative
measures to fight against the damages done by wildlife. Measures
like house fencing,
change in cropping pattern, replacing traditional cereal crops with
medicinal and aromatic
plants (MAPs) were recorded as the best possible alternatives.
However, chasing wild
animals with fire, producing sound and guarding the farms from over
the vantage points
were not as effective as in the beginning of its invention. These
measures were sometimes
incurring casualties and even loss of human life.
Climate change adaptation: Both Lete (Manang) and Bhirkot (Tanahu)
VDCs were
affected by climate change impacts, where water scarcity, flood and
soil erosion due to
erratic rainfalls was very common. Local communities were not aware
about climate
change and its impacts and possible adaptation tools. The people
were on their own
practicing various approaches like agroforestry, plantation around
water sources,
plantation in slopy land, protection of forest, etc.. Even though
these measures were
traditionally practiced and found effective to combat climate
change impacts, importance
of such practices at local level was mostly for ornamental or
livelihood purposes.
Soil conservation: Small landslides in and around agriculture lands
were very common in
Lete VDC. Washing out of nutrients from agriculture land was a
serious issue. Local
communities were planting Salix spp. Lahare pipal etc. in eroded
lands as traditional
practices. Local community believed washout of nutrients can be
minimized if more
mulching was done in upward slopes. However, after implementation
of terrace
improvement program by Nepal government agriculture practices had
been easier and
efficient. Awareness about benefit of terrace farming and
continuing terrace improving
with plantation in dikes can be efficient to reduce soil erosion
due to sloppy agriculture.
Various NTFPs/Maps are available in Lete VDC of Manang, which are
of high economic
importance as well as of high medicinal value. NTFPs like Ghuchi
Chayu, Rato Chyau, etc.
were traditionally utilized by Thakali communities and methods of
using these products
vi
are indigenous to those communities. Local communities especially
women were more
active in biodiversity conservation. Peoples’ participation in
forest resources conservation
can be efficient for sustainable utilization of available
biological resources. Traditional
knowledge and practices are not only important at local level but
validating them with
scientific experiments can lead to further development..
Ethnobotany: The people of Lete VDC in Manang were recorded making
additional use of
the locally available herbs, NTFPs and MAPs. Seabuckthorn, a
multipurpose shrub, bearing
berry- like fruits was being used as green manure. Some varieties
of mushrooms locally
termed as “rato chyau” and “gcuchi chyau” were found being used for
medicinal purposes.
Likewise, mahua, a wild fruit was recorded being used for liquor
making among the Tharu
communities. These practices can be termed as ethnobotanical
activities that have been
directly contributing to biodiversity conservation.
Conclusion and recommendations: Over the years, local people have
developed various
skills for minimizing HWC, promoting biodiversity conservation and
adapting coping
measures against the adverse impacts of climate change to their
livelihoods. Local
solutions may differ according to the locations and intensity of
any specific problem in
question. Unique cases and responses/ coping methods were recorded
along all of the
three locations, where the assessment was undertaken. The local
people were found
having rich knowledge and applying location specific solutions to
the problems arise out
of either HWC and or soil erosion or climate change.
The successful solutions listed above can be replicated elsewhere
so that the best
practices documented through the assessment could serve as
appropriate measures in
reducing HWC, promoting biodiversity conservation, coping with the
adverse impacts of
climate change on peoples’ livelihoods and contributing to
sustainable biodiversity
========
2.2 APPROACHES
.......................................................................................................................................................
5 2.3 STUDY METHODS (DATA COLLECTION)
................................................................................................................
7
2.3.1 Cataloguing Existing Information
...............................................................................................................
7 2.3.2 Consultation meeting / workshop
................................................................................................................
7 2.3.3 Key Informant Interviews (Personal interviews/interactions)
.....................................................................
7 2.3.4 Focus Group Discussion
.............................................................................................................................
8 2.3.5 Direct field observation
...............................................................................................................................
8
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS
....................................................................................................................................
9
3.2.1 Measure Adapted
......................................................................................................................................
15 3.2.1.1 Case studies
.........................................................................................................................................................
16
3.3 SOIL CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES
....................................................................................................................
18 3.3.1 Case Studies
...........................................................................................................................................................
20
3.4 ETHNOBOTANY
..................................................................................................................................................
21 3.4.1 Case Studies
...........................................................................................................................................................
22
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
..........................................................................
23
ANNEXES
..........................................................................................................................................................
25
1.1 Background
The Hariyo Ban Program-II, is funded by USAID and implemented by
four consortium partners
- WWF, CARE, National Trust for Nature Conservation and the
Federation of Community
Forestry Users in Nepal. It aims to increase ecological and
community resilience in two
landscapes - Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and Chitwan Annapurna
Landscape (CHAL). The
program has two major thematic components: biodiversity
conservation and climate change
adaptation as well as two cross-cutting themes (governance; and
gender and social inclusion).
The objective of improving the conservation and management of the
CHAL and TAL works
under three result areas; 1. Threat to target species reduced with
special focus on “combating
poaching and illegal wildlife trafficking”, 2. Threat to target
landscape reduced, 3. Market-based
livelihood alternatives developed and promoted. The program is
focused on three sub-basins
(Seti, Marsyangdi and Daraudi) in CHAL and core areas of Chitwan,
Banke, Bardia and
Sukhaphanta Parks and their buffer zones as well as critical forest
corridors (Barandhabhar,
Kamdi, Karnali and Brahmadev).
Climate change and biodiversity conservation has become the most
critical issue in Nepal to such
an extent that these issues are considered as gravest challenges
for the humanity in this century.
