UNIT 1: COMPOSITION WRITING

FEATURES OF THE MAIN TYPES OF COMPOSITION

A composition is an organised piece of writing written for a specific purpose. It is characterised by:

COHERENCE - ideas/points should be arranged in a balanced, logical manner. COHESION - ideas/sentences/paragraphs should be linked together satisfactorily. CLARITY - points should be expressed clearly so that they are easily comprehensible to the reader CORRECTNESS - mistakes in grammar and spelling must be avoided

Every composition should have a recognisable INTRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT (divided into PARAGRAPHS, each dealing with a particular aspect of the topic), CONCLUSION.

Compositions can be roughly divided into four main types:1 DESCRIPTIVETypical development: from the general to the particular from outside to inside or vice versa different features of a particular thing, place, person contrasting positive and negative aspects

2 NARRATIVETypical development:setting the scene, place, background, situation, earlier events, descriptive paragraphevents in chronological order (what happened first, later, next, as a result, in the end, etc.)anecdotesMain tenses: Simple Past, Past Perfect, Past Continuous

3 ARGUMENTATIVETypical development:comparing different opinions, pros and consdestroying an argumentpersuading"selling" a point of view

4 FACTUALTypical development:comparing past and presentcause and effectdifferences between one place and anotherincrease and decreasetrends

N.B. Most compositions are a mixture of the above types and their features.

A MODEL ESSAY

Points to note:o the use of pairs of words and pairs of ideaso contrasting pointso how paragraphs / points are linked

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o adding detail to support a pointo use of repetition to reinforce a pointo use of generalisationo use of the pronoun “you”o focusing on what to do rather than what not to do

The Successful Interview

IntroductionTo be successful in a job interview (or for that matter in almost any interview situation), you should demonstrate certain personal and professional qualities. You need to create a good image in the limited time available, usually from 30 to 45 minutes. Furthermore, you must make a positive impression which the interviewer will remember while he or she interviews other applicants. At all times, you should present your most attractive qualities during an interview.

Paragraph 1 (Dress)TASK: Complete the sentences with the phrases below.

Clothes which are too elaborate, It may not be true that On the other hand, On the positive side, The right clothes You should, for example,

(1)....................................................................................................... take care to appear well-groomed and modestly dressed, avoiding the extremes of too elaborate or too casual attire. (2)....................................................................................................... clothes may be a good leveller, putting you on a par with other applicants and requiring the interviewer to consider more important qualifications. (3)............................................................................. clothes which are too informal may convey the impression that you are not serious about the job or that you may be casual about your work as well as your dress. (4).......................... .......................................................................... too colourful, or too expensive suggest that you do not understand what behaviour is appropriate for the job or that you are snobbish or frivolous. (5)....................................................................................................... worn at the right time, however, gain the respect of the interviewer and his confidence in your judgement. (6)....................................................................................................... ‘clothes make the man,' but the first and often lasting impression of you is determined by the clothes you wear.

Paragraph 2 (Way of speaking, keywords: clear voice, friendly, pleasant)TASK: Complete the text by adding “a”, “an” or “the” where necessary.

Besides (1)....................................... care for (2)....................................... personal appearance, you should pay (3)....................................... close attention to your manner of speaking. Since (4)....................................... speech is (5)....................................... reflection of (6)....................................... personality, you should reflect confidence by speaking in (7)....................................... clear voice, loud enough to be heard without being aggressive or overpowering. Your speech should not call (8)....................................... attention to itself, but it should reveal (9)....................................... individuality and ability of (10)....................................... speaker. Obviously, you must speak without (11)....................................... grammatical or dialect differences for which you might be criticised or which might cause (12)....................................... embarrassment to (13)....................................... employer. Although there are (14)....................................... cultural differences with respect to (15)....................................... formality of (16)....................................... job interview, your speech must show you to be (17)....................................... friendly and pleasant person.

Paragraph 3 (What you say, keywords: knowledge, experience, understanding)TASK: Complete the paragraph putting one suitable word in each gap.

