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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
One of the main causes of water pollution is from heavy metals. The presence
of heavy metals in water and sediment can cause considerable impacts on the
environment (Madzin and Shai-in et al., !1"#. $eavy metals have attracted a
considerable amount of attention and raisin% human concerns due to their to&icity,
wide sources, non-biode%radable properties and accumulative behaviours ('u, 'uan
et al., !!#. )oth natural and anthropo%enic activities are responsible for the
abundant of heavy metals in the environment (*ilson + yatt, !! /han, 0ao et
al., !!#. ivers have always been the recipients of li2uid water dischar%es from
human activities, such as domestic sources, industrial or a%ricultural effluents or
minin% process waters. Over the last two centuries, since the a%e of industrialization,
the massive increase of industrial production accompanied by the %rowth of lar%e
urban populations has led to severe water pollution problems on many rivers, turnin%
some of them into essentially open cloacae. 0ompared to other developin% countries,
0hina suffers the most from water pollution due to rapid economic %rowth and
intense industrialization. The intense industrialization inevitably leads to heavy metal
pollution in this re%ion primarily due to sewa%e dischar%e from the factories, for
e&le, metal and electronic industries ('e, $uan% et al., !1 *u, Tam et al.,
!13#.
ecent studies have proven the ability of sediment as pollution indicator of
environmental health status (4#. This is due to hi%her capability of sediment to bind
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with metal ions as compared with other environmental matrices li5es water and biota
(4#. 6ccordin% to Marcus (1771#, sediment serves as diffuse sources of contamination
to the overlyin% water body, slowly releasin% the contaminant bac5 into the water
column. Therefore, ensurin% %ood sediment 2uality is crucial to maintain a healthy
a2uatic ecosystem, which ensurin% better protection of human health and a2uatic life.
Therefore, sediment of 8ohor iver has been chosen for this study due to
%eo%raphical area and it impact on various pollution loadin% from anthropo%enic
activity nearby area.
1.2 Prob!" Stat!"!nt
9t has lon% been 5nown that, in the ri%ht concentration, many metals are
essential to life and eco-systems. 0hronic low e&posures to metals can lead to severe
environemtal and health effects. Similarly, in e&cess, these same metals can be
poisonous. :nli5e many or%anic pollutants, which eventually de%rade to carbon
dio&ide and water, heavy metals will tend to accumulate in the environment,
especially in la5e and estuarine. Metals can also be transported from one
environment compartment to another, which complicates the containment and
treatment problem. $eavy metals are closely connected with environmental
deterioration and the 2uality of human life, and thus have aroused concern all over
the world. More and more countries have si%ned treaties to monitor and reduce heavy
metal pollution. Moreover, this field of research has been receivin% increasin%scientific attention due to its ne%ative effects on life. ;or e&le, it was found that
metals accumulate in animal and plant cells, leadin% to severe ne%ative effects. The
transport and accumulation of heavy metals by air, water and soil have also been a
hot topic for research. 9t was found that in some cases contamination was circulate on
a %lobal ran%e.
1.# Ob$!ct%&!' of Study
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1.
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CHAPTER 2
+ITERATURE RE,IE-
This section %ives an introduction of this study for the analysis of heavy metal and its
characteristics.
2.1 o/or R%&!r 0Sunga% o/or
8ohor iver is the main river in the Malaysian state of 8ohor. The river is
1. 5m lon% with a chatchment of ,@
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%gur! 2. 1 3a) of Sg o/or and %t' tr%butar%!'4 and t/! ocat%on of tr!at"!nt )ant )ro&%d!d by
Syar%kat A%r o/or
8ohor iver is the ma?or contributor for water supply in 8ohor, about ""C of total state needs. Treatments plants in Sun%ai 8ohor supply treated water to fast
%rowin% 9s5andar Malaysia (8ohor )ahru, /ulai 8aya, asir Audan% and partially
ontian#, pro?ected population up to < million in !" by 9=6. 8ohor *ater *or5s
of :) with capacity "! MA= is vital source of treated water for Sin%apore, with
population more than " million people. Most of ma?or treatment plants have been
fully utilized, with buffer less than 1!C. opulation of 8ohor iver is caused by
urbanization of /ota Tin%%i 0ity, a%riculture, animal farm and also sand field.
