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Methods in Cultural Anthropology(Miller Chapter 2)
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Goals of Research in Cultural Anthropology
To study, analyze, and describe culture(s) in accordance with ethical principles
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How Do Cultural Anthropologists Do Research?
Approaches have changed over time“Armchair anthropology” – 1870s
Sitting and reading about other cultures and formulating theories about them
Edward Tylor
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How Do Cultural Anthropologists Do Research?
“Verandah anthropology” – early 1900sLiving near, but not with the people to be studiedEarly Bronislaw Malinowski
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How Do Cultural Anthropologists Do Research?
“The Field” – 1920s - today“The Field” – any place where people and
cultures are (p. 28)
Later Bronislaw Malinowski
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The Field and Participant Observation While in the field, the cornerstone method
anthropologists use is participant observation.
Participant observation is a research method for learning about culture that involves living in (and/or immersing oneself in) a culture for an extended period while gathering data (p. 28)
“Father” of participant observation is Bronislaw Malinowski
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Key Elements of Participant Observation
Living with the people
Participating in their everyday life
May be conducted in one or more locations If fieldwork is conducted in more than one location it is termed
“multisited research” (p. 29)
Learning and speaking the local language
Often occurs over an extended period of time
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Steps Involved in Cultural Anthropology Fieldwork Before going into the field…
Choose a place to do research Choose a research topic Prepare for the fieldwork
While in the field… Gain rapport Collect data
When come back from the field… Data analysis Present the data / write up results
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Where to do research?
Cultural anthropologists today go to “the field”
► “The field” is anywhere people are
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“The field” has changed since the early days of cultural anthropology in terms of where it is
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From the faraway, exotic and small-scale…
For example, Samoa
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To urban and globalizing sites such as Tangier, Morocco
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To the field at home: for example, Tangier, Virginia
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Even to Main Street, USA…
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…and Corporate USA
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What to Study?
Topics have changed since the early days of cultural anthropology
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From “holistic” studies of small groups…
such as indigenous peoples of the Andaman Islands, India
…to focused topical studies such as gender, health, or conflict in larger societies
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Gender: women’s lives in a South Indian urban neighborhood
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Or how globalization affects informal markets in the Old City of Istanbul, Turkey
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Or poverty and health in Johannesburg, South Africa
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Or tourism’s environmental and social effects in the Andaman Islands
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What should you think about when choosing a research project?
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What do you do before you go into the field? How do you prepare?
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Beginning Fieldwork Fieldwork is often a difficult process, especially in the
beginning Dealing with physical and psychological risks, and
sometimes even violence and warfare
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Beginning Fieldwork
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Beginning Fieldwork Dealing with culture shock
Culture shock is persistent feelings of uneasiness, loneliness, and anxiety that often occur when a person has shifted from one culture to a different one (p. 35)
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Culture Shock discussion Think of an occasion in which you
experienced culture shock, even if as the result of a brief cross-cultural encounter. How did you feel? How did you cope? What did you learn from the experience?
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Beginning Fieldwork Primary goal in the early stages of
fieldwork is to gain rapport Rapport is a trusting relationship
between the researcher and the study population (p. 33)
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Fieldwork Approaches
The goal of fieldwork is to collect data, or information, about the research topic.
Research approaches can be deductive or inductive.
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Deductive Research Deductive research starts from a
question or hypothesis and then involves collecting data related to that question Data collected is more likely to be…
quantitative (numerical) etic (fits into categories meaningful to the
cultural outsider/anthropologist)
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Inductive Research
Inductive research involves gathering data without a hypothesis Data collected is more likely to be…
qualitative (non-numerical) emic (fits into categories meaningful to the
cultural insider/local population)
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Two Research Approaches:Deductive and Inductive
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Two Research Approaches:Deductive and Inductive
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Fieldwork Techniques Participant observation Talking with people
Interview Questionnaire/Survey
Life histories Time allocation studies Analyzing textual material Maps and charts Genealogy Triangulation
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Participant Observation
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Talking with people
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Talking with people
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Life Histories
A life history is a qualitative, in-depth description of an individual’s life as narrated to the researcher (p. 38)
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Time Allocation Studies A time allocation study is a
quantitative method that collects data on how people spend their time each day on particular activities (p. 38)
Guatemala City caretakers
Benin
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Analyzing Textual Material May include written or oral stories,
myths, songs, plays, sayings, speeches, jokes, and transcripts of people’s everyday conversations
Also includes written archival and historical material
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Maps and Charts
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Triangulation
Triangulation is a technique that involves seeking information on a particular topic from more than one angle or perspective (p. 39)
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Recording Culture
Refers to how an anthropologist keeps track of all the information collected in the field and how it is recorded for future analysis
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Recording Culture Anthropologists take many field notes!