Speaking without a subject worth talking about will (1)....................................... impress anyone. You should be prepared to talk knowledgeably about the requirements of the position for (2)....................................... you are

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applying in relation to (3)............................... own professional experiences and interests. Knowing something about the position enables you to (4)....................................... intelligent questions about the work and the requirements for the job. The interviewer can decide from the questions asked (5)....................................... you are genuinely interested or knowledgeable. You can comment (6)....................................... your own training, experience, and other qualifications in relation to the specific tasks of the position. The interviewer can determine whether your background and potential seem to fit the position. The position for which you are applying is not (7)....................................... the safest topic for discussion, it is (8)....................................... the best way to demonstrate your understanding of the requirements of the job and your abilities in meeting these requirements.

Paragraph 4 (Attitude to the job, keywords: self-confidence, eagerness, enthusiasm)TASK: Complete the paragraph with nouns from the list. Four are distracters.

facilitations/ comments / requests / dressing / enthusiasm / facilities / interest / papers / payment / qualities / questions / salary / excitement

Finally, to be really impressive you must convey a sense of self-confidence and (1)................................................. for work. As already indicated, you demonstrate self-confidence by your manner of speech and way of (2)................................................. . You further show it by being prepared for the interview with information and (3)................................................. about the position. In addition, the way you enter the room, sit, look at the interviewer, and fill out application forms and other (4)................................................. may express self-confidence. The eagerness with which you discuss the job rather than the (5)................................................. may reveal your enthusiasm for work. You may express it also through your questions and (6)................................................. about working conditions and (7)................................................. . And, of course, your previous experience and success will tell the interviewer about your enthusiasm for work. Both of these (8)................................................. - self-confidence and enthusiasm for work - are valued highly by all interviewers.

Conclusion

The appropriately dressed job applicant indicates his sound judgement. His manner of speaking suggests his friendliness and competence. His curiosity and information about the position he is seeking demonstrate his sincerity and potential in the job. He exhibits self-confidence through his knowledge, and he shows his enthusiasm for work. If you display these characteristics, with just a little luck, you will certainly succeed in the typical personnel interview.

PRACTISING LINKING DEVICES

EXERCISE 1Complete the sentences with an appropriate word or phrase.

1. When Joshua saw his grandfather take off his hat, he did ........................................ 2. ........................................ you make a good impression at the interview, you stand a good chance of being

offered the job.

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3. The summers in this part of Canada are usually warm and dry; ........................................, the winters are very severe.

4. The island can be reached by helicopter, ........................................, you can get there by walking across the sands at low tide.

5. In primitive tribes it is fairly common for men to have more than one wife ........................................ the opposite is not the case.

6. I couldn't get the parrot to talk, ........................................ hard I tried.7. ........................................ you look, you can see traces of the damage done by man to the environment.8. ........................................ the Scottish Highlands, south east England is very densely populated.9. ........................................ the indications to the contrary, I assure you that this house is not haunted.10. ........................................ popular belief, goldfish have very good memories.11. I'm not going to apologise to the boss, ........................................ the consequences.12. I never eat wild mushrooms ........................................ they've been checked by an expert as non-poisonous.13. George goes to visit his old father ........................................ he can.14. Coral has five sisters and two brothers ........................................ her husband is an only child.15. ........................................ your application to become a member of MENSA, I'm sorry to inform you that your IQ

score was too low to qualify you for membership. 16. ........................................ unable to swim, Max leapt into the raging torrent to save his girlfriend.17. ........................................ or not he has the right qualifications, he is not the right person for this job.18. ........................................ I like Dennis, I wouldn't like to be married to him.19. ........................................ how hard William tried, he couldn't please his violin teacher.20. ........................................ got into my computer files must have known the password.21. ........................................ having lunch at one we had it at two.22. ........................................ it rains heavily the roof leaks.23. ........................................ it was getting unpleasantly hot, Grandma refused to take off her hat.24. ........................................ working as a vet Malcolm caught avian flu.25. ........................................ you have completed the job will you be paid.26. High heeled shoes are very uncomfortable, ........................................, many women insist on wearing them.27. ........................................ the fire spread so rapidly through the building was that insufficient precautions had

been taken.28. The guard refused to let me into the papal apartments ........................................ my claiming to be a distant

relative of His Holiness's.29. The medium promised to get in touch with Mrs Gullible's dead husband ........................................ she was paid

in advance.30. You can’t vote in Norway ........................................ you have Norwegian nationality.