Adaptation to global warming is a response to climate change that
seeks to reduce the
vulnerability of social and biological systems to climate change
effects (Kumar, 2014). Climate
change adaptation is especially important in developing countries
like Nepal since those
countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of climate
change. People have developed
special skills to cope with the occasional natural flurries. In
addition, these skills of creating
harmony between power of nature and human greed are known as
Traditional Knowledge (TK)
or Indigenous knowledge (IK). Research on indigenous environmental
knowledge has been
undertaken in many countries, often in the context of understanding
local oral histories and
cultural attachment to place and local tools and activities done
against many natural disasters
(IPCC, 2007). Although nascent in climate science, indigenous
knowledge has been widely
recognized in agroforestry, traditional medicine, biodiversity
conservation, soil and water
management, customary resource management, applied anthropology,
impact assessment, and
natural disaster preparedness and response (Ajani, Mgbenka and
Okeke, 2013).
In this pursuit, the study was designed to collect knowledge and
local practices in water sources
management, soil conservation, human wildlife conflict, and climate
induced disaster risk
reduction which will help to promote biodiversity conservation and
climate change adaptation to
achieve the overall goal of Hariyo Ban Program.
2
Indigenous Knowledge is defined as the accumulated knowledge and
traditional skills and
technology of a people, culture and sub-culture (Brokensha, Warren
& Warner 1980). ILO
Convention on Indigenous Knowledge and Tribal People, 1989 (No.169)
provides linkages
between indigenous knowledge and natural resources management.
These people conserve,
manage and utilize their natural resources with their indigenous
knowledge and technologies.
Also contributing to these practices are their numerous social,
cultural beliefs, taboos and
religion that are indirectly associated with conserving, managing
and utilizing these natural
resources.
Indigenous knowledge was acknowledged in the Fourth Assessment
Report (AR4) of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as ‘an invaluable
basis for developing
adaptation and natural resource management strategies in response
to environmental and other
forms of change’ (IPCC, 2007). This recognition was reaffirmed at
IPCC’s 32nd Session (IPCC,
2010) and consideration of traditional and indigenous knowledge was
included as a guiding
principle for the Cancun Adaptation Framework (CAF) that was
adopted by Parties at the 2010
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Conference in Cancun
(UNFCCC, 2010).
Indigenous practices provide invaluable knowledge and add value in
making best use of natural
resource base and its conservation minimizing potential adverse
impacts from climate change.
But with the advancement and newly introduced technologies, the
local knowledges and
solutions are gradually diminishing. Moreover, local knowledge and
solutions are not blended
with new technologies.
In the working landscape of Hariyo Ban Program, various indigenous
knowledge and local
solutions are being adopted by local communities to conserve
natural resources and cope with
climate change. However, these efforts have not been well
documented. Assessment has
documented indigenous knowledge and practices in water resource
management, soil
conservation, NTFP harvest, human wildlife conflict mitigation, and
climate induced disaster
risk reduction etc. and also cultural norms and practices in all
the mentioned sectors.
1.3 Objective
The main objective of this assignment is to assess the indigenous
knowledge and practices for
biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation.
Specifically, following objectives are
the focus of this study.
• To document indigenous knowledge and local solutions/practices in
biodiversity
conservation and climate change adaptation
• To recommend local solutions relevant to contribute in achieving
Hariyo Ban
Program’s objectives
This report documents existing practices for biodiversity
conservation especially faunal species
and HWC mitigation measures in Bardia National Park. It also
documents soil and water
conservation, climate change adaptation and biodiversity
conservation practices in Tanahu and
Mustang (lower). It provides an overview of IK based on primary
information collected from
fieldwork. Identified cases from specific locations for specific
purpose reflecting IK/TP that can
be recorded in other location as well. This study reorganizes that
example of TK presented are
only sub-set of much larger range of practices within context and
country.Hence, this report
should be treated as case sensitive and may not be considered
comprehensive enough.
4
2.1 Study area
This study was conducted in three different locations for three
different purposes.
• Bardia National Park (BNP) and its Buffer Zone
Bardia National Park is one of the core areas of TAL where Hariyo
Ban Program is operational.
BNP was established in 1988. It has total area of 968km2 where 507
km2is declared as Buffer
Zone (Map 1). The BNP is a part of the Nepalese lowland, or the
“Arc of Terai”, which consists
of three ecological zones in the southern flank of the Himalayas:
(1) the Siwalik Hills, and
adjoining (2) Bhabar area and (3) Terai plains. BNP is a prime
habitat of Royal Bengal Tiger,
alternative home to Rhino and supports as the habitat of many more
rare and endangered species
of global importance.
In BNP, human wildlife conflict has impacted the conservation
activities sometime leading to
negative outcomes. However, most of the people are active in
conservation of biodiversity and
protecting those rare and endangered species. People are adopting
various traditional measures to
cope with conflict arising due to wildlife existence. Dalla,
Karmala, Bhurigaunand Patabhar
were selected as case area for the study.
• Bhirkot VDC, Tanahun District:
This VDC lies on Northwest of Baidi with steep mountain top
overlooking a deep valley in
which Kali River passes through. According to Central Bureau of
Statistics (2011) there are 1146
HHS residing in the VDC. Total population of the VDC was recorded
as 5,014 with 2851 female
and 2163 male. Majority of area in this VDC is under agriculture
land where majority of people
are involved in agriculture activities. NAPA (2011) has documented
various hazards, risks and
exposure of high categories. Soil erosion due to steep slope,
unplanned cultivation and erratic
rainfall is one of the major problems in this VDC. There are
several local level initiatives to
address these natural disasters, which were found effective in some
cases. For this study three
different location of the VDC were visited namely Gumlek CFUG,
Bhirkot-4, Chandithan
CFUG, Bhirkot-6 and Lamdanda Maitighar CFUG, Bhirkot-3,5.
