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Dinosaur
Detectives
PETER CHRISP
READERS
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Shark Attack!Titanic
Invaders from Outer SpaceMovie MagicTime TravelerBermuda TriangleTiger TalesZeppelin: The Age of the AirshipSpiesTerror on the AmazonDisasters at SeaThe Story of Anne FrankAbraham Lincoln: Lawyer, Leader, LegendGeorge Washington: Soldier, Hero, PresidentExtreme SportsSpiders’ SecretsThe Big Dinosaur DigSpace Heroes: Amazing AstronautsThe Story of ChocolateSchool Days Around the WorldPolar Bear Alert!Welcome to ChinaMy First Ballet ShowApe Adventures
Greek MythsMLB: Home Run Heroes: Big Mac, Sammy,
and JuniorMLB: World Series HeroesMLB: Record BreakersMLB: Down to the Wire: Baseball’s Great
Pennant RacesStar Wars: Star PilotStar Wars: I Want to Be a JediStar Wars: The Story of Darth VaderStar Wars: Yoda in ActionStar Wars: Forces of DarknessMarvel Heroes: Amazing PowersThe X-Men SchoolAbraham Lincoln: Abogado, Líder, Leyenda
en español Al Espacio: La Carrera a la Luna
en español Fantastic Four: The World’s Greatest
SuperteamPokemon: Become a Pokemon TrainerWolverine: Awesome PowersIron Man: Friends and Enemies
Level 3
READERS
Volcanoes and Other Natural Disasters
Pirates! Raiders of the High SeasMicromonstersGoing for Gold!Extreme MachinesFlying Ace: The Story of Amelia EarhartBlack BeautyFree at Last! The Story of
Martin Luther King, Jr. Joan of ArcSpooky SpinechillersWelcome to The Globe! The Story of
Shakespeare’s TheaterSpace Station: Accident on MirAtlantis: The Lost City?Dinosaur DetectivesDanger on the Mountain: Scaling
the World’s Highest PeaksCrime BustersThe Story of Muhammad AliFirst Flight: The Story of the
Wright BrothersD-Day Landings: The Story of
the Allied InvasionSolo SailingThomas Edison: The Great InventorDinosaurs! Battle of the BonesSkate!
MLB: Strikeout KingsMLB: Super Shortstops: Jeter, Nomar,
and A-RodMLB: The Story of the New York YankeesMLB: The World of BaseballMLB: October Magic: All the Best
World Series! JLA: Batman’s Guide to Crime and Detection
JLA: Superman’s Guide to the Universe
JLA: Aquaman’s Guide to the Oceans JLA: Wonder Woman’s Book of Myths JLA: Flash’s Book of Speed JLA: Green Lantern’s Book of InventionsThe Story of the X-Men: How it all BeganCreating the X-Men: How Comic Books
Come to LifeSpider-Man’s Amazing PowersThe Story of Spider-ManThe Incredible Hulk’s Book of StrengthThe Story of the Incredible HulkTransformers: The AwakeningTransformers: The QuestTransformers: The Unicron BattlesTransformers: The UprisingTransformers: Megatron ReturnsTransformers: Terrorcon AttackStar Wars: Galactic Crisis!Star Wars: Beware the Dark SideStar Wars: Epic BattlesStar Wars: Jedi AdventuresMarvel Heroes: Greatest BattlesFantastic Four: Evil AdversariesGraphic Readers: The Price of VictoryGraphic Readers: The Terror TrailGraphic Readers: Curse of the Crocodile GodGraphic Readers: Instruments of Death
Graphic Readers: The Spy-Catcher GangGraphic Readers: Wagon Train AdventureLos Asombrosos Poderes de Spider-Man
en español La Historia de Spider-Man en español Wolverine: The Story of WolverineThe Rise of Iron Man
Level 4
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A Note to Parents
DK READERS is a compelling program for beginning
readers, designed in conjunction with leading literacyexperts, including Dr. Linda Gambrell, DistinguishedProfessor of Education at Clemson University. Dr. Gambrellhas served as President of the National Reading Conference,the College Reading Association, and the InternationalReading Association.
Beautiful illustrations and superb full-color photographscombine with engaging, easy-to-read stories to offer a freshapproach to each subject in the series. Each DK READER isguaranteed to capture a childÕs interest while developing hisor her reading skills, general knowledge, and love of reading.
The five levels of DK READERS are aimed at differentreading abilities, enabling you to choose the books that are
exactly right for your child:
Pre-level 1: Learning to readLevel 1: Beginning to readLevel 2: Beginning to read aloneLevel 3: Reading aloneLevel 4: Proficient readers
The ÒnormalÓ age at which a child begins to read can beanywhere from three to eight years old. Adult participationthrough the lower levels is very helpful forproviding encouragement, discussingstorylines, and sounding outunfamiliar words.
No matter which level you select, you can be surethat you are helping yourchild learn to read, thenread to learn!
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LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH,
MELBOURNE, AND DELHI
Project Editor Susan MalyanArt Editor C. David Gillingwater
Illustrator Peter DennisUS Editor Adrienne Betz
Production Siu Chan Jacket Designer Natalie Godwin
Editor, this edition Anneka WahlhausArt Director Rachael Foster
Publishing Manager Bridget Giles
Dinosaur Consultant Angela Milner,
The Natural History Museum, LondonReading Consultant
Linda Gambrell, Ph.D.
