Crane and MattenBusiness Ethics (3rd Edition)
Chapter 3
Evaluating Business Ethics:Normative Ethical Theories
Lecture 3
Overview
• Locate the role of ethical theory• Highlight international differences in
perspectives• Provide critical overview of traditional ethical
theories• Explore contemporary ethical theories
What are normative ethical theories?
• Ethical theories are the rules and principles that determine right and wrong for any given situation Crane and Matten (2010)
• Normative ethical theories are those that propose to prescribe the morally correct way of acting
• As opposed to descriptive ethical theories which seek to describe how ethics decisions are actually made in business
The role of ethical theory
The role of ethical theory
• Two extreme positions (De George 1999)• Ethical absolutism claims there are eternal,
universally applicable moral principles– Right and wrong are objective qualities, can be
rationally determined– Typically traditional ethical theories
• Ethical relativism claims morality is context-dependent and subjective– No universal right and wrongs that can be rationally
determined; depends on person making the decision & culture in which they are located
– Typically contemporary ethical theories
Normative ethical theories
North American and European origins and differences
• Differences between Anglo-American and European approaches based on philosophical arguments– Individual versus institutional morality
• US tend to individualistic perspective• Europe towards wider economic and governing institutions
– Questioning versus accepting capitalism• US tend to accept the capitalist framework• Europe tend to question the ethical justification of capitalism
– Justifying versus applying moral norms• US tend to focus on application of morality• Europe focus on justification and ethical legitimation of norms
• In contrast, Asian perspectives tend to be based on religion (e.g. Islam, Buddhism)
Western modernist ethical theories
Traditional ethical theories
• Generally offer a certain rule or principle which one can apply to any given situation
• These theories generally can be differentiated into two groups
Source: Crane and Matten (2010)
Motivation/
PrinciplesAction Outcomes
Consequentialist EthicsNon-consequentialist Ethics
Major normative theories
Source: Crane and Matten (2010)
Non-consequentialistNon-consequentialistConsequentialistConsequentialistType
Man is a being that is distinguished by dignity
Man is a rational moral actor
Man is controlled by avoidance of pain and gain of pleasure (“hedonist”)
Man as an actor with limited knowledge and objectives
Concept of human beings
Respect for human beings
Categorical imperative
Act/rule utilitarianismMaximization of desires/self interest
Rules
RightsDutiesCollective welfareIndividual desires or interests
Focus
John LockeJohn Rawls
Immanuel KantJeremy BenthamJohn Stuart Mill
Adam SmithContributors
Egoism Utilitarianism Ethics of duties Rights & justice
Egoism
• Theory of egoism - an action is morally right if the decision-maker freely decides an action to pursue either their (short-term) desires or their (long-term) interests.
– Adam Smith (1793): pursuit of individual interest morally acceptable as invisible hand of market creates benefit for all
– Relies on free competition and good information– ‘Enlightened egoism’– However, markets do not function perfectly
• Anti-globalisation movement• Sustainability debate
Utilitarianism
• According to utilitarianism, an action is morally right if it results in the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people affected by the action
– Also called the ‘greatest happiness principle’– Based on cost-benefit analysis
Problems with Utilitarianism
• Subjectivity– This has led to refinement of theory
• Act utilitarianism• Rule utilitarianism
• Issues around quantification and distribution of utility
Act- and Rule-Utilitarianism
Act utilitarianism
– Looks to single actions and bases the moral judgement on the amount of pleasure and the amount of pain this single action causes.
Rule utilitarianism
– looks at classes of action and ask whether the underlying principles of an action produce more pleasure than pain for society in the long run.
Ethics of duties
‘Categorical Imperative’ (Kant)• Maxim 1: ConsistencyConsistency
– Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
Maxim 2: Human DignityHuman Dignity
– Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only.
• Maxim 3: UniversalityUniversality
– Act only so that the will through its maxims could regard itself at the same time as universally lawgiving (would others agree? Would you be happy to see your decision reported in the press?)
Problems with ethics of duties
• Undervaluing outcomes• Complexity• Misplaced optimism?