UNIT 2

TYPES OF EXERCISE DESIGNED TO ENHANCE WRITING SKILLS AND INCREASE VOCABULARY (1)

Theme: Writing about people

1. INTRODUCTIONGapfilling exercises of different types are one of the most common ways of practising and testing vocabulary and structures. Most of the exercises which follow involve completing sentences or passages with one or more words. Other types of exercise include matching words from two separate lists or columns, putting words or

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phrases in the correct order, correcting errors and giving synonyms or antonyms. Lexical items can also be tested with multiple choice exercises, either within a text or in isolated sentences. .

EXERCISE 1On a scale of three, decide whether the underlined words are very predictable (3), moderately predictable (2), unpredictable (1) TEXT 1 John Boyd Dunlop (1840-1921)As a boy in Ayrshire John Boyd Dunlop wanted to be an inventor. Instead, he became a veterinary surgeon, setting up practice in Belfast. On his rounds in his dog-cart, the rough roads and cobblestones aroused his sympathy for those forced to give up cycling because of the jolting from their solid-tyred bicycles. It occurred to him to fill a rubber tube with compressed air. This, he theorised, might not only reduce vibration, but might travel faster than a solid tyre. To a disc of wood he attached an air tyre made by himself. He tested this against the solid-tyred wheel from a bicycle. When rolled along the surface of a yard, the air tyre ran the entire length and, striking a gate with considerable force, bounced backwards. In the same way Dunlop rolled the solid-tyred wheel. It never even reached the gate.1

2. COMPLETING A TEXT WITH WORDS FROM A LIST.The missing words are generally adjectives verbs or nouns, or a mixture of all three. In this type of exercise “distracters” may be used to test , for example, false cognates (actually, sympathetic, sensible) or words that are confused because there is one word in Italian and two or more in English (make/do, bring/take, nephew/grandson)Since adjectives, verbs and nouns often form part of collocations, this is the main indicator of which of such words to use in a passage. Structural considerations and logic may also come into play, for example, many verbs are followed by a specific preposition or structure (e.g. gerund/infinitive) so that even if the meaning of the word fits, it may not be syntactically correct in the context. The form of the word (inflection), especially verbs, can also help to determine whether or not it is appropriate in a given context.

Another type of gapfill exercise is the cloze-type test. This means completing a text with a suitable word but no list is given so the missing words must be highly predictable, for example articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, strong collocations or a word already present elsewhere in the text.

EXERCISE 2TEXT 2John Dunlop (part 2) Where there is a dotted line, complete with a word from the list; where there is a continuous line, think of a word to fill the gap.bears / business / company / enthusiasm / handsome / instinct / interest / invention / patent (2) / tragedyHe applied for a (1).............................................. . When he revealed his (2).............................................., cycle dealers showed immense (3).............................................. . A year later the original company, The Pneumatic Tyre Co., was (4)__________________________ at 67 Upper Stephen Street, Dublin. The building (4).............................................. a plaque: 'The first pneumatic tyre factory in the (5).............................................. was started here in 1889 to make (6)__________________________ under John Boyd Dunlop's (7).............................................. of 7 December,1888.' To help to develop the tyre(8).............................................. , Dunlop (9)__________________________ to Dublin. Lacking the business (10).............................................. to foresee the commercial possibilities of his invention, he sold his interest in the (11).............................................. , thereby sacrificing the wealth (12)__________________________ might have been his. Dunlop didn't usually (13)__________________________ a bicycle but in 1888 he bought (14)__________________________ for demonstration purposes and restored the public's (15).............................................. for cycling: a Belfast cyclist was actually cautioned for exceeding the speed (16)__________________________ , an Irish rider won a London marathon. The demand became (17)__________________________ great that the Pneumatic TyreCo., found difficulty in meeting orders.During thirty years of residence in Dublin, Dunlop became a familiar figure. Chairman of Messrs Todd Burns of Henry Street, he was still a (18).............................................. man in his eighties: tall, erect, with luxurious white hair and a flowing white beard. The (19).............................................. of his life was the early (20)__________________________ of his son, John. They are (21)__________________________ in Deansgrange Cemetery.