*ater from rivers in 8ohor is used for a%riculture, domestic needs, industrial
and urbanization as well as recreational use. Sun%ai 8ohor basin had 1@ crude palm
oil mills in operation with ten dischar%e effluents into the river and another si&
dischar%e palm oil effluents onto land (Salleh et al., !1oramin + 8ani, !11#.
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%gur! 2. 2 Sg o/or tr%butar%!' and %t' and u'!
2.2 Str!a"' and R%&!r'
6ll throu%h the a%es, rivers have played an important role in society. They
have provided means of transportation, water for irri%ation, water supply, power
%eneration and many other uses. They have also caused disasters, primarily durin%
floods when they inundate portions of the floodplain and destroy property and
infrastructure (ar5inson and Aoldenfum et al., !1!#. Streams and rivers supply
important ecosystem services, such as drin5in% water supply, fish production,
opportunity for recreational activities and the collection, transport and processin% of
pollutants and contaminants ori%inatin% from the surroundin% landscape (0Dceres,
=iaz et al., !!"#.
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2.# -at!r Pout%on
*ater pollution is the contamination of la5es, rivers, oceans and %roundwater
with forei%n substances caused by human activities, substances that can be harmful
to or%anisms and plants that live in the water (almer, !1!#. esearchers suspect
that this form of pollution may be the leadin% worldwide cause of deaths and
diseases and that it accounts for the death of more than 13,!!! people daily. That is
why research into water pollutionEs causes and solutions is so essential and this boo5
offers readers the most up-to-date and serious research in the field.
2.( Urban%5at%on I")act' on -at!r 6ua%ty
*aterways and receivin% waters near urban and suburban areas often
adversely affected by urban stormwater run off. The de%ree and type of impact varies
from location to location, but it is often si%nificant relative to other sources of
pollution and environmental de%radation. :rban storm water runoff affects water
2uality, water 2uantity, habitat and biolo%ical resources, public health and the esthetic
appearance of urban waterways. 6s stated in the >ational *ater Fuality 9nventory
177@ eport to 0on%ress (:S-G6, 177#, urban runoff is the leadin% source of
pollutants causin% water-2uality impairment related to human activities in ocean
shoreline waters and the second leadin% cause in estuaries across the :nited States.
:rban run off was also a si%nificant impairment in rivers and la5es.
:S-G6 (!!"# has classified the adverse impacts of urban runoff on
receivin% waters into three cate%ories as followH
• Short-term chan%es in water 2uality durin% and after storm events includin%
temporary increases in the concentration of one or more pollutants, to&ics or
bacteria levels
• Bon%-term water-2uality impacts caused by the cumulative effects associated
with repeated stormwater dischar%es from a number of sources
• hysical impacts due to erosion, scour and deposition associated with
increased fre2uency and volume of runoff that alters a2uatic habitat
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6ccordin% to $orner et al. (the TerreneEs ;undamentals of :rban unoff
Mana%ement#, pollutants associated with urban runoff, which are potentially
harmful to receivin% waters, are listed in Table I. These pollutants de%rade the
water 2uality in receivin% waters near urban areas and often contribute to the
impairment of use and e&ceedances of criteria included in water-2uality
standards. The 2uantity of these pollutants per unit area delivered to receivin%
waters tends to increase with the de%ree of development in urban areas.
Poutant
Sourc!
So%d
'
Nutr%!n
t
Pat/og!n
'
O7yg!n
D!"an
d
3!ta
'
O%
'
Organ%c
'
So% !ro'%on √ √ √ √!rt%%5!r' √Hu"an
8a't!
√ √ √ √
An%"a
8a't!