Taking notes is still the trademark method of recording data for a cultural anthropologist
Tape recorders, photography, and videos are also helpful in capturing data
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Recording Culture
Field notes
Tape recording, photography, and videos
Interviews
Questionnaires
Watching and askingLife history
Texts/historical sources
Team projects
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Coming Back From the Field
Data Analysis Anthropologists come back from the field
with vast amounts of data! Must analyze the data to put it into a
meaningful form Systematically studying and processing data
Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis
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Coming Back from the Field
Qualitative data analysis Search for themes or patterns in the data Can be done by hand or with the
assistance of qualitative analysis software programs
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Coming Back from the Field Qualitative data analysis
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Coming Back from the Field Quantitative data analysis
Often consists of a statistical analysis of the data Mean, median, mode, correlations
Can be done by hand (if a relatively small sample) or with the help of statistical software programs
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Coming Back from the Field Quantitative data analysis
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Quantitative Data on the Food Stamp Program in Jamaica
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Coming Back from the Field
Write an ethnography Often focuses on a particular cultural aspect
or issue, but considers the culture as a whole for the sake of context
Present research at meetings
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Ethics in Anthropology
Prompted by Project Camelot & The Vietnam War
In 1971, the AAA adopted a code of ethics
The anthropologist’s first responsibility is to ensure the safety of the people participating in the research
Does not condone “undercover” research
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Ethics in Anthropology Informed consent – an aspect of
research ethics requiring that the researcher inform the research participants of the intent, scope, and possible effects of the study and seek their agreement to be in the study (p. 32)
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Collaborative Research Collaborative research – an approach to
learning about culture that involves the anthropologist working with members of the study population as partners and teammates rather than researcher and “subject” (p. 43)
Research with the people, by the people, for the people
Team approach is better for everyone
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Collaborative Research
Members of the study population work as partners with the anthropologist in…Data collectionData analysisPresentation of findingsSharing credit for results
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History of Fieldwork
“Armchair” approach1870s
“Verandah” approachEarly 1900s
“The Field” approach1920s
“The Field” + participant observation and
collaborative researchToday
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The Gods Must Be Crazy http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=V2IxsfUpBck
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Question #1 What is the best way to conduct
anthropological research in literate societies?
A) survey researchB) ethnography C) through a combination of survey and
ethnographic techniquesD) observation from a distance E) There is no good way to conduct
anthropological fieldwork in complex societies
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Question #2 Which of the following is unique to
anthropology? A) holistic ethnographyB) ethicsC) random samplingD) interviews E) questionnaires
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Question #3 Unlike questionnaires, in-depth
interviews __________.A) rely on very short responses.B) are better suited to urban, complex societies
where most people are literate.C) are usually administered to a random sample
of a larger population.D) allow informants to talk about what they see as
important, rather than have to modify their responses to fit into predetermined categories.
E) are traditionally associated with survey research.
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Question #4 Unlike ethnography, survey research
_________.A) studies communities in their entirety.B) has been traditionally conducted in
nonindustrial, small-scale societies.C) is conducted with little or no personal
contact between study subjects and researchers.
D) makes little use of statistics.E) is based on establishing close personal
ties with the study community.
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Question #5 Which of the following is not an
example of participant-observation? A) dancing in a festivalB) singing during a ritualC) taking part in a huntD) competing in the games popular in the
communityE) interviewing key informants
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Question #6 The etic perspective is _________.
A) that of the ethnographer / anthropologist / interviewer.
B) that of the local members of the community being studied.
C) the one held by refugees regarding the authorities that forced them to leave their home country.
D) how locals perceive the world in which they live.
E) that of the person being interviewed.
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Question #7 Rapport is one of the ways
anthropologists present their findings from their fieldwork.
A) TrueB) False
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Question #8 Research starts from a question or
hypothesis and then involves collecting data related to that question is inductive research.
A) True
B) False
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Question #9 The “armchair” approach to
anthropology is commonly practiced today.
A) True
B) False
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Question #10 Qualitative data is non-numerical
data.A) True
B) False