EXERCISE 3

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TEXTS 3 AND 4: TWO CHARACTERS FROM “PRIDE AND PREJUDICE”A. Missing Nouns. Note that many of these are predictable because they form part of an adjective + noun collocationbehaviour / characters / dialogue / family / happiness / impression / judgments / literature / obstacles / prejudice / proposals / protagonist / qualities / siblings / story / tongue / virtue

Elizabeth BennetThe second daughter in the Bennet (1)....................................... , and the most intelligent and quick-witted, Elizabeth is the (2)....................................... of Pride and Prejudice and one of the most well-known female (3)....................................... in English (4)....................................... . Her admirable (5)....................................... are numerous - she is lovely, clever, and, in a novel developed through (6)....................................... , she converses as brilliantly as anyone. Her honesty, (7)....................................... , and lively wit enable her to rise above the nonsense and bad (8)....................................... that pervade her class-bound and often spiteful society. Nevertheless, her sharp (9)....................................... and tendency to make hasty (10)....................................... often lead her astray; Pride and Prejudice is essentially the (11)....................................... of how she (and her true love, Darcy) overcome all (12)....................................... - including their own personal failings - to find romantic (13)....................................... . Elizabeth must not only cope with a hopeless mother, a distant father, two badly behaved younger (14)......................................., and several snobbish, antagonizing females, she must also overcome her own mistaken (15)....................................... of Darcy, which initially leads her to reject his (16)....................................... of marriage. , Fortunately, her charms are sufficient to keep him interested, while she navigates through familial and social turmoil. As she gradually comes to recognize the nobility of Darcy’s character, she realizes the error of her initial (17)....................................... against him.

B. Here, longer phrases are omitted. It is necessary to understand the meaning of the passage rather than to complete a stock phrase or collocation.Darcya more likeable figure / a wealthy, well-established family / Elizabeth’s point of view of events / male counterpart / her charms, beauty, or anything else complimentary / her earlier harsh judgment of him / his distaste for her low connections / his haughty aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh / his high birth and wealth / his social status / the great estate of PemberleyThe son of (1).................................................................................................................. and the master of (2)................................................................ .................................................., Darcy is Elizabeth’s (3)......................................................................................................... . The narrator relates (4).................................................................................................................. more often than Darcy’s, so Elizabeth often seems (5).................................................................................................................. . The reader eventually realizes, however, that Darcy is her ideal match. Intelligent and forthright, he too has a tendency to judge too hastily and harshly, and (6).................................................................................................................. make him overly proud and overly conscious of (7).................................................................................................................. . Indeed, his haughtiness makes him initially bungle his courtship. When he proposes to her, for instance, he dwells more on how unsuitable a match she is than on (8).................................................................................................................. . Her rejection of his advances builds a kind of humility in him. Darcy demonstrates his continued devotion to Elizabeth, in spite of his (9)............................................................................................. , when he rescues Lydia and the entire Bennet family from disgrace, and when he goes against the wishes of (10).................................................................................................................., by continuing to pursue Elizabeth. Darcy proves himself worthy of Elizabeth, and she ends up repenting of (11)........................................................... ............................................ .

EXERCISE 4: Completing wordsIn descriptions adjectives are often used in pairs and threes. In the following exercise, complete the second adjective in the sentences. In the exercise below, complete the second adjective.

