Delhi: Delhi: An elephant learning to danceAn elephant learning to dance
Delhi study visit January 2007
OverviewOverview
• A sense of orientation…• Indian urban context…• Perspective on urban Delhi…
– Build environment– Institutional context– Planning responses
• Urban reform• Follow-up for ODA
A sense of orientationA sense of orientation……
A sense of orientationA sense of orientation……
A sense of orientationA sense of orientation……
A sense of orientationA sense of orientation……
Connaught Place
Park Hotel
GeneralGeneral-- PopulationPopulation• Pop pyramid- more men than women• Female foeticide/ infanticide:
UNICEF: 933 Indian women for every l,000 men, resulting in 40 million ‘missing’ women.
– Reason: Dowry system requires the family to pay the family to whom female child is married- esp poor families affected.
• Widows no longer committing Sati (ritual suicide), but cannot own property – thus extremely marginalised
– Extreme gender inequality exist alongside modernisation
Indian urban contextIndian urban context
Delhi Growth rate @ 3.87% between 91-01
2001: 13.8 million2021: 23 million
Delhi NCTD
Growth rate:1940’s:3.5%1970’2: 3.8%81-91: 3.1%91-01: 2.7%
Urbanisation•1991: 26.1%•2001: 27.78%•2020:40%
India Urban Population
United Nations1,291billionIndia Population(2020)
2001 Census1,027billion (2001)India PopulationCommentNumberIndicator
Source: India Vision 2020: 2004Urban Studies: 2006Delhi Master Plan 2021
Indian urban contextIndian urban context• Declining rate of urbanisation – both in terms of fertility and
rural-urban migration• In absolute numbers urban population adds 7-8m people
per annum (a new Gauteng every year)• Concentration of growth:
– Large cities getting larger – 35 metros account for 37.8% of urban population
– Delhi NCT has outgrown all other urban centers since 1951 –above 50% per decade!
– Delhi NCT growth 56% for decade 91-01 (122% since ’81)• Rural parts of Delhi urban conglomeration raced between 122%-146% for
same decade
Indian urban contextIndian urban context• Urban growth rate decreased after 1991 econ reforms.• Reasons:
– Migration has become highly selective. Previously manuf econ required higher numbers of lower skilled workers. Rise of service ind requires higher skilled professionals
– Slowing growth of slums– Increased mobility- people stay in hinterland and commute to the city– Urban peripheries are experiencing high growth but definition of urban edge
does not include them in urban area– Strict definition of “urban”:
• More than 5000 residents• Min density of 400/sqkm• 75% of working pop must be non agric
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• High growth puts extreme pressure on service infrastructure– Master Plan actually underestimated growth with 900k by 2001
(that is nearly two sub-city populations)
– Major shortfalls in land development• Leading to large scale informality response
– DDA overwhelmed re land availability– Approval process stimulated unauthorised land development - colonies– Explosion of land grabs on DDA land (jdjuggi jhompari or JJ settlements)
• Massive increase in automobiles
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• Typologies: Jhuggi JhompariIllegal informal
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: ColoniesOften illegal but formal
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Old City
Haus Khaz(gentrifying old city)
Shajahanabad(medieval market city in long-term decay)
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi
Commercial Centre(Connaught Place)
Administrative Centre(Rashtrapati Bhawan) Cultural Centre
(India Gate)
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi
Indian Clerks
European Clerks
Military
Indian elites (Rajas)
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi: Living area
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi: Connaught Place
Parliament India Gate
Herbert Baker’s Admin BlockGovernment Ave – Looking east to India Gate
•Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi: Government Avenue
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentPerspective on urban Delhi: Built environment
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• Typologies: Sub-cities– 1982 (2001 & 2007 amendments) Master Plan provided for 3 sub-city planned
mega project urban extensions [socialist planning]• Rohini –nearing saturation• Dwarka – advanced stage of development• Narela – most recent project
– Planned as integrated decentralized neighborhoods for 1m+ people – new towns
• Linked to decentralised economic activities (freight complex, whole sale etc)• Connected to metro line extensions• Multiple housing modalities• Social infrastructure• Green spaces
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• Typologies: Sub-cities (Dwarka)
DDA apartments in Dwarka
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• Typologies: Modernizing Delhi
Modern shopping centers Integrated private town house developments
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• Typologies: Modernizing Delhi
Decentralised office & retail concentrations Walled and gated suburbs
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• Ancient Delhi:- City of Djinns (ghosts)
Qutab Minar
Cast iron pillar installed in 1020 by Rajput ruler
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• City of Djinns (ghosts)