• Lete VDC,Mustang district:
Altitude of Mustang district stretches over 3,573 SQM and ranges
between altitude from 2,000
masl to the top of the world’s 7th and 10th highest mountains:
Dhaulagiri and Annapurna—
8,137 and 8,168 masl above sea level (see Fig. 3). It hosts the
world’s 7th highest peak of Mount
Dhaulagiri (8,137masl) and 10th highest peak of Mount Annapurna
(8,168masl). Mustang is
located in the rain shadow of the Himalayan range and on average
receives on average less
5
than200 mm rain. The southern part of the district receives,
however, comparatively more rain
than other areas. A defining feature of Mustang is the deeply
incised valley of the Kali Gandaki
River with its arid valley bottom and characteristic of diurnal
wind system.
Lete VDC lies within the Jomsom Unit Conservation Office (UCO) of
the Lower Mustang which
is a transition between the Trans-Himalaya and the Inner Himalaya.
The VDC receives 1,545
mm annum rainfall (ACAP, 2009). It consists of deep gorges made by
the Kaligandaki River.
The altitudinal range varies from 1,372 masl to 8,167masl
representing subtropical, temperate
and alpine types of climate (Ranapal, 2009). Climate precipitation
data of Mustang district shows
inter-annual variability with overall increasing trends over 53
years.Whereas temperature data
are slightly decreasing. As a result, frequency of flashfloods
during wet season and drought
during dry season is increasing. Frequent landslide and flash
floods have caused loss of soil
fertility as well as destruction in irrigation canals. Likewise,
water sources are decreasing which
significantly impacts the biodiversity of the area. For this study
three different locations of Lete
VDC were visited namely Dhampu (ward no 3), Lete (ward no 3) and
Ghansa (ward no 4).
Fig 1: Map of study area showing selected location
2.2 Approaches
The study was conducted by using the best techniques of documenting
traditional knowledge and
practices. Following are the approaches that were applied for the
study especially during
consultation, assessment discussion and observation;
i. Participatory and Inclusive
Participatory, multi-stakeholder, multi-ethnic and multi-class
representation process was adopted
by the study team to gain realistic as well as most relevant
information of the study area.This
approach helped in meaningful participation of the community people
especially marginalized
and disadvantages groups. This approach was considered especially
during interviews of
community people and also during various level of consultation with
related stakeholders.
ii. Effective communication
Open communication with a variety of stakeholders through prior
consents, planned meetings
and briefings was maintained to collect required information and
exchange opinions, information
and ideas. Regular communication and sharing of drafts and
incorporation of comments to revise
the draft was maintained with stakeholders.
iii. Disclosure and verification
Disclosure and verification was done to ensure transparency and
accountability of the findings.
The methods of briefing, debriefing and field level consultation
were applied to discuss and
share the findings of the study. During this process
confidentiality was maintained and was not
disclosed without the full consent of the concerned
stakeholders.
iv. Facilitative Approach
The consultant facilitated the discussion and interactions in
identifying local adaptation measures
and share with stakeholders for further improvement. The final
product of this study
(identification of indigenous knowledge/practices and recommending
local solutions relevant to
contribute in achieving for Hariyo Ban Program’s objectives)
required facilitative roles.
Nagoya protocol
This study complies Nagoya protocol. It strengthens the tenets of
CBD 1992 and encourages conservation of biological
diversity, sustainable use of the resources and creates a
transparent and legal entity for sharing the benefits and
caring
the knowledge holders. The interrelationship between resources and
traditional knowledge is inseparable, the diversity
of circumstances in which traditional knowledge is owned or held
(including by countries), the identification of the
rightful holders of traditional knowledge, the rights of indigenous
peoples, etc. are important considerations. The protocol
further helps set the common understanding and mutual agreements
between service providers and users through prior
informed consents, sharing benefits both monetary and nonmonetary
in fair and equitable ways, research findings,
awareness raising, developing education materials,
acknowledgements, etc.
Prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms Assessed and
collected information will be made subject to prior information
consent of the party for any traditional or indigenous knowledge.
This will be only done if party is unwilling to provide information
for authentication issues. The Mutual agreed terms between party
providing information and researcher will remove illusion for
potential reader (users) on following means
• Authorization of information
• Control their subsequent use
• Establish the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from sequent
use
7
2.3 Study Methods (data collection)
The overall methodology of the assignment is based on cataloguing
existing information,
personal interviews (key informant interviews), field observation,
consultative meeting/
workshops, focus group discussion etc. in three different
locations.
2.3.1 Cataloguing Existing Information
action plans, periodic plans programs and activities incorporated
documents) were thoroughly
reviewed. Other documents like NAPA, LAPA, district profile, BNP
management plan and
buffer zone management plan wereextensivelyassessed. Data and
information from District Soil
Conservation Office, National Trust for Nature Conservation,
Department of National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation and WWF Nepal especially Hariyo Ban Program
were the primary
guiding documents for this study. Additional resources relevant and
useful for the study were
also carefully reviewed.
2.3.2 Consultation meeting / workshop
Site level (one in each site) consultation meeting/ workshop were
organized for collecting
information about local knowledge and practices. The consultation
meeting provided guidelines
particularly for identification of sites for data collection
(indigenous community, people and
practices).
