Download ppt - Conversational Theory

Conversational TheoryConversational Theory

An introduction to how people talk An introduction to how people talk to each other.to each other.

What is conversation?What is conversation?

Analysing conversation is part of what Analysing conversation is part of what linguists call linguists call ‘discourse analysis.’ ‘discourse analysis.’

Can you explain the (obvious) difference Can you explain the (obvious) difference between a monologue and a dialogue?between a monologue and a dialogue?

Make a list of all the features you expect to Make a list of all the features you expect to see in a conversation.see in a conversation.

Simple definitionSimple definition

Conversation is:Conversation is:

Any interactive spoken exchange between two Any interactive spoken exchange between two or more people.or more people.

Face to face interactions (private or public Face to face interactions (private or public (in the classroom or Prime Minister’s QT)(in the classroom or Prime Minister’s QT)

Non-face to face interactions eg: ‘PhoneNon-face to face interactions eg: ‘PhoneBroadcasts such as radio phone-ins/tv chat Broadcasts such as radio phone-ins/tv chat

shows.shows.

‘‘Ingredients’ of a conversationIngredients’ of a conversation

You came up with a list of what conversation You came up with a list of what conversation includes but what do linguists call these includes but what do linguists call these things and how do they work in practice?things and how do they work in practice?

Key ideas about conversationKey ideas about conversation

Conversation is (usually) spontaneousConversation is (usually) spontaneous Speech is temporary (unlike writing)Speech is temporary (unlike writing) Conversation is about more than words Conversation is about more than words

(unlike writing usually is):(unlike writing usually is):– Prosody: Communication through facets other Prosody: Communication through facets other

than words such as than words such as intonation, speed, stress, intonation, speed, stress, volume, laughter volume, laughter or even or even silence.silence.

Features: 1. Turn-takingFeatures: 1. Turn-taking

Basic rule of conversation – people take it in Basic rule of conversation – people take it in turns.turns.

Levison: ‘Less than 5% of speech stream is Levison: ‘Less than 5% of speech stream is delivered in overlap.’delivered in overlap.’

There are conversational ‘rules’ that mean There are conversational ‘rules’ that mean there are appropriate behaviours – when to there are appropriate behaviours – when to talk, when not to.talk, when not to.

The expected pairing of utterance and then The expected pairing of utterance and then response is known as response is known as adjacency pairs.adjacency pairs.

Politeness and NegotiationPoliteness and Negotiation

Conversation is a subtle process and is about Conversation is a subtle process and is about cooperation. cooperation.

Getting somebody to do something for you can be Getting somebody to do something for you can be done via an IMPERATIVE (telling somebody what done via an IMPERATIVE (telling somebody what to do) or via an INTERROGATIVE (asking to do) or via an INTERROGATIVE (asking somebody to do something).somebody to do something).

There might be a ‘half way house’ for this via the There might be a ‘half way house’ for this via the use of ‘please.’ Which indicates forethought and use of ‘please.’ Which indicates forethought and encourages smooth conversation.encourages smooth conversation.We use politeness so we are not attacked.We use politeness so we are not attacked.

Content and ConditioningContent and Conditioning

There are certain topics in conversation that There are certain topics in conversation that are acceptable as much as there are certain are acceptable as much as there are certain words that are acceptable/unacceptable.words that are acceptable/unacceptable.

Purpose and ContextPurpose and Context

A A speech actspeech act refers to the idea that there is refers to the idea that there is always a purpose to speech. Speech act theory always a purpose to speech. Speech act theory refers to what is being done when something is refers to what is being done when something is said. It might not always be obvious just from the said. It might not always be obvious just from the words chosen.words chosen.

Consider ‘I do’ at a wedding or ‘Can you pass me Consider ‘I do’ at a wedding or ‘Can you pass me the ketchup?’the ketchup?’

GO through your day and chose 5 conversations GO through your day and chose 5 conversations you have had. Outline what they were about, what you have had. Outline what they were about, what was their purpose? was their purpose?

Halliday’s 7 functions of language.Halliday’s 7 functions of language.