√ √ √ √
,!/%c!
fu%d'
√ √ √ √ √
Int!rna
co"bu't%on
√
,!/%c! 8!ar √ √ √
Hou'!/od
c/!"%ca'
√ √ √ √ √
Indu'tr%a
)roc!''!'
√ √ √ √ √ √
Pa%nt' and
)r!'!r&at%&!
'
√ √ √
P!'t%c%d!' √ √ √Table I. :rban unoff ollutant Souces and 0onstituents
2.* 3!ta To7%c%ty
Out of 1!@ identified elements, about ! of them are called metals. These
metallic elements can be divided into two %roups which are those that are essential
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for survival, such as iron and calcium and those that are nonessential or to&ic, such as
camium and lead. These tosic metals, unli5e some or%anic substances, are not
metabolically de%radable and their accumulation in livin% tissues can cause death or
serious health threats. ;urthermore, these metals, dissolved in wastewaters and
dischar%ed into surface waters, will be concentrated as they travel up the food chain.
Gventually, e&tremely poisonous levels of to&in can mi%rate to the immediate
environment of the public. Metals that seep into%roundwaters will contaminate
drin5in% water wells and harm the consumers of the water.
ollution from man-made sources can easily create local conditions of
elevated metal presence, which could lead to disastrous effects on animals and
humans. 6ctually, manEs e&ploitation of the worldEs mineral resources and his
technolo%ical activities tend to unearth, dislod%e and disperse chemicals and
particularly metallic elements, which have recently been brou%ht into the
environment in unprecedented 2uantities and concentration and at e&treme rates.
2.9 S!!ct!d H!a&y 3!ta'
$eavy metals can be defined as formin% positive ions in solution and they
have a density five times %reater than that of water. They are of particular
to&icolo%ical importance. Many metallic elements play an essential role in the
function of livin% or%anisms they constitute a nutritional re2uirement and fulfil a
physiolo%ical role. $owever, the abundance of the essential trace elements and
particularly their substitution of non-essential ones, such as the case may be, for
cadmium and nic5el that can cause to&icity by symptoms or death. $umans receive
their allocation of trace elements from food and water, an indispensable lin5 in the
food chain bein% plant life, which also supports animal life. 9t has been shown thatspectacular metal enrichment coeffients of the order 1!"-1! can occur in cells.
9mbalances or e&cessive amounts of a metal species alon% this route lead to to&icity
symptoms, disorders in the cellular functions, lon%-term debilitatin% disabilities in
human, and eventually death.
[email protected] 6luminium
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6round "!!! patients have been identified with 6s-related health problems in *est
)en%al (includin% s5in pi%mentation chan%es# (4#. 9n some areas in )an%ladesh,
%roundwater arsenic concentration can reach m% B-1 (1! ppb# (4#.
.@.< 0admium
0admium is found in natural deposits as ores containin% other elements. The
%reatest use of cadmium is primarily for electroplatin%, paint pi%ments, plastics,
silver-cadmium batteries and coatin% operations, includin% transportation e2uipment,
machinery and ba5in% enamels, photo%raphy and television phosphors. 9t is also used
in nic5el-cadmium batteries, solar batteries and in pi%ments (4#. 9n one review, it was
noted that the use of cadmium products has e&panded in recent years at a rate of "-
1!C annually and the potential for further %rowth is very hi%h (4#. The whole worldEs
annual production of cadmium is around !,!!! tons. =ischar%e of cadmium into
natural waters is derived partly from the electroplatin% industry, which accounts for
about "!C of the annual cadmium consumption in the :nited States. Other sources
of water pollution are the nic5el-cadmium battery industry and smelter operations,
which are more li5ely to be fewer in number, but of a %reater point source
si%nificance, often affectin% the environment at distances of a 1!! 5m order of
ma%nitude (4#. 0admium occurs in nature in the form of various inor%anic
compounds and as comple&es with naturally occurrin% chelatin% a%ents
or%anocadmium compounds are e&tremely unstable and have not been detected in the
natural environment. 9ndustrial and municipal wastes are the main sources of
camium pollution. The solubility of cadmium in water is influenced to a lar%e de%ree
by the acidity of the medium. =issolution of suspended or sediment-bound cadmium
may result when there is an increase in acidity (4#. The need to determine cadmium
levels in suspended matter and sediments in order to assess the de%ree of
contamination of water body has been pointed out. The concentration of cadmium in
seawater avera%es about !.!!!1" m% B -1 (4#. Surface waters containin% in e&cess of a
few micro%rams of cadmium per litre have probably been contaminated by industrial
wastes from metallur%ical plants, platin% wor5s, plants manufacturin% cadmium
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pi%ments, te&tile operations, cadmium-stabilized plastics, or nic5el-cadmium
batteries, or by effluents from sewa%e treatment plants (4#.