2.3.3 Key Informant Interviews (personal
interviews/interactions)
Wide range of people with local knowledge and information were
personally interviewed for
aquiring realistic and accurate information. Since key informant
interview was one of the main
sources of information for documenting traditional practices and
their effectiveness in particular
Consultation meeting at Bhirkot, Tanahu
8
locality; elderly people, traditional healers, people from ethnic
community, teachers, women
groups and local political leaders etc. were chosen as the key
informants for the interview. A set
of open ended semi-structured questionnaire was developed for KIIs.
Ten KIIs were done in each
site (in total 30 KIIs) for completion of this task. Annex 2
provides checklist for KIIs.
2.3.4 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Locations for FGD were
mentioned in section 2.3.2).
FGDs were conducted with
executive committee of buffer
Similarly voice of marginalized and disadvantaged groups was
recorded with special care. A set
of checklist was developed for guiding this meeting. In each
location at least three FGD were
conducted. Annex 3 provides checklist applied during the focus
group discussion.
2.3.5 Direct field observation
examine the status and
Field Observation at Karmala, Bardia
9
3.1.1 Status
Around BNP majority of the villagers live in a subsistence economy
in which land and livestock
holdings are the principle economic assets. Paddy (Oryza sativa),
Maize (Zea mays), Wheat
(Tricticumaestivum), Lentil (Lens culinaris), and Mustard (Brassica
campestris), are the
principle crops and are mostly grown for domestic consumption.
Livestock is economically
important as a source of milk, manure, draft-power, and cash
income.
Human wildlife conflicts (HWC) are common phenomena from the past
and have significant
impacts on livelihood of local community of BNP. HWC arises as they
share a common limited
resources in limited land. Human-wildlife conflicts in this area is
causing many social, economic
and ecological consequences. Crop and property damage and livestock
depredation are common
effects resulting in huge economic losses. Sometimes these effects
undermine the political
support for conservation and call for eradication of problem
animals.
HWC is not a rare incident in and around BNP, mainly large
carnivores and herbivores which
require extensively large habitat frequently visit farmland. As
large carnivorous, human and their
livestock have been coexisting for years but in recent decade a
dramatic increase in frequency of
human wildlife conflict resulting, primarily, from the exponential
growth of human population
and increase in effort to conserve wildlife populations. In BNP,
main species causing conflict
incidents include large herbivores (elephants, blue bull/ cow),
large mammalian carnivores
(leopard) and wild boar. Following table shows the major
conflicting animals, problems and
severity of damage.
Table 1 : Name of conflicting animals and trends of
conflicting
Main problematic animals Problems Severity of
damage
Trend
and houses, human
Leopard
Nilgai (blue bull/cow) Destruction of agricultural products Medium
Increasing
Elephants are particularly attached to cereal crops because they
are more palatable, more
nutritious and have lower secondary defenses than wild plants. In
general, paddy is reported as
most preferred crop of elephants followed by maize, wheat, lentils
etc. Other animals are less
10
3.1.2 Measures adapted
Human wildlife conflict can be managed through prevention
strategies at initial stage and take
action towards addressing its root causes. Aprotection strategy has
to be implemented when
conflict is certain to happen or has already occurred and
mitigation measures attempt to reduce
the level of impacts. Local communities are using different
traditional methods along with
various measures from park authorities. It was found that one
technique is not sufficient to
mitigate HWC in BNP. The buffer zone management committee of BNP is
allocating some
amount of money to compensate livestock depredation and human
casualties. According to local
communities process is very slow and not efficient in many cases.
In this scenario local
communities believed that HWC situation in BNP is different from
other locations.
Local communities also believed that HWC scenario in BNP is
different from other locations.
Measures adopted by BNP park authorities such as trench, solar
fencing (electric fencing), hedge
rows plantation are not effective to control damages by elephants.
It was found that various local
adaptation techniques are adapted by local communities, which are
very effective in many cases
but their sustainability depends on wild animal’s adaptive capacity
of adapted measures.
Following table shows the types of measures taken to reduce HWC in
study sites and source of
knowledge.
Table 2: Measures taken to reduce HWC in Bardia and source of
knowledge
Types of measures Case Condition Relevance / effectiveness
of Measures
Source of
compound
was congested
of Measures
Source of
point from where
elephant movement can
day and night while
disseminate the
information about
elephants entering
agriculture field.
sheet
produce sound with
(middle of night).
Initially hitting material
Traditionally
balances harvesting
(tube/ kerosene)
practiced (initiated
by Tharu
community) and
of Measures
Source of
Key Observations
• Measures adapted to reduce/mitigate HWC are gradually evolving
and people are trying
to make efficient from best available resources. Mainly measures
are traditionally
practiced which are transferred from generations.
• Chasing with fire has created many problems; animals are
aggressive toward this
mechanism resulting in loss of life. This method needs to sop with
alternative solution
like where animals do not show aggressive behavior.
• Producing sound (by hitting zinc sheet or drum) is not effective
but has been
psychological advantage to local community. Promoting this measure
may not be much
effective to reduce crop depredation by wildlife.
• Change in cropping pattern is effective in few locations, if
unpalatable species can be
planted in highly conflicting area HWC conflict can be reduced.
Sometimes buffering
with highly palatable species like maize in paddy field can be
effective.
• Fencing house with barbed wire are costly but has given
psychological advantage to local
community and their traditional housing structure can be preserved;
otherwise they will
be forced to construct concrete houses which will ultimately result
in loss of original
culture of Tharu community.
• Improved cattle-shed program will insure local community in
getting maximum return
from livestock but at the same time stall feeding practice need to
be promoted to reduce
livestock depredation because of grazing in forest.