Instrumental – Expresses needsInstrumental – Expresses needs Regulatory – Language used to tell others what to doRegulatory – Language used to tell others what to do Interactional – language used to form and maintain Interactional – language used to form and maintain

relationshipsrelationships Personal – language used to express feelings, opinions Personal – language used to express feelings, opinions

and identityand identity Heuristic – language used to gain knowledge about worldHeuristic – language used to gain knowledge about world Imaginative – language used to tell stories and jokes and to Imaginative – language used to tell stories and jokes and to

create an imaginary environment. create an imaginary environment. Representational – to convey facts and information.Representational – to convey facts and information.

What else is happening:What else is happening:Conversational structure & analysisConversational structure & analysis What are adjacency pairs?What are adjacency pairs? Brown and Yule (1983) state language is Brown and Yule (1983) state language is

either: either: Interactional Interactional or or TransactionalTransactional– Interactional: Interactional: expresses social relations & expresses social relations &

personal attitudespersonal attitudes– Transactional: Transactional: conveys factual information & is conveys factual information & is

message orientedmessage oriented

Discourse MarkersDiscourse Markers

Conversation is also dependent on Conversation is also dependent on discourse markers. discourse markers. These are the words These are the words and phrases that open, close and make and phrases that open, close and make links between and across utterances.links between and across utterances.

Discourse markers (aka utterance indicator) Discourse markers (aka utterance indicator) are like signposts in the conversation.are like signposts in the conversation.

Discourse markers show that conversations Discourse markers show that conversations are analysable into chunks larger than are analysable into chunks larger than sentences.sentences.

Discourse markersDiscourse markers

'the little words like 'well', 'oh', ‘right' and OK' that break our 'the little words like 'well', 'oh', ‘right' and OK' that break our speech up into parts and can show the relation between speech up into parts and can show the relation between parts. parts.

Their ‘meanings’ can be quite variable, and sometimes Their ‘meanings’ can be quite variable, and sometimes people have quite idiosyncratic discourse markers (think of people have quite idiosyncratic discourse markers (think of your teachers), but there are some tendencies in discourse your teachers), but there are some tendencies in discourse marker use:marker use:

'Oh' can prepare the hearer for a surprising or just 'Oh' can prepare the hearer for a surprising or just remembered itemremembered item

‘‘Right’ can indicate the beginning of a new stretch of Right’ can indicate the beginning of a new stretch of discourse, or that a discourse topic has been completed discourse, or that a discourse topic has been completed and a new one is about to startand a new one is about to start

What do you call it when…What do you call it when…

Somebody starts talking?Somebody starts talking?– This is known as taking the floor.This is known as taking the floor.

Somebody lets somebody else talk?Somebody lets somebody else talk?– This is known as yielding the floorThis is known as yielding the floor

Somebody continues to talk? Somebody continues to talk? – This is known as holding the floor.This is known as holding the floor.

This term ‘the floor’ has its origins in This term ‘the floor’ has its origins in debatingdebating

What else is going on in What else is going on in conversation?conversation?

BACK-CHANNELING:BACK-CHANNELING:– If the hearer doesn’t want to speak he/she signals that If the hearer doesn’t want to speak he/she signals that

the speaker can continue. This is done through sounds the speaker can continue. This is done through sounds and gestures as well as words.and gestures as well as words.

– These sounds might be things like uh-huh, mmmm, yeh,These sounds might be things like uh-huh, mmmm, yeh,– Or gestures such as head nodding Or gestures such as head nodding – They are an important way the listener shows interest in They are an important way the listener shows interest in

the speaker.the speaker.– They show the involvement of both parties.They show the involvement of both parties.– Back channel feedback is very important in phone Back channel feedback is very important in phone

conversations. Why?conversations. Why?

What else is going on?What else is going on?

PRE-SEQUENCING:PRE-SEQUENCING:– Used when a turn in TURN TAKING is really Used when a turn in TURN TAKING is really

problematic – for example due to a difficult subject problematic – for example due to a difficult subject matter.matter.