First American edition, 2001This edition, 2009
09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Published in the United States by DK Publishing375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
Copyright © 2001 Dorling Kindersley Limited
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American CopyrightConventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, storedin a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited
DK books are available at special discounts when purchasedin bulk for sales promotions, premiums,
fund-raising, or educational use.For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014
A catalog record for this book is availablefrom the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-7566-5597-6 (pb)ISBN: 978-0-7566-5598-3 (plc)
Printed and bound in China by L. Rex Printing Co. Ltd.
The publisher thanks the following for their kind permissionto reproduce their photographs:
c=center; t=top; b=bottom; l=left; r=rightCM Studios: 32-33c; Corbis UK Ltd: Bettmann/Corbis 20tl, 25tr,
26cl; Corbis 25cr; James L. Amos 41tr; Tom Bean/Corbis 28bl; Mary Evans Picture Library: 4bl, 18tl, 20bc; Robert Harding Picture
Library: 7tr; Royal Society: 14t; Kobal Collection: 47tr;
Dreamworks/Paramount 45br; The Natural History Museum,London: 4bc, 5br, 23b, 27tr, 40tl; Topham Picturepoint: 24bl. Front jacket: Corbis: Louie Psihoyos crb.
DK Images: Senckenberg Nature Museum, Frankfurt t.All other images © Dorling Kindersley Limited.For further information see: www.dkimages.com
4 Dinosaur detectives
6 The fossil woman
14 The strange tooth
20 Dinner in a dinosaur
24 The bone hunters
32 The great bone rush
34 The biggest bone dig
38 Dating the dinosaurs
40 Baby dinosaurs
44 End of the dinosaurs
46 TodayÕs detectives48 Glossary
Contents
Discover more at
www.dk.com
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READERS
Written b
y Peter Chrisp
DINOSAUR DETECTIVES
DK Publishing
READERS
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4
Dinosaur detectivesLong, long ago, people all over
the world began finding huge bonesburied in sand or stone. Sometimes,
these findings gave rise to stories
about giants and dragons.
Today, we know these bones
belonged to enormous beasts wholived millions of years ago. Some
of them were land reptiles, called
dinosaurs. Dinosaurs walked the
Earth for over 160 million years.
Mary Anning One of the first
fossil hunters, she discovered her first prehistoric creature when she was just 11 years old.See page 6.
Richard Owen This brilliant scientist invented the word ÒdinosaurÓ, and held a party inside a concrete model of one.See page 20.
Gideon Mantell This English doctor found a huge tooth. It led him on the trail of a beast he called Iguanodon. See page 14.
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5
The dinosaurs died out
65 million years ago.
In this book, you can read aboutsome of the people who first
discovered the truth about these
huge bones. Like detectives, they
worked to collect evidence and put
together clues.What they learned gives us a
picture of life in the far distant past,
when our world was the home of
the dinosaurs.
Othniel Marsh This rich Americanand his rival Edward Cope hunted for fossils in the Wild West. They
discovered and named many new kinds of dinosaur.See page 28.
Jack Horner This American scientist dug up dozens of dinosaur nests, many still containing eggs and babies.See page 40.
Werner Janensch This German scientist traveled to Africa to dig for dinosaurs.What he discovered changed the way we see our world.See page 34.
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6
The fossil woman
Fossils
Fossils are theremains of plants andanimals,preserved inrock. Manyfossils are boneswhich havegraduallyturned tostone.
Welcome to my fossil shop!
My name is Mary Anning. IÕve livedhere in Lyme Regis all my life. I was
born in 1799 above this very shop,
where my father was a carpenter.
For six days of the
week, Father workedhard, making furniture.
But on Sundays, he would
take me for walks
along the beaches
to look for fossils.
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7
He sold them to the ladies and
gentlemen who come to the
seaside every summer.Father taught me how to tap
a rock in just the right place with
a hammer, to make it split open.
Often there would be nothing
inside it. But sometimes we wouldfind the skeleton of a beautiful fish,
or a curly shell. We call the shells
ÒsnakestonesÓ because they look like
curled up snakes. Scientists call
them ammonites.
The best time to find fossils is
after a storm, when the wind and
waves batter and chip away at
the cliffs. When a storm hits LymeRegis, all sorts of strange creatures
just fall out of the cliffs.
Father said that we were Òfishing
for curiosities.Ó It was a bit like
fishing because we never knew what
we would catch. But our ÒfishÓ were
made of stone.
AmmonitesThese ancientrelatives of
the squid livedin the sea andcaught foodwith theirtentacles.
Lyme RegisLyme Regis, onthe south coastof England, is
still one of thebest places inthe world tofind fossils.
Fossil sellerMary Anning(1799Ð1847)was the firstperson to makea living byselling fossils.
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8
ToolsMary usedsimple tools,like this
hammer andchisel, to splitopen rocks andchip out fossils.
FishingMany peoplein Lyme Regismade theirliving fromfishing inthe sea.
My poor father died in
1810, when I was just ten
years old. Mother made somemoney by selling fish, but it was not
enough for us to live on.
I knew that I had to work to
help feed my family. I decided that
I would spend all my time lookingfor curiosities to sell.
One day, I was looking for fossils
with my brother Joseph. Walking
along the beach, I looked at the cliff
and saw something wonderful
staring back at me.
It was the skull of
a strange animal.
And what a skull!It must have been
about four feet (one
meter) long, with
a big round eye
hole and jaws
stuffed with
sharp teeth.
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9
Seashells
MaryÕs fossildiscoveries
made herfamous. Thetongue twister,ÒShe sellsseashells onthe sea shoreÓis thought torefer to her.
ÒItÕs a sea dragon, Mary!Ó said
Joseph excitedly.