3.1.2.1 Case studies
were regularly damaged by wild
elephants. So, people strated fencing
house and its compound (distance to
fence was at away from reach of
elephant). Interestingly, these houses
the poles supporting the fences were also
covered by the barbed wires.This
techinque seemed very effective as it
prevents the elephant to cross the wire/throw ploes as their trunk
is very sensitive.The study
13
found that effectivieness of electric fencing was decreasing since
learning capacity and
behaviour response of elephants was high.
Relevance/ effectiveness to reduce HWC conflict: This measure has
proved to be very
effective even in highly impacted areas since it helps to
minimizethe damage caused by elephant
in a remarkable amount. Local community believes that if current
solar fence wire can be
replaced by this barbed wire with electric current impacts of
animals can be significantly reduced
(since curent pole used in solar fencing are negative to current).
It makes this measure more
effective if poles (sopporting wire) are also covered by barbed
wire and regular maintenance is
done.
Case 2: Elephant House (Karmala)
Case condition: Housing condition of poor families is basically
very fragile and can be easily
destroyed by elephants. Due to elephant attack, local poor people
are constantly suffering from
loss of grains (stored food destroyed at times).
In this regards,buffer zone management
committee has established a rice storage house
for poor people (18 families have benefitted
from it) in 2015.This technique has become a
good way to handle the wild elephants attack
and save the stored agricultural products, so
that the local people would not suffer food
scarcity even if the houses were damaged/
destroyed. This house was constructed from
aid of various donors and managed by buffer zone management
committee.
Relevance/ effectiveness of measures: This measure has proved to be
a very effective to reduce
loss/ damage of stored grains of poor families and the attitude
towards the existence of wildlife is
also changing.
Case Condition: The local people have used
the zinc sheet to produce sound to chase the
wild animals (especially elephants and wild
boars) as these animals are very sensitive to
high frequency of sound. They normally feel
uneasy with the noise and tend to run away.
Initially hitting material was of. wood >
Nowadays it has been replaced by iron rod.
This method has been practiced for generation
14
but people want alternative which will be effective and easy
one.
Relevance/ effectiveness of the measures: During the field study,
it was found that the wild
animals were being used to the noise produced and currently showing
no response to the noise
thus created. Instead, they have become more aggressive when people
showed fire to chase them.
Thus this measure is becoming less effective and local communities
are looking for alternative
method.
3.2 Climate Change Adaptation
The impacts of climate change are still open to a high degree of
uncertainty and depend on
understanding capacity. However, some of the impacts are visible in
terms of raised temperature,
uncertain and extreme rainfall events, floods, landslides, drought
and disease and pest. These
impacts can be discussed and correlated with past experience and
current observation and
understanding. Tanahu and Mustang districts fall under hilly and
mountainous districts which
are ecologically fragile, geologically unstable and environmentally
vulnerable. In recent years
climate change has exacerbated these vulnerabilities resulting in
migration and huge loss of
property. Population of these districts lack minimal access to
drinking water, irrigation, road
infrastructure. The people, whose livelihood depends on
agriculture, are migrating to India for
wage earning. hotel business, ecosystem services like NTFP trading.
The weak social support
network and nature- based livelihoods are most likely to be
impacted highly by climatic impacts.
These districts have been experiencing extreme monsoon rainfall,
prolonged dry winter season,
reduced amount of precipitation, devastating floods, decrease in
agriculture productivity leading
to loss of life, property and livelihoods.
Table 3: Impacts of climate change identified in the studied
sites
Location Impacts Trends Remarks
Flood Fluctuating
Late (Mustang)
Increasing Less
Reduced amount of snow fall Increasing
Shift in snow fall season Fluctuating
Shift in raining season -
production
few number
(not in usual location)
Nowadays Salix species is used as habitat by insects which are
affecting oat production, so
people started cutting Salix species that were near to
farmland.
3.2.1 Measures Adopted
Adaptation to climate change seeks to reduce the vulnerability of
social and biological system,
where climate change and its effects will last for many years, and
adaptation will be necessary.
Climate change adaptation is especially important in hills and
mountain areas like Tanahu and
Mustang since these areas are predicted to bear the brunt of the
effect of climate change. Local
communities are making adjustments to human, ecological or physical
systems in response to
perceived climatic impacts.The capacity and potential of local
community to adapt is unevenly
distributed and varies according to locations. Adaptive capacity is
closely linked to educational
and economic development of particular ecosystem. The measures
adopted to adjust system
ranges from pure technical solutions to social and political
changes in particular locality. Local
people have developed several skills to cope with climatic extremes
and initiated various
measures that address adaptation measures of climate change in the
studied areas.
Table 4: Measures adapted for Climate change adaptation
Types of measures Case Condition Relevance /
effectiveness of
decreases
high hills
Traditional measures
16
effectiveness of
use of water
Agroforestry system and practices hold promise for meeting the
various agricultural and
ecological problems, which has been very effective in carbon
sequestration and climate change
adaptation. It is one of the rational land-use systems, which tries
to find some balance by raising
food crops and forest crops together. Agroforestry system has been
practiced in Nepal from
millennia, which has multidimensional function. It was found that
agroforestry system has been
mainly practiced in mid-hills of Nepal that varies with
physiographic zones. The main
determining biophysical factors of existence of agroforestry system
are altitude where significant
variation occurs due to aspects and local needs. In Tanahu, farmers
have traditionally practiced
many types of agroforestry systems based on strategies to manage
forest and arable land
simultaneously, and in an integrated fashion, to obtain essential
items of food, shelter and other
economic returns.
storied agroforestry systems
vegetables are arranged in
17
village contain banana, citrus species and Turmeric, Ginger,
Kutmiro, Kavro etc. The existence
of home garden system is for owner’s subsistence needs, aesthetic
and ornamental values rather
than for climatic change adaptation.