=ue to its acute to&icity studied only recently, cadmium has ?oined lead and
mercury in the most to&ic N)i% Three cate%ory of heavy metals with the %reatest
potential hazard to humans and the environment. 0admium is one of the metals most
stron%ly absorbed by livin% cells accumulated by ve%etation. 9t is also amon% the
most to&ic to livin% or%anisms and more li5ely to leach from industrial wastes. The
acute oral lethal dose of cadmium for humans has not been established it has been
estimated to be several hundred milli%rams (4#. =oses as low as 1"-
acidic foodstuffs stored in cadmium-lined containers have resulted in acute
%astroenteritis. The consumption of fluids containin% 1
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the he&avalent state. Main contamination is %enerated by industrial wastewaters.
0hromium was reco%nized to be hazardous element in the early years after it was
discovered. $owever, no reports indicate that chromium salts (999# have severe to&ic
effects. The :.S. Standards 9nstitute listed a ma&imum acceptable concentration
(M60# of !.1 m% m-
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%enerally decreased in lar%e areas of the peaty lowlands in the >etherlands (4-sc#. 6s
a result, iron-containin% seepa%e has decreased in many re%ion, while ala5aline
hine river, which is rich in sulfates and poor in iron, has been used to compensate
for the shorta%e of water. This has resulted in increased al5alinity and or%anic
sediment brea5down. 9ncreased sulfate reduction leads to iron sulphide precipitation
and internal al5alinity %eneration. 6s a result of these processes, phosphate and
ammonium levels in sediment pore water have increased stron%ly. elease of these
nutrients to the water layer has resulted in internal eutrophication of the peatland
ecosystems. ;urthermore, iron levels have decreased stron%ly as a result of decreases
seepa%e and iron sulphide precipitation. 6s a result, sulphide accumulates in
sediment pore water and reaches to&ic levels. ;urthermore, decreased iron levels
appear.
The direct and indirect effects of iron on structure and function of lotic
ecosystems have been reviewed (4-sc#. 9n addition to the minin% of iron enrich ores,
intensified forestry, peat production and a%ricultural water runoff have increased the
load of iron in many river ecosystems. The effects of iron on a2uatic animals and
their habitats are mainly indirect, althou%h the direct to&ic effects of ;e P are also
important in some lotic habitats that receive iron-enriched effluents particularly
durin% cold seasons. 9ron hydro&ide and iron-humus precipitates on both biolo%ical
and other surfaces, indirectly affect lotic or%anisms by disturbin% the normal
metabolism and osmore%ulation and by chan%in% the structure and 2uality of benthic
habitats and food resources. The bioaccumulation of iron in the or%ans and tissues of
the freshwater crab, otamonautes warren 0alman, from three metal-polluted
a2ualtic ecosystems was e&amined (4#. =ifferences in iron concentrations in the crab
occurred in the %ills, su%%estin% this or%an to be the prime site for the absorptionandor loss of iron to and from the a2uatic environment.