We hammered at the rocks untilwe could free the skull. Although it
was very heavy, we managed to
carry it home.
Joseph and I looked at pictures of
animals in a book, to see if we coulddiscover what it was. We decided
that it must be a crocodile.
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10
I was sure that the rest of the
crocodile was still there, buried in
the cliff. All I had to do was waitfor another rock slide. So after
every storm, I would go back to
the spot where we found
the skull, hoping to see
the rest of the skeleton.It was almost a year later, in
1812, that the rocks finally fell
away. There was my creature! But
it wasnÕt a crocodile. Instead of legs,
this animal had short paddles. It
looked more like a fish!
I chipped the skeleton
free with my hammer, and
we carried it carefullyback to our shop.
Ichthyosaurus This creatureÕsname meansÒfish-reptileÓin Greek.
GeologyGeology, thestudy of theEarth and its
rocks, was anew science inMaryÕs time.
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11
News quickly spread that the
Annings had found a Òsea dragon.Ó
Everyone wanted to have a look,and we were able to charge visitors
some money to see it. Then we sold
the skeleton to a local nobleman for
£23 Ð more money than IÕd ever
seen before.At this time, I met my first
geologists Ð scientific gentlemen
who came to see the creature and
argue about what it was. One of
these geologists, Mr. Knig, gave
my creature a name: Ichthyosaurus .
ReptilesReptiles arethe group of animals thatincludes lizardsand snakes.Ichthyosaurus was a reptilethat swam likea fish.
NamingScientists gaveall plants andanimals Greekor Latin names.
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12
ArtistÕs view
This etchingfrom MaryÕstime showsthe seaswarming withichthyosaursand plesiosaurs.
When I was 22, I found
an even stranger creature
in the cliffs. It had a tinyhead, an amazingly long
neck, and four flippers.
It took me months to
chip it free from the rocks, but it
was time well spent. I was able tosell it to the Duke of Buckingham
for £100.
I showed the skeleton to a
geologist called Mr. Conybeare, who
visited me. His mouth dropped open
in astonishment.Sold for
£100
In MaryÕs time,£100 was a
huge sum of money. Anordinary familyof five wouldbe lucky toearn £1 in aweek. Many
people earnedmuch less.
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13
ÒI have never seen
anything like this before!Ó he
said. ÒIt has the head of a turtleand the paddles of a whale.
But its neck is like a giant snake.
I shall call it Plesiosaurus , which
means Ôalmost a reptileÕ.Ó
Plesiosaurus made me famous,although some geologists accused
me of having created a fake fossil
to make money.
Then last year, I discovered a
reptile with wings! A fossil expert
called Professor Buckland has
named it Pterodactylus macronyx .
He says that the poor beast must
have drowned in the sea.Of course, finds such as these are
very rare. Mostly, I live by selling
ammonites. Would
you like to buy one? W
Flying reptilesPterosaurswere flyingreptiles whichlived at thesame time asthe dinosaurs.
ÒAlmost a reptileÓWilliamConybearepublished adescription of the Plesiosaurus in 1821. Heapologized forgiving it such aÒvague name.Ó
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14
The strange tooth
Busy doctorGideon Mantell(1790Ð1852)visited up to60 patients aday. But he stillfound time tocollect fossilsand write abook calledThe Geology of Sussex .
Ladies and gentlemen, thank you
for coming to my lecture! My nameis Gideon Mantell. Today, I am
going to tell you about a remarkable
discovery that I made in 1822.
At the time, I was a doctor in the
English county of Sussex. AlthoughI practiced medicine, my real
interest was in geology. Between
visits to patients, I would always find
time to collect fossils.
One spring day, I was visiting a
patient with my wife, Mary Ann.
She had come with me to enjoy the
fine weather. While I was busy, she
strolled down the lane and saw apile of rocks, used by workmen to
repair the roads.
In one of the rocks, my wife
noticed something brown
and shiny. Looking closely,
she saw that it was a very
large tooth.
Mrs. MantellMary Anneventually lostpatience withher husbandÕshobby. She leftGideon whenhis fossilcollection tookover their
whole house!
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15
And here is that tooth! As you
can see, it is worn away on the
side from chewing, like the toothof a plant-eating mammal. But
it is an odd shape, with ridges.
I had never seen anything like it.
The workmen took me to the
quarry, where I was amazed to learnthat the tooth had come from a very
old layer of rocks.
No mammal fossil
has ever been found
in such rocks.
TeethTooth shapesshow what ananimal eats.Plant-eatershave shortteeth forchopping andchewing leaves.Meat-eatershave sharp,jagged teeth.
Rock layersDifferent typesof fossils arefound in
different layersof rock. Theoldest layers arethe lowest in arock face.
A fossilised
Iguanodon tooth
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16
Buckland
WilliamBuckland wasthe scientistwho namedMary AnningÕspterosaur.
I knew of one man who might be
able to help me solve the mystery of
the tooth. Only Professor Bucklandhas a bigger collection of fossils than
I do. He has spent years collecting
them from quarries around England.
I traveled to the professorÕs home
in Oxford, and showed him theenormous tooth.
ÒRemarkable, sir!Ó said
Buckland. ÒI fear I cannot help you
to identify it. But let me show you
a fossil!Ó
He led me to his desk,
piled high with a jumble of
rocks. Buckland pulled out
a large bone and handedit to me.