Relevance/ effectiveness of the measures: Home garden with
agroforestry system was
practiced in this locality for years. However, knowledge on their
importance to climate change
adaption is very limited to local communities. This system is
effective not only to adapt against
climate change impacts but also efficient source of income for
local communities.
Case 2: Agri-silviculture
and steep topography majority
of rainfed terrace agriculture
species are planted or natural
regeneration is promoted. In
timber trees are commonly
Kavro (Ficus lacor) and
timber species like Chilaune (Schima wallichhi), Sal (Shorea
robusta) etc. has been done.
Whereas in Lete VDC, Mustang species like Bais (Salix species),
Walnut (Juglas regia), Prunus
(Prunus cerasoides) are mostly grown in farmland. The number of
trees per farm varies with size
of land. Most of the trees are multipurpose species used for
fodder, fuelwood, and timber.
Relevance/ effectiveness of the measures: Even though, plantation
or promotion of natural
regeneration in this location was not initiated in recent times.
Primarily this system exists for
slope stabilization, soil conservation, ornamental purpose, but
this system can be linked to
climate change adaptation. This traditionally practiced method need
to be promoted not only for
climate change adaptation but also for alternative source of income
for livelihood diversification.
18
3.3 Soil Conservation Techniques
Soil erosion control is the practice of preventing washing away of
soil in any topography or the land use system. Even though
soil
erosion is natural process and is partly impossible to stop, local
communities are adopting various means to control soil
washing.
Table 5 : Measures adapted for soil conservation
Types of measures Case Condition Relevance / effectiveness
of Measures
terrace
terracing
functions.
Manuring in upper slope As an indigenous practice Traditional
practice, Indigenous to Lete
19
of Measures
to balance distribution of
slope made as a part of
terrace improvement
technique existed for many years. In the past,
the steep slopes are cultivated by manuring the
upper slope with more proportion of manures
than that of the lower slopes. This is because
the soil in the steep slope is more erodible than
that of normal slope. That is why, the soil in
the upper slope is eroded by different agents
and is deposited in lower slope and organic
matter accumulation in lower slope is
maximum due to which the crops raised in lower/outward slope prefer
more merismatic
development, develop rapidly, and become tall. Such plants are more
sensitive to external agents
like wind, water, animal interference and are less shock and stress
bearer due to which these
plants fail to complete their life cycle and decrease
productivity.
Government of Nepal had launched and implemented Terrace
Improvement Programmes in
steep slopes and hills including of Mustang. Keeping this
cultivating technique the same, sloping
lands are supported by loose stone walls with hedges in edge and
planting tree species like salix
and prunus to prevent soil erosion and are modified into small
terraces where an equal
proportion of manure could be added in both upper and lower slopes.
These terraces later go on
developing into large terraces and apply terrace farming and
improve agricultural production.
Though the technique has been improved, people practice the same
manuring behavior, cnd
cultivate on outward sloping lands. This method is more effective
in preventing soil erosion,
improve fertility of soil and increase land productivity.
Case 2: Wooden Check dam/stone check dam
Due to the steep and southward sloping
terrain, the use of wood or stone check dam
is prominent in agricultural lands. The steep
slopes sloping outward are supported by wall
of either stone or wood to check soil erosion,
by controlling runoff and conserving soil
moisture. This technique makes the
cultivating land more flat and prevents from
slides and mass wasting. Normal/flat slopes
are less hazardous and good for agricultural
production. By constructing this sort of
21
checkdam, steep and outward sloping lands are improved and
flattened or converted into normal.
This method is useful in controlling erosion and improving soil
fertility.
These practices are especially effective for soil and water
conservation, reducing runoff, and
conserving organic contents in soil, increase fertility and
productivity as a whole.
3.4 Ethnobotany
Nepal, a mountainous country having diversified topographic and
climatic conditions, gives rise
to a wide range of flora and fauna. In villages ethnic people,
including Tharu and Thakali highly
depend on medicinal plants for their primary healthcare and as a
source of food. Healing with
local plants and traditional healers (Baidya) using traditional
knowledge and skills is
ethnobotany. The ingredients or metabolites contained in a plant
are directly or indirectly used
for curing the ailments . Local people possess traditional
knowledge based on plants and their
use passing from generation to generation. Though the techniques of
using pants are not
scientific, the use of the plants are made accurate.
Table: Locally collected and used medicinal plants and NTFPs
Name of spp Use Description Remarks
Raktamul /Chunetroghas
(Geranium nepalense)
and root
Traditionally practiced
Guchi Chyau
(Morchella esculenta)
Pain killer
fire
Hard
Paha
Bardia)
22
Case 1: Role of Mukhiya in Biodiversity Conservation
In Mustang district since ancient times Mukhiya system was
practiced and was continuing till
early 2010’s. Elected (by public voice) Mukhiya were considered as
local government authorities
and every decision and development works were done in the direct
supervision of Mukhiyas. In
this context, forest and water resources were under control of
Mukhiyas. There was a payment
system to collect timber from forest and severe punishment
mechanism to those who did not
obey this rule. This system was very effective to preserve forest
and biodiversity. There is need
of documenting this system as measures to preserve and manage
forest and biodiversity in
Mustang district.