Ethics of rights and justice
Natural rights • Certain basic, important, unalienable entitlements
that should be respected and protected in every single action.– Based on consensus about nature of human dignity– Strongly based in western view of morality
Justice
• The simultaneously fair treatment of individuals in a given situation with the result that everybody gets what they deserve– Fair procedures (procedural justice)– Fair outcomes (distributive justice)
John Rawls’s ‘Theory of Justice’
1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
a. to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged; b. attached to offices and positions open to all under
conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
Limits of traditional theories
• Too abstract • Too reductionist• Too objective and elitist• Too impersonal• Too rational and codified• Too imperialist
Alternative perspectives on ethical theory
Approaches based on character and integrity
Virtue ethics • Contends that morally correct actions are those
undertaken by actors with virtuous characters. Therefore, the formation of a virtuous character is the first step towards morally correct behaviour
Acquired traits• Intellectual virtues• Moral virtues
Approaches based on ethics and responsibility
Feminist ethics• An approach that prioritizes empathy, harmonious
and healthy social relationships, care for one another, and avoidance of harm above abstract principles
Key elements• Relationships
– Decisions taken in context of personal human interrelations
• Responsibility– Active ‘taking’ of responsibility, rather than merely ‘having’ it
• Experience– Learn and develop from experience
Discourse ethics • Aims to solve ethical conflicts by providing a process
of norm generation through rational reflection on the real-life experiences of all relevant participants
Key elements• Ultimate goal of ethical issues in business should be
the peaceful settlement of conflicts• Different parties in a conflict should sit together and
engage in a discourse about the settlement of the conflict, and ultimately provide a situation that is acceptable to all
• ‘ideal discourse’ criteria
Approaches based on procedures of norm generation
Postmodern ethics• An approach that locates morality beyond the sphere
of rationality in an emotional ‘moral impulse’ towards others. It encourages individual actors to question everyday practices and rules, and to listen to and follow their emotions, inner convictions and ‘gut feelings’ about what they think is right and wrong in a particular incident of decision-making.
Approaches based on empathy and moral impulse
Postmodern business ethics
• Postmodern business ethics emphasises (Gustafson, 2000:21)
– Holistic approach– Examples rather than principles– ‘Think local, act local’– Preliminary character
Summary
Towards a pragmatic use of ethical theory
Typical Perspective
Single normative consideration for solving the ethical dilemma
Ethical Dilemma
‘Lens’ of ethical theory
Pluralistic Perspective
Pluralism?
Crane and Matten (2010) argue that for the practical purpose of making effective decisions in business:
• Not suggest one theory or one approach as the best or true view of a moral dilemma
• Suggest that all these theoretical approaches throw light from different angles on one and same problem
• Complementary rather than mutually exclusive
Advocate position of pluralismpluralism• Middle ground between absolutism and relativism
Considerations in making ethical decisions: summary of key insights from ethical theories
Consideration Typical question you might ask yourself Theory
One’s own interests Is this really in my, or my organization’s, best long-term interests? Would it be acceptable and expected for me to think only of the consequences to myself in this situation?
Egoism
Social consequences If I consider all of the possible consequences of my actions, for everyone that is affected, will we be better or worse off overall? How likely are these consequences and how significant are they?
Utilitarianism
Duties to others Who do I have obligations to in this situation? What would happen if everybody acted in the same way as me? Am I treating people only to get what I want for myself (or my organization) or am I thinking also of what they might want too?
Ethics of duty
Entitlements of others
Whose rights do I need to consider here? Am I respecting fundamental human rights and people’s need for dignity?
Ethics of rights
Fairness Am I treating everyone fairly here? Have processes been set up to allow everyone an equal chance? Are there major disparities between the ‘winners’ and ‘losers’ that could be avoided?
Theories of justice
Moral character Am I acting with integrity here? What would a decent, honest person do in the same situation?
Virtue ethics
Care for others and relationships
How do (or would) the other affected parties feel in this situation? Can I avoid doing harm to others? Which solution is most likely to preserve healthy and harmonious relationships among those involved?
Feminist ethics
Process of resolving conflicts
What norms can we work out together to provide a mutually acceptable solution to this problem? How can we achieve a peaceful settlement of this conflict that avoids ‘railroading’ by the most powerful player?
Discourse ethics
Moral impulse and emotions
Am I just simply going along with the usual practice here, or slavishly following the organization’s code, without questioning whether it really feels right to me? How can I get closer to those likely to be affected by my decision? What do my emotions or gut feelings tell me once I’m out of the office?
Postmodern ethics