Haus Khaz
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• City of the gods
Bai-a
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• City of the gods
Sikh
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• City of the gods
Islam
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• City of the gods
Hindu
Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment
• City of the gods
$ Mamon
Perspective on Historical DelhiPerspective on Historical Delhi
• Understanding modern Delhi impossible without appreciating its history
• 3000 years of continuous urban settlement – Delhi as a holy place (suggesting it may actually be older)– Mahabharata (Indian epic 4 times as long as Bible describing
actual historical events prior to 900bc)– Hindu temple on Yanuma (Jumna) marking site of
ancient legend (one of 7 holy rivers)• History of occupation – interspersed with genocides
and large scale displacement
““City of many gates to enter City of many gates to enter ––but none to departbut none to depart””
Time lines marked by invasion and massacres
Two Rajput dynasties –dating from 8th century
Followed by Persians, Turks, Mughals, British
1st City of Delhi founded 400 years later by 2nd Rajput dynasty
Followed by 6 more cities - These are all medieval walled cities
“Old Delhi” is actually the 7th City of Delhi – Shajahanabad
“New Delhi” a new colonial city build by the British
Socialist new towns
Time lines marked by invasion and massacres
Two Rajput dynasties –dating from 8th century
Followed by Persians, Turks, Mughals, British
1st City of Delhi founded 400 years later by 2nd Rajput dynasty
Followed by 6 more cities - These are all medieval walled cities
“Old Delhi” is actually the 7th City of Delhi – Shajahanabad
“New Delhi” a new colonial city build by the British
Socialist new towns
• A city of cursed governments: -All the builders of Delhi ended up loosing the City
Perspective on Historical DelhiPerspective on Historical Delhi• Impact of Partition on Delhi
– Partition (1947) between Pakistan and India finally destroyed Mughal high culture clinging on in Delhi
– Massive deportation of people and displacement
– Trainloads of refugees systematically murdered
– Muslim enclaves in Delhi (such as Shajahanabad) defended like medieval walled cities with heavy machine guns and mortars –cities within the city
– Depopulated large parts of city– Very few people in Delhi trace
back before ’47
Perspective on Historical DelhiPerspective on Historical Delhi
• Post Independence politics– Indira Ghandi: “my father was a saint, I am not”
• Government notoriously corrupt, inefficient, socialist etc.• Repression through state of emergencies – attempts to buy popular
support – profound negative impact on Indian cities– Murdered by Sikh body guards
• Unleashed mob murders of Sikhs throughout Delhi– Hindu nationalists giving way to coalition governments– India modernizing since 1991 – spectacular process of social
change on the back of free market economic reform
Digression Digression
““a single tear suspended on the a single tear suspended on the cheek of timecheek of time””
• Taj Mahal: A tomb of enduring love or an expression of ultimate power by a tyrant– 20 000 men in 22 years created a masterpiece of Mughal-Islamic
architecture costing 400m rupees & 500kg of gold– Build as a tomb for Mumtaz Mahal (after dying in childbirth of 14th child)– Coincided with Renaissance in Europe - completed in 1640’s– Marked an unhappy ending of a golden era in Indian arts and
culture:• Coup d’etat by Aurangzep – civil war, murdered all male heirs, jailed his
father for 8 years until his death• Led a major destruction and exodus of Delhi – tens of thousands died• Plunged region into civil war and decline• Root of religious intolerance enduring since
TajTaj MahalMahal• Shaj Jahan’s view of his
masterpiece – near but untouchable
TajTaj MahalMahal• Shaj Jahan’s view of his
masterpiece – near but untouchable
TajTaj MahalMahal
TajTaj MahalMahal• Salient features of master design• Symmetric design shaping nature –
in contrast to indigenous Hindu culture• Four rivers of paradise (garden of
paradise)• A-centric location (unique to Taj)• Build on raised platform• Mosque a requirement• Folly “guesthouse” to balance the
design• Location of Black Taj rumored to
have been planned
TajTaj MahalMahal
TajTaj MahalMahal
Failing DelhiFailing Delhi• Although urban growth
rates have declined, actual number of people joining cities is staggering
• Despite this, urban povthas decreased since opening of market in 1991
• Slums have limited access to basic services: water, sanitation or streetlights
Failing DelhiFailing Delhi• Infrastructure failure is crippling
econ growth• Investment in urban
infrastructure is stagnating.
Reasons: 1. Inability of municipality to raise
funds– Main source of income: property
tax- system old and obsolete– Sharing same amount of funds
amongst increasing pop– Only 15-20% service charge
collection
Failing DelhiFailing Delhi2. Legislative constraints:
• Rent control (in ConnaughtCircus ($2/ month) -> delapidation
• Property stamp duties: very high so people keep their properties undervalued
Failing DelhiFailing DelhiUrban Land Sealing and Regulation Act
1976:
Properties larger than 500 sqm need to forfeit excess to state for poor dev: massive nationalisation of property.