The to&icity of iron is %overned by absorption. 0hronic iron overload is an
insidious tissue that often does not produce obvious symptoms until substantial tissue
dama%e to tissue dama%e to vital or%ans has occurred. Bar%e amounts of free iron in
the circulation are 5nown to cause dama%e to critical cells in the liver, heart and other
metabolically active or%ans. 9ndustrial wor5ers e&posed to fumes of iron compounds
show potential symptoms of poisonin% such as irritation of eyes, s5in and respiratory,
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cou%h, metal fume fever (M;;#, severe vomitin%, diarrhea, abdominal pain,
dehydration and siderosis (a beni%n pneumoconiosis#. eports have indicated that
severe siderosis leads to myocardial diseases and death. 9ron to&icity is usually the
result of more chronic iron overload syndromes associated with %enetic diseases, the
liver becomes cirrhotic. $epatoma, the primary cancer of liver, has become the most
common cause of death amon% patients with hemochromatosis. *or5ers and the
%eneral public with hemochromatosis absorb iron very efficiently, which can result in
build-up of e&cess iron and cause or%an dama%e such as cirrhosis of the liver and
heart failure.
.@. Man%anese
Man%anese is a naturally occurrin% metal that is found in many types of
roc5s. The metal is reactive chemically and decomposes slowly. 9t is an important
component of steel. The common or%anic man%anese compounds include pesticide
such as Maneb or Mancozeb. Metallic man%anese is used in the manufacturin% of
steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, cast iron and super alloys to increase hardness,
stiffness and stren%th. Man%anese chloride is used in dyein%, disinfectin%, batteries,
as a paint drier and dietary supplement. Man%anese o&ide (MnO# is used in te&tile
printin%, ceramics, paints, coloured %lass, fertilizers and as a food additive.
Man%anese to&icity, man%anism, in?ures the part of the brain that helps to control
body movements and affects motor s5ills such as holdin% oneEs hand steady. The
symptoms of man%anese poisonin% include but not limited to headache, insomnia,
disorientation, speech disturbances, memory loss, lan%uor, wea5ness, emotional
disturbances, spastic %ait, recurrin% le% cramp and paralysis. 0ontinuation of
e&posure to man%anese causes disturbance to motor function, tremors, unsteady
wal5in% and e&a%%erated refle&es similar to ar5insonism. $owever, there are no
reports indicatin% that man%anese causes cancer in humans. The :.S. G6 has
included man%anese in %roup =, meanin% not classifiable as a human carcino%en.
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.@. Mercury
Mercury and its compounds are used in dental preparations, thermometers,
fluorescent and ultraviolet lamps, and pharmaceuticals and as fun%icides in paints,
industrial process waters and seed dressin%s. The pulp and paper industry also
consumes mercury in si%nificant amounts in the form of phenyl mercuric acetate, a
fun%icide, and in caustic soda, which may contain up to " m% 5% -1 as an impurity.
Mercury in air can be washed out by rain. 9n industrial areas, mercury concentrations
as hi%h as !.!!! m% B-1 have been reported in raun. 9n most surface water, $%(O$#
and $%0l are the predominant mercury species. 9n reducin% sediments, however,
most of the mercury is immobilized as the sulphide. 0oncentrations of mercury insurface and drin5in% waters are %enerally below !.!!1 m% B -1 (4#. The presence of
hi%her levels of mercury in water is due to effluents from the chlor-al5ali industry,
the pulp and paper industry, minin%, %old and other ore-recoverin% processes, and
irri%ation or draina%e of areas in which a%ricultural pesticides are used.