I could see that
it was a jaw, for it
held a long, sharp,
curved tooth. ÒIt looks
like a flesh eater,Ó I said,
Òa very big flesh eater!Ó
Clever horse
BucklandÕshorse alwaysstopped whenshe passed a
quarry. ShewouldnÕt moveuntil he got off and looked forfossils.
Eccentric
Buckland kepta pet bear andoften didchickenimpressions inthe middle of his lectures!
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17
Megalosaurus Buckland
published adescription of Megalosaurus bucklandii (ÒBucklandÕsbig lizardÓ) in1824. It was the
first dinosaur tobe named.
ÒIt was found in a slate
quarry not far from here,Ó said
Buckland. ÒAs you will observe,it is shaped like a lizardÕs jaw.
Yet from the size of the tooth,
this lizard must have been more
than 40 feet (12 meters) long.
Think of that, sir Ð a 40-foot(12-meter) long flesh-eating lizard
roaming around Oxfordshire!Ó
I shuddered at the thought of it.
The professor went on, ÒI am
going to call this great lizard a
Megalosaurus .Ó
Jaw of Megalosaurus
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18
Buckland invited me to
stay for dinner, but I made
excuses and left. I had heardthat the professor ate odd
things, like hedgehog meat.
As I traveled home, I thought
about BucklandÕs discovery.
I already knew of the giant seareptiles discovered by Miss Anning
at Lyme Regis. Now Buckland had
found a huge land reptile.
Perhaps my tooth also came from
an ancient reptile. Was it possible, I
wondered, that before the time of
the mammals, there had been an
age of reptiles?
I found my next clue in 1825, atthe museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons in London.
Age of reptilesIn 1838,Mantellpublished a
book calledThe Wonders of Geology .It included thispicture of aMegalosaurus attacking anIguanodon.
Strange mealsBuckland wasfamous foreating unusualanimals.He always saidthat a molewas the mostrevolting thinghe had evertasted Ð untilhe ate a
bluebottle!
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19
Looking through the collection
of skeletons, I came across a
South American lizard calledan iguana. Its teeth were
shaped just like the one I
had found, with the same
ridges. The only difference was that
my tooth was 20 times bigger.This convinced me that I had
indeed found a reptile. I decided to
call my reptile Iguanodon, or
Òiguana tooth.Ó W
Iguana
The SouthAmericaniguana growsup to five feet(1.5 meters)long. Mantellpictured hisIguanodon likean iguana, but20 times bigger.
Iguanodon Mantellpublished his
description of Iguanodon in1825. It was thesecond dinosaurto be named.
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20
Dinner in a dinosaurI will never forget the party I
went to in London on New YearÕsEve in 1853. We ate our dinner
inside an Iguanodon!
It was not a flesh-and-blood
Iguanodon, of course. It was a brick
and concrete model, built to showthe public what these remarkable
beasts might have looked like.
My name is Prestwick and, like
most of the guests on that
evening, IÕm a geologist.
At the head of
the table sat our
host, Professor
Richard Owen,an expert
on animal
skeletons. He
had designed
the splendid
creature in
which we sat.
SkeletonexpertRichard Owenwas able to
study manydifferentskeletonsby cuttingup animalsthat died atLondon Zoo.
Crowd-pleaserIn 1854, hugecrowds wentto the CrystalPalace inLondon, to seethe concretemodels of Iguanodon andMegalosaurus .
Exhibition
OwenÕs modelswere theworldÕs firstdinosaurexhibition.
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21
Owen rose to his feet and said,
ÒFellow scientists! Let us drink to
the memory of Gideon Mantell,discoverer of Iguanodon!Ó
We raised our glasses and cried:
ÒMantell!Ó There was a brief silence,
as we each remembered the good
doctor, who had died the previous year. It was sad indeed that Mantell
was not there, to see his discovery
brought to life.
Nose horn?
The concreteIguanodon hada horn on itsnose. Mantelland Owenhad bothmisunderstoodthis bone. Itwas really thedinosaurÕs
thumb!
Thumb
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22
As midnight approached, my
friend Professor Forbes thanked our
host for the splendid meal.Forbes said, ÒWe owe Owen a
great deal, gentlemen. Dr. Mantell
and Professor Buckland thought
of their discoveries as overgrown
lizards. But in the 1830s, more bonesof these huge reptiles were found,
and Owen studied them closely.
ÒThe Professor has a great
understanding of skeletons.
Straight legsStraight legsare betterat bearingweight thanthe sprawlinglegs of lizards.It was thanksto their straightlegs thatdinosaurs couldgrow so muchbigger thanany otherreptiles.
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23
He could see that,
unlike lizards, these
creatures held their bodies off the ground on straight legs. They
were not giant lizards. They were
a separate group of animals, which
Owen has named Dinosauria .
And now, if I may,Ó Forbesadded, ÒI would like to read you
a poem that I have
written. It is about this
magnificent Iguanodon
in which we are sitting.
A thousand ages underground
His skeleton had lain;
But now his bodyÕs big
and round And heÕs himself again!
The jolly old beast
Is not deceased,
ThereÕs life in him again! Ó
At this, we all let out a
huge roar like a bellowing
herd of Iguanodons . W
Two legsor four?Owen
mistakenlybelieved thatall dinosaurswalked on fourlegs. Later findsshowed thatmany walked
on their hindlegs, like thisGiganotosaurus .
DinosaursIn 1841,
Owen inventedthe nameÒdinosaur.ÓIt meansÒterrible lizardÓin Greek.
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24
ExpeditionsIn the 1870s,OthnielCharles Marsh
(1831Ð99) ledhis studentson fourfossil-huntingexpeditionsto the West.