– A speaker prepares for the difficulty with a pre-A speaker prepares for the difficulty with a pre-sequence. E.g:sequence. E.g:

A: I have something terrible to tell youA: I have something terrible to tell youB: How bad can it be?B: How bad can it be?A: As bad as you can imagine.A: As bad as you can imagine.B: Yeah?B: Yeah?A: Bennie just got run over.A: Bennie just got run over.


PHATIC TALK:PHATIC TALK:– A usual pre-sequence is phatic talk; utterances A usual pre-sequence is phatic talk; utterances

that have no real purpose.that have no real purpose.– Phatic talk is often used to open a conversation Phatic talk is often used to open a conversation

– a good example is the British obsession with – a good example is the British obsession with the weather!? Are we really interested or is it to the weather!? Are we really interested or is it to serve a purely interactional/social function?serve a purely interactional/social function?

– Sp phatic talk will often ‘open the ground.’Sp phatic talk will often ‘open the ground.’– Very important social tool – small talk.Very important social tool – small talk.


REPAIRS:REPAIRS:– The speaker can correct himself/herselfThe speaker can correct himself/herself– The hearer can correct the speakerThe hearer can correct the speaker– The Hearer can prompt the speaker, perhaps by The Hearer can prompt the speaker, perhaps by

repeating back the last utterancerepeating back the last utterance– The hearer doesn’t respond indicating a The hearer doesn’t respond indicating a

‘mistake’‘mistake’


NON-FLUENCY FEATURES:NON-FLUENCY FEATURES:– These are These are normalnormal characteristics of speech that characteristics of speech that

interrupt the flow of talk.interrupt the flow of talk. Hesitations: Fill a gap to prevent a turn/allow thoughtHesitations: Fill a gap to prevent a turn/allow thought False starts – Speaker begins and then againFalse starts – Speaker begins and then again Repetitions – Natural though can be used for emphasisRepetitions – Natural though can be used for emphasis Interruptions or Insertions – when the adjacency pair is Interruptions or Insertions – when the adjacency pair is

disrupteddisrupted Overlaps – A kind of interruption; can be co-operative or an Overlaps – A kind of interruption; can be co-operative or an

attempt to take the floor.attempt to take the floor. Fillers are also non-fluency features but…I think they come…Fillers are also non-fluency features but…I think they come…

RepairsRepairs

There is a preference in speech to allow the There is a preference in speech to allow the speaker to repair their mistake.speaker to repair their mistake.

If a speaker is not allowed to repair a If a speaker is not allowed to repair a mistake it is seen as not a normative mistake it is seen as not a normative response and can cause conversational response and can cause conversational trouble or conflict.trouble or conflict.

Repair is very frequent – talk is a Repair is very frequent – talk is a spontaneous, noisy mediumspontaneous, noisy medium

What else is going on?What else is going on? (here) FILLERS, HEDGES & TAG QUESTONS:(here) FILLERS, HEDGES & TAG QUESTONS: Fillers: Fillers:

Sounds that ‘fill up’ speech such as urm ,um, er.Sounds that ‘fill up’ speech such as urm ,um, er. Allow thinking time and prevent interruption. Linked to ideas of Allow thinking time and prevent interruption. Linked to ideas of voiced voiced

pauses pauses (noises used to keep the turn in the conversation)(noises used to keep the turn in the conversation) Hedge: Hedge:

– A means of being non-commital, not sounding too directA means of being non-commital, not sounding too direct– ‘‘Sort of’ ‘kind ofSort of’ ‘kind of’’

Tag Questions:Tag Questions:– (Unnecessary) questions at the end of utterances – less confrontational or (Unnecessary) questions at the end of utterances – less confrontational or

confident. Prompt back channel feedback, but confident. Prompt back channel feedback, but cancan be aggressive. You be aggressive. You know what I mean, don’t you?know what I mean, don’t you?