9nor%anic mercury in sediments, under anaerobic conditions, can be
transformed by microor%anisms into or%anic mercury compound, the most common
of which is methyl mercury (4#. These compounds can readily associate with
suspended and or%anic matter and be ta5en by a2uatic or%anisms. Methyl mercury
has a hi%h affinity for lipids and is distributed to the fatty tissues of livin% or%anisms
(4#. 6lthou%h methyl mercury is estimated to constitute only 1C of the total mercury
content of water, more than 7!C of the mercury in biota is in the form of methyl
mercury (4#. 9t has been estimated that about "!!! tons of mercury are annually
released into the environment by manEs activities. Mercury is readily scaven%ed by
or%anic matter. Mercury salts from industrial effluents deposit in the river or la5e
sediments and are then acted upon by anaerobic bacteria, which convert them into
to&ic methyl mercury and dimethyl mercury. Soluble mercury is readily incorporated
into or%anisms in the a2uatic environment and ultimately finds its ways into hi%her
members of the food chain such as man. The pro%ress of mercury throu%h the food
chain successively increases its concentration to such an e&tent that natural levels in
some commercial fish are close to or e&ceed the lowest level that was set by health
authorities in the countries. 6nalyses of the Areenland ice cap revealed that while
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mercury levels worldwide have been constant since !! ).0., since 17"!, the
amounts present seems to have doubled.
6lthou%h it had been 5nown for many centuries that mercury is poisonous to
animals and humans, it was not until the late 17"!s that its e&treme to&icity to
humans was appreciated as it made headlines worldwide. 9n 17"
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others. >ic5el-induced contact dermatitis is well documented for humans and is the
most prevalent effect of nic5el e&posure in humans. >ic5el and nic5el compounds
are 5nown to be human carcino%ens based on sufficient evidence of carcino%enicity
from studies in humans, includin% epidemiolo%ical and mechanistic information,
which indicates a casueal relationship between e&posure of nic5el compounds and
human cancer.
[email protected]! Bead
Bead is the most common of the heavy elements. Bead is present in tap water
as a result of dissolution from natural sources or from household plumbin% systems
containin% lead in pipes. The amount of lead from the plumbin% system that may be
dissolved depends on several factors, includin% acidity (p$#, water softness and
standin% time of the water (4#. Other sources of lead inta5e include ceramic ware,
activities involvin% arts and crafts, peelin% paint, and renovations resultin% in dust or
fumes from paint (4#. Bead can be absorbed by the body throu%h inhalation,
in%estion, dermal contact (mainly as a result of occupational e&posure#, or transfer
via the placenta. Of the total body lead, appro&imately ! J 7"C in adults and about
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and symptoms of peripheral neuropathy were observed in occupationally e&posed
populations at blood lead levels of 3!-@! µ% dB-1.
[email protected] Linc
>ormal avera%e zinc inta5e by adult humans throu%h the diet ran%es from
m% d -1 to 1@ m% d-1. 9n humans and animals, lon%-term e&posure to e&cess levels of
zinc may result in copper deficiency, reduced immune function, reduced levels of
hi%h-density lipoproteins (the %ood cholesterol#, anaemia, death of foetuses, and
dama%e to the liver, pancreas and 5idneys (6TS=, !!@#. $owever, in the conte&t
of pollution, zinc is more a cause of phytoto&icity rather than bein% to&ic to animals
and humans. 6nthropo%enic sources of zinc are %alvanised steel, sewa%e slud%e,
waste disposals and industrial releases. Aalvanised steel is used in roofs, %utters,
drainpipes and wire fences. G&posure to acid rain slowly dissolves these materials
and the zinc ends up in soil or runoff water. Linc is also widely used in domestic
products such as s5in care products (cosmetics, baby creams, shampoos#. To%ether
with draina%e water from %alvanised surfaces, these are the main sources of zinc
pollution of sewa%e water, effluent from wastewater treatment plants and sewa%e
slud%e. $ence, spreadin% sewa%e slud%e on land as a fertiliser pro%ressively
increases the zinc concentrations in a%ricultural soils. The other ma?or sources of
zinc in domestic waste in adition to discarded %alvanised materials and domestic
products containin% zinc are batteries, pi%ment and paints. *aste disposal can
therefore lead to local soil and %roundwater pollution around landfills.