The bone huntersMy name is Matthew Randall,
but all my friends call me Matty.Let me tell you about my young days
out in AmericaÕs Wild West.
Back in 1868, I found work on
the building of the Union Pacific
Railroad. Laying those iron railswas hard work, and it was
dangerous too.
RailroadIn the 1860s,the UnionPacific Railroadwas built acrossthe U.S.A., tolink the citiesof the Eastwith the West.
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This was the homeland of the Sioux
Indians, who hated the railroad.
Without the protection of theU.S. cavalry, we wouldnÕt have
lasted very long.
For months on end, we lived on
fried buffalo steaks, provided by our
own hunter, ÒBuffalo BillÓ Cody.One day, a group of strangers
rode into our camp. There were
about a dozen youngsters led by
an older fellow, who was short
and plump.
ÒGood day,Ó said
the older man. ÒI am
Professor Marsh of
Yale University, andthese are my students.
We are on a bone-
hunting expedition!Ó
This struck me as
an odd occupation,
although I was too
polite to say so.
Sioux
The Siouxdepended onbuffalo for food,clothes, tools,
and tents. Thesettlers andrailroad ruinedSioux huntinggrounds.
Buffalo Bill
William Codyearned his
nickname bysupplying therailway workerswith buffalomeat. He wasfamous for hisskill as a scout.
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The professor had come to our
camp to meet up with Buffalo Bill,
who had offered to be his guide onthe bone-hunting expedition.
Next morning, the bone-hunters
rode off. Buffalo Bill led the way
and Marsh rode beside him. They
had an escort of cavalrymen andsix wagons. We wished them well
and then went back to our work
on the railroad.
More than a month later, we
met up with the professor again.
His students now looked like real
westerners, with tanned faces and
well-worn clothing.
Marsh was full of stories of hisadventures. He said that heÕd shot
an angry bull buffalo which was
charging at him. HeÕd also made
friends with some Sioux, who
called him ÒBig Bone Chief.Ó
Then he showed us the
wagonloads of bones heÕd collected.
26
Darwin
In 1859,Charles Darwinsuggested thatanimals are notfixed in onepermanentform, or species.They change
over time,to producenew species.He called thisÒevolution.Ó
Museum
Marsh wasthe nephewof millionaire
banker, GeorgePeabody. Heused his uncleÕsmoney to buildthe PeabodyMuseum at Yale, to house
his fossils.
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Bird with teeth
DarwinÕsfollowersbelieved thatone group of dinosaurs grewfeathers andtook to the air.They evolvedinto birds. Earlybirds kept somereptile features,such as teeth.
He handed one of them around.
ÒHereÕs a real treasure,Ó he
said. ÒItÕs a birdÕs skull with teethin its beak! This shows that birds
must have evolved from reptiles.
It proves that Darwin was right
about evolution!Ó
We had no idea what he wastalking about.
27
Proof
DarwinÕssupportershoped to findfossils thatwould provehis theory.
This was whyMarsh wasexcited to finda birdÕs skullwith teeth.
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28
The professor said that if we ever
found any strange bones, we should
write to him at Yale. Then he wenthome with his students and his
collection of bones. I guessed that
this was the last I would hear of
bone-hunting.
Over the next years, big changescame to the West. The railroads I
helped to build brought thousands
of settlers from the East. New towns
sprang up all over the place.
In 1874, gold was discovered in
the Black Hills in Sioux territory.
Soon, we had a real gold rush, with
trainloads of easterners arriving, all
hoping to strike it rich. The Siouxfought to defend their land, but
were forced to move to reservations.
Headdress
Sioux warriorswore eaglefeatherheaddresses.
Black Hills
The Siouxfought for theBlack Hills.They won avictory at theBattle of theLittle Bighorn
in 1877, buteventually theylost theirterritory.
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29
IÕd found a job looking after the
train depot at a little place called
Como Bluff in Wyoming. I hadplenty of free time and IÕd often
walk up into the hills. There wasnÕt
much to look at there Ð just a lot of
dry, bare rocks.
But one day in 1877, I found abone sticking out of the rocks that
was bigger than
I was! Nearby,
there was
another huge
bone, and
another. These
bones seemed to
go on for miles.
TeepeesBefore they
were forcedto stay onreservations,the Sioux madegood use of portable homescalled teepees.These weremade of buffalohide stretchedover woodenpoles.
Bare rocksThe rocky hillsof Wyominghave been wornaway by rivers,rain, andwind. Theseareas, called
badlands, arewonderfulplaces to findfossils.
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I was going to send a letter to
Marsh, but then I heard that a rich
bone-hunting professor had arrivedin Canon City, not far away.
I traveled there, expecting to
find Marsh. But I was surprised to
see a different fellow. He said his
name was Edward Drinker Cope.I asked him if he knew Marsh.
ÒMarsh!Ó shouted Cope, turning red
in the face. ÒThe man is a fraud and
a thief!Ó It seemed that Cope hated
Marsh worse than poison.
When I told him about the bones
I had found, he offered me $100.
30
Cope
Edward
Drinker Cope(1840Ð97)wrote over1,400 booksand articlesand namedmore than a1,000 newanimal species.
Spies
Both Marshand Cope hiredspies to keep aneye on what theother one wasdoing. Theyalso used bribesto win overdiggers fromthe rivalteam.
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I had to show him the place, and
keep it a secret from MarshÕs spies.
Cope soon had a team of diggersat work, blasting the rock with
gunpowder and prying the bones
out with crowbars. Many bones
shattered and were thrown away.