However, nowadays this system is not in practice but Mukhiyas are
more ceremonial and have
religious and cultural values. Those forests under supervision of
Mukhiyas are now under
Annapurna Conservation Area and local forest communities have been
formed for protection and
sustainable utilization of forest products. This Mukhiya
Identification of poisonous mushroom
Thakali community of Mustang VDC has been utilizing various types
of NTFPs available in their
localities since ancient times. They have their own indigenous
knowledge and traditional practices
to identify edible (non- poisonous) mushroom types. These
knowledges have been transferred
from generation to generation and origins of this knowledge is
credited to the forefathers of this
community. According to Thakali community, if mushroom is with ring
in its steam it will be
poisonous. Simialrly, if mushroom produces white foam while salt is
added to it, this kind of
mushroom should not be eaten. They believe that wild mushrooms are
poisonous in different form
and their poisonous content can be reduced by adding pepper and
garlic while cooking. This
knowledge needs further scientific research for using as a tool to
identify mushroom types.
Dried Guchi Chyau in Mustang
Lete
23
Chapter 4: Conclusion and Recommendation
4.1 Conclusion This study collected indigenous knowledge and local
solution for specific biodiversity
conservation, local practices in human wildlife conflict reduction,
soil and water conservation
and climate change adaptation which will help to promote
biodiversity conservation and climate
change adaptation to achieve the overall goal of Hariyo Ban
Program. This study was conducted
in three different locations for site specific purpose. Human
wildlife conflict reduction measures
in BNP, soil conservation and climate change adaptation measures in
Tanahu and climate change
adaptation and soil conservation measures in Late VDC were
collected and documented.
The study in BNP concluded that HWC is resulting in many social,
economic and ecological
consequences. Crop and property damage and livestock depredation
are common effects
resulting in huge economic losses. Large carnivorous or herbivores
which require extensively
large habitat have been frequently encroaching on farmlands or
depredating livestock. There has
been various efforts at local as well as national level to reduce
increasing trend of HWC.
However, these initiatives are newly developed and flourishing
slowly. Local communities are
living with those wildlife for generations and are using various
measures to cope with wildlife
existence. Measures like producing sound with various materials
(wood, drum, zinc sheet),
chasing with flames etc. are traditional practices. There have been
continuous evolution in those
approaches and measures as wild animals get used to with it.
Recently, local communities
initiated fencing of houses with barbed wires, improving cattle
sheds etc. Effectiveness of the
adopted measures depends on animal’s adaptation capacity where
measures like house fencing,
improved cow shed construction separate concrete house to store
grains were found to be
effective in the localities.
Lete (Mustang) and Bhirkot VDC (Tanahu) are facing various impacts
of climate change like
drought, flood, disease and pest in agriculture land. Impacts of
invasive species on agriculture
land is increasing in Lete VDC. Even though farmers are facing
various impacts of climate
change but very few are aware about the extent of possible damage
and basic knowledge about
climate change. Existing practices such as agroforestry, plantation
around water sources are
related to climate change are found effective to adapt against
climate change impacts.
Due to steep slope and irregular terrain soil erosion is one of the
major issues in slopy
agriculture land of Lete VDC. Agriculture practices in slopy land
resulted in loss of manure
every year and more nutrients is available to crops in outward
slopes. To eliminate the chance of
over fertilization in outward slopy cropland, people are manuring
more amount in upward slope.
But after government initiation to improve terrace this system is
more efficient to improve
terrace. Similarly, practices like plantation of Salix spp. in
eroded land, check dam constriction
by locally available materials are efficient measures adopted by
local communities.
In Lete VDC before 10 years Mukhiya System was effective. Mukhiya
were considered as local
government and were responsible for protection of all natural
resources. Payment to fill tree or
24
hard punishment for illegal felling of tress was effective to
preserve forest and biodiversity in
this condition.
Various NTFPs/MAPs area available in Lete VDC where local
communities are using them for
generations. Species like Guchi Chyau, Rato Chyau are not only of
medicinal importance but of
high economic value. Practices of not allowing other communities to
enter their district easily
and severe punishment mechanism had been one of the indigenous
measures to protect
biodiversity of this locality. Similarly, in BNP Tharu communities
used to collect Mauwa for
preparing alcohol. But nowadays, they are planting in their own
land or in yards since this specie
of fruits are consumed by wildlife. This measure not only promotes
biodiversity conservation but
also is helping to reduce HWC in BNP.
4.2 Recommendation Though the techniques in practice are not
scientifically proven, the reasons of practicing behind
them resemble to be scientific. Traditional knowledge passing with
cultures and rituals is
important to carry on because this knowledge is the pioneer of new
scientific invention. Role
played by indigenous knowledge and traditional practices in
biodiversity conservation, soil
conservation and climate change adaptation is magnificient . Using
these tools and approaches,
conservation and adaptation to changing environment has led to
develop newere policies and
strategies to adaptation. All the practices are not recommended to
continue and some of them are
very effective and need to find their scientific base for further
expansion.
Among seven different local techniques adapted to reduce HWC,
measures like improved cattle
shed, change in crop production pattern, change in crop varieties,
promotion of MAPs or cash
crops need further support. However, techniques like producing
sound, chasing with flames etc.
is not recommended to stop using. Furthermore, in area where
destruction of houses by wild
elephants is very high, fencing of houses with barbed wire and
having alternative house for
storing grains need to be promoted.
Improving knowledge and enhancing skills about climate change and
their impacts will help to
develop effective and efficient adaptation measures against climate
change induced hazards. The
study areas have some measures which are practiced traditionally
for ornamental or economic
purpose but they are indirectly contributing to adapt against
climate change impacts. Importance
of measures like agroforestry (home garden and agri-silviculture)
practices, plantation in open or
fallow land, forest conservation need to be promoted and more
efforts are required to enhance
their role in soil and water conservation.