• Implications of Act:– excess identified around the edges
of properties- not usable– Slow movement of dev authorities to
acquire land– Slow development of land tracts
-> high distortion of land mkt-> destruction of land mkt: land not
released leading to resulting slumification
RecoveringRecovering
• Urban problems are not only due to state weakness but due to legislative impact, fiscal system, institutional setup– Despite good intention legislation has not helped the
poor
Major challenges Major challenges Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
• Responsible for water, air, noise and waste management-
• Air pollution:– Coal Based Powerstations- bad
quality coal & high ash contents -> “fly ash”
– Public transport one of main polluters: Pollution levels improved since CNG conversions on busses and three-wheelers
– Delhi has highest number of clean fuel vehicles in world: 80 000 vehicles
CNG Transport
CPCB cont. CPCB cont. • Water pollution:
– 33% of rivers in India moderately- severely polluted
– Yamuna river: • dammed in 4 sections• 22 km of river along Delhi• Majority of Delhi raw sewerage
dumped in Yamuna: 7 day settling and oxidation and raw water channeled to Agra for irrigation of crops that feed Delhi…..
• Sewerage collection problematic: Some areas no sanitation access at all
CPCB cont.CPCB cont.
• Water consumption:– Water very cheap & water resources overexploited– Water provision dependent on Monsoon– Traditionally high household water consumption- need
for water wise education– Climatic changes -> increased urbanisation due to
migration from rural areas where livelihoods are threatened
CPCB cont.CPCB cont.
• Solid Waste:– Traditionally: “Dump and forget”– Collection efficiency 40-70%– Waste management not charged as a service– Informal waste management: “Rag pickers” but not
regulated– Recycling efforts underway- waste separation and waste
processing facilities
CPCB cont.CPCB cont.
• Challenges: lack of control & enforcement due to uncontrolled pop growth, residential developments and resulting pollution
• Efforts to curb pollution undermined by rapid pop growth and infrastructure backlog
Major challengesMajor challengesState complexityState complexity
• Organs of state increasingly out of sync with outcome of economic reform project – highly entrenched and contradictory– Marxist state serving the
needs of entrenched elite Delhi is a local body
Municipality
Delhi is an extension of the central state
Lieutenant Governor
Delhi is a state (province)
State Commissioner
National initiative to address National initiative to address challenge of the Cities challenge of the Cities
• Realization that India’s competitiveness and future growth turns on addressing the state of cities
Urban Reform Urban Reform MissionMission
Managerialist Reform
Fiscal ReformInfrastructure Investment
National initiative to address National initiative to address challenge of the Cities challenge of the Cities
• Realization that India’s competitiveness and future growth turns on addressing the state of cities
Urban Reform Urban Reform MissionMission
Managerialist Reform
Fiscal ReformInfrastructure Investment
Aggressive privatization& PPP ledinvestment
FIRE ProjectLocal tax reform
JN Urban Mission fund
Legislative reformIntervention
63 cities -$12bn Planning reform - CDP
National Urban Renewal MissionNational Urban Renewal Mission
• Primary objective of URM:– Dev of infr services– Ensuring linkage between
asset creation and maintenance
– Accelerate investment flow into urban infrastructure
– Ensure planned development of urban areas
– Inner city renewal– Universal urban services to
ensure access by poor
National Urban Renewal MissionNational Urban Renewal Mission
• Objectives to be achieved through– CDPs: development agenda for the city– Detailed project reports: setting out projects for the city– Timeline for implementation
• Critique: – CDPs written by consultants as desk top exercises– Lack of ownership amongst local authorities– Weak substance of plans- only 25-30% of projects are new & good– Poorer cities will not be able to implement (LG to provide 30% of funds,
JNURM 50% and State 20%)– “Fix it” rather than developmental and creative thinking- absence of innovative
projects
Committee on Committee on InfrInfr PlanningPlanning• Infrastructure implementation under PPPs• Planning commission: sets down model concession agreements for
municipalities to take over planning functions for infr.• Newly established PPP process:
– PPP Approval Committee: provide approval for concession agreements within 3 weeks
– Bureaucratically streamlined– Ministries highly involved in setting up conditions for PPPs.
• Govt depts take ownership and drive the process (in SA projects and transactions are consultant driven)
• Urban Renewal Mission: laid down framework for infrastructure plans and city dev.
ODA FollowODA Follow--upup
• CDPs for 63 lead cities require independent review• Logic build on South African reform and intervention
experience