But Cope couldnÕt keep his secretfor ever. One day a team of MarshÕs
diggers showed up. It was just like
the days of the gold rush, only these
fellows were after bones. W
31
Broken bonesEventuallythe diggersinvented waysto protect thebones they dugup. MarshÕsmen wrappedthem in stripsof cloth, soakedin flour andwater. CopeÕsmen usedboiled riceinstead of flour.
UsefultechniqueThe practice of wrapping fossils
in cloth andplaster of Parisis still usedon somedigs today.
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The great bone rushCope and Marsh each had teams
of diggers working all over theWest. It was a race to describe and
name the new species. As a result of
this Òbone rush,Ó they discovered
almost 130 new kinds of dinosaur.
Cope worked alone, but Marshhad a team of expert assistants to
help him put the skeletons together.
MarshÕs dinosaurs came in many
shapes and sizes. There was the
flesh-eating Allosaurus (Òdifferent
reptileÓ) and gigantic plant-eaters
like the Barosaurus (Òheavy reptileÓ).
32
FeudMarsh andCope fell outwhen Marsh
pointed outthat Cope hadreconstructed asea reptile withits head on theend of its tail.This humiliatedCope, whonever forgaveMarsh.
Heavy reptileBarosaurus belonged to thesauropod familyof dinosaurs,which were thelargest animalsever to walkthe Earth.
Triceratops
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There were also dinosaurs with
horns, such as the Triceratops
(Òthree-horned faceÓ).The strangest dinosaur of all
was one Marsh called Stegosaurus
(Òroofed reptileÓ). It had rows of
mysterious bony plates all along
its back.Meanwhile, Cope and Marsh
attacked each other in newspaper
articles. Their squabbling made both
of them look silly, but it also made
ÒdinosaurÓ a household word. W
33
Roofed reptileScientists stillargue aboutwhat the
Stegosaurus used its platesfor. Some thinkthey helped theanimal controlits temperature.Others believe
they were usedto signal toother dinosaurs.
Allosaurus
Stegosaurus
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The biggest bone digMy name is Dr. Werner
Janensch. IÕve just come home toGermany after spending three years
in Africa, leading a huge dig.
Back in 1907, I heard that some
giant bones had been found at a
place called Tendugaru in EastAfrica. I raised the money for an
expedition and sailed to Africa
in 1909.
I hired hundreds of local workers
to do the digging. Tendugaru lies
far inland, and there are no roads.
All our food and supplies had to be
carried on foot from the coast.
The bones we dug up had to becarried back in the same way.
I was expecting to find new
dinosaurs in Africa.
34
LifeÕs workWerner Janensch
(1878Ð1969)spent the rest of his life workingon the bones hebrought backfrom Africa.
Leg boneBrachiosaurus was so big thatits femur (upperleg bone) wasas long as aperson!
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35
Brachiosaurus
JanenschÕsBrachiosaurus isnow on displayin Berlin. At39 feet (11.8meters) highand 74 feet
(22.5 meters)long, it is theworldÕs largestcomplete
dinosaurskeleton.
WeÕve come back with more
than 80,000 dinosaur bones. Now
IÕve got to try to sort them out!The baffling thing is that my
bones belong to the Brachiosaurus
and other species that have also
been found in America. Africa and
America are separated by the wideAtlantic Ocean. How did these
lumbering beasts get from one
continent to the other?
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In Berlin, I showed my
Brachiosaurus skull to some of our
geologists. ÒThis is an Americandinosaur,Ó I explained. ÒHow did it
end up in Africa? ItÕs a mystery!Ó
Most of them were puzzled. But
a young man called Alfred Wegener
said, ÒItÕs not a mystery at all. Thisis exactly the type of dinosaur I
would expect to find in Africa!Ó
Wegener pulled out a world map.
ÒLook at the coastlines of Africa
and South
America.
36
WegenerIn 1912, AlfredWegenersuggested thatthere was onceonly one hugeland masswhich he calledÒPangaea.Ó Hebelieved that ithad split intopieces. Thepieces slowlydrifted apartto form thecontinents thatwe know today.
Wild theoryAt the time,few scientiststook WegenerÕstheory of Òcontinental
driftÓ seriously.It was notuntil the 1960sthat he wasproved right.
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Their shapes match exactly. I
believe that they must have once
been joined. Somehow, they havedrifted to their present positions.
This is why you found the same
dinosaurs in Africa and America.
When your Brachiosaurus was alive,
there was no Atlantic Ocean!ÓWe were all startled by this wild
theory. ÒAre you seriously suggesting
that continents can roam around
the EarthÕs surface?Ó I asked.
ÒHow is this possible?Ó
ÒI donÕt know,Ó said
Wegener. ÒBut your
Brachiosaurus is
the proof that Iam right!Ó W
37
DriftingcontinentsWe now knowthat the EarthÕs
surface is madeup of severalenormousplates floatingon top of molten rock.Forces inside
the Earth movethe platesslowly. This iswhat made thecontinentsmove and splitapart.
270 million years ago
130 million years ago
Present day
SouthAmerica
Africa
P a n g a e a
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Dating the dinosaursLike detectives, early geologists
collected evidence to piece togetherthe story of life on Earth. Using
fossils, they were able to place
different periods of the
EarthÕs history in order.
They gave these periodsnames based on the type of rocks in
which the various fossils were found.
The age of the dinosaurs was
divided into three periods: Triassic,
when dinosaurs first evolved;
Jurassic, when they became the
main land animals; and Cretaceous,
when new sorts, such as the horned
dinosaurs, appeared.Geologists knew that Triassic
dinosaurs must have lived
before Jurassic ones.