2.: Agr%cutura and Urban%5at%on Eff!ct to R%&!r
Band-use chan%es in river basins, as a result of a%ricultural intensification and
e&pansion, as well as urbanization, can affect various characteristics of river
ecosystem inte%rity, such as water 2uality, community structure, and primary andsecondary production, or%anic matter decomposition, ecosystem metabolism and
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ener%y flu&es (6llan, !!3 'oun% and Matthaei et al., !! osa, 6%uiar et al.,
!1
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2.< Part%cuat! Trac! 3!ta'
articulate trace metals are 5ey components in the bio%eochemical cycles of
many elements of the water column. They represent an intermediate sta%e in the
transport of the chemical components in seawater to the seafloor sediments.
articulate enters the marine environment throu%h waterways, runoff, eolic transport,
%roundwater and others (aleni5, Arimwood et al., !! Tiefenthaler and Stein et
al., !!#.
2.1= a"! Ato"%c Ab'or)t%on S)!ctro'co)y
6mon% the spectrometric methods used to determine metal concentrations,
;66S is particularly useful to perform water analysis. 9t is relatively ine&pensive
method, which presents an ade2uate sensitivity sufficiently hi%h for the
determination of ma?or metals in most of a2uatic systems. 0onsiderin% the most of
atomic absorption instruments are also e2uipped to operate in an emission mode,
lar%e number of al5ali metals are typically determined by flame photometry or flame
atomic emission spectrometry 7;6GS# due to their relative low e&citation and
simplicity of the emission techni2ues. This techni2ue is relative free from spectral
interferences and considerin% its versatility and simplicity of opration, it has become
the most e&tensively used method for the determination of metals within water
samples.
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CHAPTER #
RESEARCH 3ETHODO+O>?
#.1 R!ag!nt' and Standard'
6nalytical %rade (6# chemicals will be use throu%hout the study without
any further purification. To prepare all the rea%ents and calibration standards, double
%lass distilled water was used. The metal standards were prepared from stoc5
solution of 1!!! m%B (Merc5, Aermany#R by successive dilution with ultra-pure
water. =eionized water was used throu%hout the study. )efore di%estion, the sample
flas5s and di%estion vessels is soa5in% into 1!C $>O
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<
#.2 Sa")!' Co!ct%on and Pr!'!r&at%on
Samplin% is schedule to done between months of September to >ovember
!1" from five different stations, all alon% Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai
/ampun% /elantan, and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5. Three to four samples
of base flow is e&pected to be collected between these months and another two to
three samples of storm flow is e&pected to be collected between these months. The
coordinates of the samplin% areas areH
Samplin% area 0oordinates
Sun%ai /elantan 1E 3 should be worn durin% water samplin%. Store the water samples
in polythene bottles.
;or total recoverable metals, all samples must be acidified at the time of
collection with " mB of $>OO
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3
#.2.2 S!d%"!nt Sa")%ng
0ollect freshly deposited upper sediments layer from shallow water near ban5
at each samplin% point of Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai /ampun%
/elantan and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5. lace the sediment that has been
collected into pre-cleaned polythene ba%s. Oven dried %round, homo%enized and seal
the sediment samples in clean polythene ba%s. Store the sediment samples in a
refri%erator.
#.# D%g!'t%on of -at!r Sa")!' for D!t!r"%nat%on of 3!ta'
Transfer a 1!! mB ali2uot well-mi&ed sample to a bea5er. ;or metals that are
to be analyzed, add mB of concentrated $>O
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"
This method is to e&plain the preparation of sediments for analysis of samples
by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (90-MS#.
#.(.1 Pr!)arat%on of S!d%"!nt
Mi& the sample thorou%hly to achieve homo%eneity and sieve. 6ll e2uipment
used for homo%enization should be cleaned to minimize the potential of cross-
contamination. ;or each di%estion procedure, wei%h to the nearest !.!1 % and transfer a 1- % sample (wet wei%ht# or 1 % sample (dry wei%ht# to a di%estion vessel. ;or
samples with hi%h li2uid content, a lar%er sample size may be used as lon% as
di%estion is completed.