Vague Language:Vague Language:– Softens the impact of an utteranceSoftens the impact of an utterance– E.g She said you smelt E.g She said you smelt or somethingor something OR OR WheneverWhenever it was you said it was you said

whateverwhatever it was you said it was you said


PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES:PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES:– Related to body language (whereas prosody is Related to body language (whereas prosody is

about the non-verbal aspects of speech!)about the non-verbal aspects of speech!)– Gestures, facial expressions.Gestures, facial expressions.– Laughter or smiling might come under this Laughter or smiling might come under this

category (poss prosody depending on context)category (poss prosody depending on context)– Paralinguistic features help add meaning in Paralinguistic features help add meaning in

addition to the meaning of the words used.addition to the meaning of the words used.

Anything else?! Surely that’s it?!Anything else?! Surely that’s it?!

Not quite – there are certain ways we can say things…Not quite – there are certain ways we can say things…– ElisionElision: When you slur one of more sounds or syllables (like : When you slur one of more sounds or syllables (like

in ‘gonna’ (Going to). This is very very common! in ‘gonna’ (Going to). This is very very common! – EllipsisEllipsis: When part of a grammatical construction is missing : When part of a grammatical construction is missing

‘You out tonight?’‘You out tonight?’– AccentAccent: We all know about this one!! The distinctive way : We all know about this one!! The distinctive way

words are words are pronounced pronounced (like my ‘oooo’ sounds as opposed to (like my ‘oooo’ sounds as opposed to your oow sounds in words like ‘home’)your oow sounds in words like ‘home’)

– DialectDialect: The grammar and lexis of a regional area (Tha’ll end : The grammar and lexis of a regional area (Tha’ll end up like a boolie = Cumbrian for ‘You will get a bad back’!!)up like a boolie = Cumbrian for ‘You will get a bad back’!!)

– Idiolect: How an individual speaks; a distinctive style.Idiolect: How an individual speaks; a distinctive style.– SociolectSociolect: How a social group talk – eg upper or working : How a social group talk – eg upper or working

class.class.

PRACTICE: PRACTICE: Expected responses – Expected responses – adjacency pairs in practice. What adjacency pairs in practice. What

might be the response to the might be the response to the following:following:

Your tea is readyYour tea is ready That’s a nice jacketThat’s a nice jacket I heard it might snowI heard it might snow Hello there!Hello there! Are you coming later?Are you coming later?

Notice that they are not all questions! However Notice that they are not all questions! However the most often used adjacency pairs are in a the most often used adjacency pairs are in a Question/Answer format.Question/Answer format.

PRACTICE: PRACTICE: Consider the Consider the following:following:

Sit down and shut upSit down and shut up Please can I have some of those over therePlease can I have some of those over there Please quieten downPlease quieten down Give me thatGive me thatWho do you think is speaking?Who do you think is speaking?Why?Why?What is the context of the utterance?What is the context of the utterance?

Practice Practice

Can you think of a topic that are seen as Can you think of a topic that are seen as taboo? taboo?

Are there certain people/contexts that Are there certain people/contexts that change what you consider to be taboo? change what you consider to be taboo?

Explain you answer.Explain you answer.

PRACTICE: PRACTICE: When adjacency pairs When adjacency pairs are (apparently) brokenare (apparently) broken

The following examples break expectations. Can you The following examples break expectations. Can you suggest a context in which this might happen:suggest a context in which this might happen:

A: HelloA: HelloB: GoodbyeB: Goodbye

A: What do you think of this?A: What do you think of this?B: Is that the time? I must goB: Is that the time? I must go

A: Did you go out with Jon last night?A: Did you go out with Jon last night?B: Why are you asking?B: Why are you asking?A: Why do you think?A: Why do you think?

PRACTICE PRACTICE

Give specific examples of paralinguistic Give specific examples of paralinguistic features through a short skit. The audience features through a short skit. The audience is to interpret the meaning of these is to interpret the meaning of these features. features.

PRACTICEPRACTICE

Give specific examples of Give specific examples of

–ElisionElision –EllipsisEllipsis –AccentAccent –DialectDialect –IdiolectIdiolect–SociolectSociolect