38
Triassic(248Ð205 millionyears ago)
Early dinosaurs,like this small
Herrerasaurus,evolved inthe Triassicperiod.
Jurassic(205Ð144 millionyears ago)
Dinosaurs likeDiplodocus reached theirlargest size and
dominated thewhole Earth.
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39
Cretaceous(144Ð65 millionyears ago)
This was theage of the
horneddinosaurs,such as thisProtoceratops .
Elements
Elements arethe basicsubstances,such as carbonand iron,that all thingsare made of.
Radioactiveelementsincludepotassiumand uranium.
But they could only guess how long
ago that was.
It was not until the 1920s thatscientists were able to work out the
age of rocks. This was thanks to
the study of radioactivity.
Many rocks are made up
of elements which areradioactive. These
elements slowly decay,
or break down, to form
other elements. Scientists
measure the amount of a
radioactive element in a
rock. They can then work out how
long the decay has been going on
and so when the rock was formed.Radioactive decay is like a clock,
ticking away inside the EarthÕs
rocks. Using this clock, scientists
were able to date the rocks holding
the dinosaur fossils.
This told them when the
dinosaurs had lived. W
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Baby dinosaursIn 1978, a paleontologist named
Jack Horner was visiting a fossilshop in Montana, U.S.A. He found
the bones of a baby dinosaur. This
was an important discovery. Few
baby dinosaurs had ever been found!
Horner traced the fossil back tothe rocky hillside where it had been
discovered, and began to dig. Soon
he had uncovered a huge nest.
It was over 6 feet (2 meters) wide
and contained 15 baby dinosaurs
and lots of crushed eggshells.
In the 1980s, HornerÕs team
found more nests at the site.
Some of them containedeggs and newly
hatched babies.
Horner knew
that the soil
around the
nests could
hold clues.
40
Jack HornerDr. Jack
Horner (1946Ð)is one of theworldÕs leadingexperts ondinosaurs.He was thetechnicaladviser for thefilms Jurassic Park and The Lost World .
PaleontologyA moderndinosaurdetective iscalled apaleontologist.Paleontologyis the studyof ancient life.
It comes fromthe Greekword, palaios ,which meansÒancient.Ó
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By sifting the soil and examining
it under a microscope, he
discovered the remains of chewed up leaves and berries.
He also found dinosaur droppings,
containing woody debris from conifer
trees. Can you work out what he
discovered?Horner used these clues and other
evidence to build an amazing picture
of the lives of these dinosaurs.
Fossilized babyHornerÕsteam chippedaway the rockto discoverthis fossilizedeggshellcontaining ababy hatchling.
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Jack HornerÕs most
important discovery was that
the babies were being lookedafter by their parents. He
called this dinosaur Maiasaura ,
which means Ògood mother lizard.Ó
The evidence for parental care
was the size of the 15 babies. Sincethey were three times bigger than
newly hatched ones, they must have
stayed in their nest for weeks after
hatching.
42
Herds
Fossil footprintsare furtherevidence thatsome dinosaurs,such as theseGallimimus ,traveled inherds. The young stayed inthe middle of aherd, while theadults walkedon either side,for protection.
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They had crushed the eggshells in
their nest as they moved around.
The chewed up leaves and berrieswere food brought by the parents.
The mystery is why the babies
died. Perhaps something happened
to their parents and the babies
starved to death in the nest.In 1984, HornerÕs team made
another discovery. They found the
bones of 10,000 Maiasaura
that had been killed by a
volcanic eruption. Finding
so many animals
together shows that
they lived in
huge herds. W
43
Like modern
animals
Jack Hornersays, ÒDinosaursbasically arenÕtany differentfrom animalsalive today.They just lookeddifferent.Ó
Nest site
Horner thinksthat theseMaiasaura returned tothe same nestsite year after year, just likemany birdsand turtlesdo today.
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44
End of the dinosaursSixty-five million years ago,
the dinosaurs disappeared. Noone knows for certain why this
happened, nor why some other
animals, such as mammals and
fish, survived.
Scientists do know that theEarthÕs climate was cooling
down at the time. If dinosaurs
were cold-blooded, like
modern reptiles, they may
have been unable to cope
with the cold weather.
Cold-blooded
Lizards andother cold-blooded
animals dependon outside heatto controltheir bodytemperature.They have tobask in thesunshine towarm up.
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45
Warm-blooded mammals could
have taken over.
In 1990, a huge crater about124 miles (200 kilometers) across
was found on the seabed off Mexico.
It was formed 65 million years ago
when a massive object, such as an
meteorite, crashed into the Earth.The impact of such a large
meteorite would throw up a huge
cloud of dust and gases. This would
block out the SunÕs light for months.
Without sunlight, plants would die,
followed by the animals
that ate them. Perhaps this
is what led to the end
of the dinosaurs. W
Warm-blooded
People, lemurs,and otherwarm-blooded
animals controltheir bodytemperatureby convertingfood into heat.They needmore food thancold-bloodedanimals.
Meteorites
Meteoritesare rocks
which hurtlethrough space,occasionallysmashing intothe Earth.
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46
TodayÕs detectivesWhen Mary Anning went fossil
hunting, her only equipment wasa geological hammer. But todayÕs
dinosaur detectives have many more
tools at their disposal.
In 1998, scientists in California
used computers and X-raysto study the skull of a
Tyrannosaurus rex .
They scanned it
for 500 hours.