More depth understanding regarding importance of valuable
MAPs/NTFPs, discouraging
cultivation in slopy land, selecting local or improved climate
resilient species is very essential to
farmers of hills and mid hills to conserve soil and
biodiversity.
25
Participants list Date:
Human Wildlife conflict (Bardia NP)
1. Biodiversity status of the study area with major faunal species
(for verification)
Study area Major tree species Major fauna species
(Location)
3. Majorproblematicanimals
Major problematic
tons/NRs per annum
Conflicting animals Major problems Methods used before Methods used
now
5. Effectiveness of Local measures
6. Animals response on these measures
26
7. Present relation between animals and human after mitigation
measures
8. Role of protected areas in harmonizing the relation between
human and animal (Bardiya NP)
9. Awareness level of local people in the existence of wild animals
and their importance
10. Record of any changes in farming and harvesting time of
crops
Plant species protection/ Biodiversity conservation (for all three
different location)
1. Plants used of treatment / used as medicinal purpose
Conservation activities done?
2. Edible plans species collected from forest
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as
edible
Reason behind using this species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
Cause of increase or decrease
Do you plant them in private land?
Do you conserve them in forest?
3. Species collected/ extracted for commercial purpose / livelihood
purpose/ income generation
activities
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as
edible
Reason behind selecting those species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
27
Do you plant them in private land?
Do you conserve them in forest?
4. Species used in religious purpose ( record caste wise)
Plantation of those religiously important species
Conservation activities done to conserve those species
5. Species used for agriculture tools
6. Change in forest species composition in last 50 years
if yes ?
7. Impacts of grazing on biodiversity
8.
9. Planation activities done in your location in last 50
years
Activities that can be done to preserve/ conserve / protect
economically/ religiously/ medicinally
importance species for future generation
Climate Change / Soil Conservation
11. Awareness about climate change and its impacts
12. Major changes/ impacts in last 10 years of period B
a. Changes occurs in species composition
b. Problem of invasive species
c. Record of natural calamities of study areas in last 10
years
i. Drought
ii. Flood
iii. Landslides
e. Food security/productivity
g. Availability and abundance of NTFPs before and now-a-days
h. Human Health
j. Pease on Agriculture land
k. Soil loss due to heavy/ erratic rainfall
l. Loss/Reduction of plant / animas in lase 10 years
m. Other …………………..
n. Other ………………………………
a. Drought
b. Flood
c. Landslides
d. Hailstorm
15. Water scarcity and water borne diseases
Water scarcity Water born diseases
16. Approaches used for soil conservation
17. Activities under taken to conserve loss of plant / animals due
to climate changes in last 10 years
18. Methods used by people to maintain the fertility of land
(control soil erosion/ landslide/
desertification of agriculture land)
20. Effectiveness of those measure
21. Women involvement in the adaptation process
22. How effective is the adaptation measures for poor and
marginalized people of the community?
(participation and benefit from the measures)
29
Name of interviewee: Date:
2. Did you feel/experience of impact of CC?
3. What are the major climatic changes that happens based on your
experience?
4. What are the major impacts of climate change in your
locality?
5. What are those natural calamities that are frequent in your
locality?
6. How often the natural calamities happen and how do you (or your
community) cope with
such situations?
7. Did you experience any changes in the tree species and animals
before and now?
8. Did you change the crop or change the cropping pattern and
harvesting time over time?
9. Measures used to cope with climate change effects
CC effect Measure Tools Inherent/Learnt
Change on rainfall
Low temperature
10. List out the most effective measures that you felt
measures Effectiveness Reason of them being
effective
How fertile is the land and how about the productivity?
How effective are the methods that you (or your community people)
adopt?
Do you like to learn new techniques for combating cc?
Human Wildlife conflict (Bardia NP)
23. Biodiversity status of the study area with major faunal
species
Study area Major tree species Major fauna species
(Location)
25. Major problematic animals
tons/NRs per annum
Conflicting animals Major problems Methods used before Methods used
now
27. Effectiveness of Local measures
28. Animals response on these measures
29. Present relation between animals and human after mitigation
measures
Biodiversity Conservation
1. Do you know about biodiversity and its importance, if yes,
please give some examples?
2. Plants used of treatment / used as medicinal purpose and their
conservation activities
Source of knowledge of using those fauna as medicine
3. Edible plans species collected from forest and their
conservation activities
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as
edible
Reason behind using this species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
Cause of increase or decrease
4. Species collected/ extracted for commercial purpose / livelihood
purpose/ income generation
activities
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as edible and
conservation activities
Reason behind selecting those species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
Cause of increase or decrease
32
5. Species used in religious purpose ( record caste wise) and their
conservation activities
Plantation of those religiously important species
6. Species used for agriculture tools
7. Change in forest species composition in last 50 years and
conservation activities
if yes ?
8. Impacts of grazing on biodiversity
9. Planation activities done in your location in last 50
years
10. Vulnerability status of male and female
11. Involvement of female in adaptation activities
12. Activities that can be done to preserve/ conserve / protect
economically/ religiously/ medicinally
importance species for future generation
1. Have you ever get involved in biodiversity conservation
activities? Can you please give some
examples?
33
Place: Date:
Name of
a.
b.
2. Activities performed by local people to combat the negative
effect of climate change
Activities Tools Effectiveness Source of Knowledge
3. List of measures on the basis of cost efficiency and
environmental friendly
List of measures Affordable Effect on environment
Effectiveness
4. Did you feel loss of any biodiversity/species(plant and animal)
in last 10 years due to climate
change?
Cause of change
6. Soil conservation techniques practiced by community people and
district soil conservation
office
8. Do community people have harvesting NTFPs in sustainable
way?