#.(.2 EPA 3!t/od #=*=B
6 procedure recommended by Gnvironmental rotection 6%ency (G6,
Method
$>Oslowly without allowin% any losses. eflu& the mi&ture with 1! mB of
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@
#.* In'tru"!ntat%on for D!t!r"%nat%on of H!a&y 3!ta' %n -at!r and
S!d%"!nt
6ll the determinations are %oin% to be done with inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry. 90-MS is a relatively new method for determinin% multi-
element analysis and ideal for water, since the vast ma?ority of tar%et compounds can
be detected below !.1 m%B. The operatin% conditions are listed belowH
>ebulizer Aas flow rates !.7" lmin
6u&iliary Aas ;low 1. lmin
lasma Aas ;low 1" lmin
Bens Kolta%e ." K90 ; ower 11!! *
0eO0e !.!
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eplicate sample should be processed on a routine basis. 6 replicate sample is
a sample brou%ht throu%h the whole sample preparation and analytical process.
eplicate samples will be used to determine precision. The sample load will dictate
the fre2uency, but "C is recommended. Spi5ed samples or standard reference
material should be employed to determine accuracy. 6 spi5ed sample should be
included with each batch.
#.: Cacuat%on
The concentrations determined are to be reported on the basis of the actual
wei%ht of the sample. 9f a dry wei%ht analysis is desired, then the percent solids of
the sample must also be provided. 9f percent soilds is desired, a separate
determination of percent solids must be performed on a homo%eneous ali2uot of the
sample.
=etermine the concentration of heavy metals in each sample by referrin% to
the calibration curve. 6lternatively, calibrate the spectrophotometer and read directly
in concentration mode. 0alculate the concentration of heavy metals in milli%rams per
litreH
Metal, m%B 0 × (1!!K#
where,
0 J 0oncentration from curve, m%B
K J Kolume of ali2uot, mB
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CHAPTER (
E@PECTED RESU+TS
(.1 Conc!ntrat%on of H!a&y 3!ta' %n S!d%"!nt
;rom the research conducted, the concentrations of heavy metals are
estimated to be very hi%h durin% storm flow. 6 recent study by Araham, Kino%radoff
et al. (!!@# revealed that storm flow can play a ma?or role in the release of dissolve
b from peatland soils. Thus the concentration of b in water is e&pected to be hi%h
durin% storm flow compared to base flow.
(.2 Conc!ntrat%on of H!a&y 3!ta' %n -at!r
6ccordin% to )yrne and eid et al. (!!7#, it has been shown that in their
studies, that rain-fed floods substantially increase the potential to&icity of river water in the 6fon Twymyn. Measured metal concentrations were si%nificantly %reater than
Gnvironmental Fuality Standards (GFSs#. This source was most li5ely because
hi%hly mobile and bioavailable metals adsorbed to the sediment of the river
bedmar%ins.
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7
CHAPTER *
CONC+USION AND RECO33ENDATION
This wor5 is set out to determine the concentration of heavy metals durin% base
flow and storm flow all alon% Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai /ampun%
/elantan, and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5. )esides that, this study is to evaluate
the ris5 related to contamination associated with such e&tensive natural events. The
e&pected outcome of this pro?ect is that there could be possible adverse impacts to the
residin% a2uatic life as a result of the e&posure to hi%h concentration of the studied
metals.
Monitorin% heavy metals at Sun%ai emandi, Sun%ai /eman%, Sun%ai /ampun%
/elantan, and river situated near to Mas?id 8ame5 should be continued durin% dry and
wet weathers. )iolo%ical to&icity surveys should be underta5en in order to provide
definite decision re%ardin% the possible adverse effects.
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concentrations during flood events through abandoned metal mines, with
imlications for a!uatic ecology and mine water treatment . aper presented at
the 9nternational Mine *ater 0onference !!7, retoria, South 6frica.
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abinovich, 8., Tancredi, G., + Ki%lizzo, G. (!!"#. Gcosystems and $uman*ellJbein%H )iodiversity Synthesis. etrieved 11 October !1", from
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