They produced
hundreds of
computerized images. These
pictures revealed that the dinosaur
had huge olfactory lobes Ð the partsof the brain used for smell. T.rex
clearly had a powerful nose!
Dinosaur modeling has come
a long way since the concrete
Iguanodon in 1853. Today, experts
examine fossils for marks where
muscles were attached.
Tyrannosaurus
rex
T.rex (Òkingtyrant lizardÓ)
was a hugemeat-eatingdinosaur, upto 20 feet(6 meters) highand 40 feet(12 meters)
long. It livedin the lateCretaceousperiod.
Smell
T.rex used itssense of smellto track downfood Ð eitherliving animalsto hunt, oranimals thathad alreadydied.
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47
These show the modelers
how to shape the body and
how the animal moved. Evenso, much is guesswork: fossils
canÕt show us the color of
skin or eyes.
People are still hunting for
dinosaurs and new species are beingdiscovered. Perhaps, lying in the
rocks beneath your feet, there are
the bones of unknown dinosaurs. W
ComputersThanks tocomputeranimation,we can seehow dinosaursmoved infilms such as Jurassic Park and in museumdisplays aroundthe world.
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Ammonite
A prehistoric sea creaturewith a coiled shell.Ammonites are amongthe most common fossils.
Cold-bloodedTo have a bodytemperature that varieswith the surroundings.Reptiles and fish are
cold-blooded.
Continental driftThe theory that thecontinents were oncejoined together, but splitapart and slowly driftedto their present positions.
Cretaceous
The third period in theage of the dinosaurs,144Ð65 million years ago.
DinosaursLand reptiles that livedbetween 248Ð65 million
years ago. Manydinosaurs were very big.The name dinosaur
means Òterrible lizardÓin Greek.
ElementsThe basic substances,such as hydrogen,carbon, and iron, thatall things are made of.
Evolution
The theory that speciesof animals and plantsgradually change overlong periods of time toproduce new species.
Extinction
The complete dyingout of a species.
FossilsTraces of animals andplants, preserved in rocks.Fossils include bones,skin, and footprints.The name meansÒdug upÓ in Latin.
GeologyThe study of the Earthand its rocks.
JurassicThe second period inthe age of the dinosaurs,205Ð144 million
years ago.
MammalsA group of warm-bloodedanimals with hair.Mammals give birth tolive young, which theyfeed on milk. Mice,whales, horses, andhumans are mammals.
MeteoritesLarge rocks that hurtlethrough space andoccasionally smashinto the Earth.
NaturalistA scientist who studiesanimals and plants.
PaleontologyThe study of ancientlife, from the Greekword, palaios , whichmeans Òancient.Ó
Pterosaurs
Flying reptiles that livedat the same time as thedinosaurs.
QuarryA place where stone isdug out of the ground.
RadioactivityThe energy released
by elements, such asuranium, as they slowlybreak down, or decay.Radioactivity can be usedto date rocks.
ReptilesA group of cold-blooded,egg-laying animals withscaly skins. They include
lizards, snakes, tortoises,and crocodiles.
SauropodsA group of huge, long-necked dinosaurs thatincluded Barosaurus .
SpeciesA group of animals or
plants that can breedtogether and that differonly in minor details.
TriassicThe first period in theage of the dinosaurs,248Ð205 million yearsago.
Warm-bloodedTo have a body thatstays constantly warm.Mammals are warm-blooded.
Glossary
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IndexAllosaurus 32
ammonites 7Anning, Mary 4, 6–13
Barosaurus 32, 33birds, with teeth 27body temperature 44, 45Brachiosaurus 34–37Buckland, William 13,
16
Buffalo Bill 25, 26
cold-blooded animals44
computers 46, 47continental drift 36, 37Conybeare, William
12, 13Cope, Edward Drinker
5, 30–33
Cretaceous period 38,39
Darwin, Charles 26, 27dating dinosaurs 38–39dinosaur models 20, 47dinosaurs 22, 32
baby 40–43bones 29, 31eggs 40–43
footprints 42herds 42, 43horns 33jaws 16, 17legs 22, 23, 34nests 40–43parents 42plates 32, 33skeletons 10, 35
skulls 8, 9teeth 15, 16h b 21
disappearance of
dinosaurs 44–45
Earth 38, 39plates 37
elements 38evolution 26
films 40, 47Forbes, Professor 22
fossils 6wrapping 31
Gallimimus 42geology 10Giganotosaurus 22
Herrerasaurus 38Horner, Jack 40–43
Ichthyosaurus 10, 11iguana 19Iguanodon 19, 20–23
Janensch, Werner 5,34–37
Jurassic period 38, 39
land mass 36lizards 17, 19, 44
Lyme Regis 6, 7, 8
Maisaura 42, 43Mantell, Gideon 4,
14–19, 21Marsh, Othniel Charles
5, 24–33meat-eaters 15Megalosaurus 17
meteorites 45
i l d
Owen, Richard 4,
20–23
paleontology 40Pangaea 36Peabody Museum, Yale
26plant-eaters 15Plesiosaurus 13Protoceratops 39
Pterodactyl macronyx 13pterosaurs 13
radioactivity 39railroads 24, 25reptiles 11, 18
age of 18flying 13
reservations 29
rocksage of 38, 39layers 15splitting 7
Stegosaurus 32, 33Sioux 25, 28
tools for fossil hunting7, 8, 46–47
Triassic period 38, 39Triceratops 33Tyrannosaurus rex
(T. rex) 46, 47olfactory lobes 47sense of smell 47
warm-blooded animals45
Wegener, Alfred36–37