1. He is one of the most powerful and influ.................................... people in politics today.2. You can always count on Alex; he’s one of the most dependable and rel..................... people I’ve ever met.3. Alice is very fussy and fast.................................... about what she eats.4. He is well-thought of and highly-reg.................................... in academic circles.5. I need a competent and eff.................................... secretary.6. She was a loyal and dev.................................... wife.

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7. He is frank and outsp.................................... in expressing his views on the abuse of human rights.8. The rebels see the former leader as a cruel and ruthl.................................... dictator.9. He is boastful and concei.................................... about his achievements.10. Guinness was a kind and ge.................................... man who gave much of his great wealth to charity.11. To be a good doctor you have to be compassionate and symp.....................................12. All our employees are conscientious and hard-w.....................................

EXERCISE 5: Words referring to types of peopleComplete the sentences with words from the list.busybody / connoisseur / dark horse / gender bender / globe-trotter / high flyer / lone wolf / nodding acquaintance / rolling stone / serial killer / show-off / sole survivor / wet blanket / workaholic

1. He’s travelled all over the world; he’s a ......................................................2. She’s a ...................................................... , she always wants to know what everyone’s up to.3. He’s a ......................................................, he’s already murdered ten people.4. She’s a ......................................................; she always pours cold water on all my suggestions.5. He’s a ...................................................... ; nobody knows where he lives or what he does for a living.6. He was the ...................................................... of the air crash. all the other passengers were killed.7. He’s a .........................................; he’s very ambitious and is determined to get to the top of his profession.8. I hardly know him; he’s just a .......................................................9. He’s a ......................................................; he doesn’t like socialising or meeting people.10. He’s a ...................................................... , he gets into the office at 7a.m. and leaves at 10p.m.11. He often dresses as a woman; he’s a ......................................................12. He knows everything there is to know about French wines; he’s a ......................................................13. He never settles for long in a place; he’s a ......................................................14. He’s a ......................................................; he’s always boasting about his achievements.

EXERCISE 6: Prepositional idioms referring to peopleChoose phrases from the list to complete the sentences. Where there is more than one space, it means that there is more than one possibility.at a loss / at death’s door / down-at-heel / down in the dumps / in great shape / in one’s cups / in the seventh heaven / in the seventh heaven / off colour / off one’s rocker / on one’s last legs / on tenterhooks / out of one’s mind / out of sorts / over the moon / round the bend / under the influence / under the weather / up in arms

1. You’ll never set the Thames on fire in show business if you go around looking dishevelled, untidy and ............................................. (scruffy).

2. Two weeks ago he seemed to be ............................................. ............................................. (dying) but now he’s ............................................. (in good health).

3. I’m feeling a bit ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. this morning, I think I’ll stay off work today.

4. Beverley is ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. again. She must have had at least six whiskies.

5. I’m always ............................................. (worried and nervous) before an interview.6. A: How can we solve the problem? B: I don’t know; I’m ............................................. (unable to offer a

solution)7. Basil was ............................................. ............................................. (thrilled to bits)when he heard he’d won first

prize.8. Grandad has decided to take up bungee-jumping. He must

be ............................................. ............................................. ............................................. (crazy).9. The old people were ............................................. (indignant) when it was announced that their pensions would

be reduced.10. He is ............................................. (depressed) because he can’t find a job.

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UNIT 3

THE PARAGRAPH

Features of the paragraphA paragraph is a set of related sentences dealing with a single feature or aspect of a broader topic. It can stand alone or be part of a longer piece of writing. The sentences within the paragraph should be appropriately linked to what precedes and what follows and arranged in a logical sequence. A paragraph has some of the features of the sentence (unity, balance, cohesion) and some of the features of a well-structured essay or composition, that is, it should consist of an introduction, development and conclusion. Research shows that the average paragraph contains about five to seven sentences, however, they may be shorter or longer depending on the complexity of the subject

Sentence functions within the paragraphThe first sentence of a paragraph (introducer or topic sentence) serves to introduce the main idea and establish the focus of the paragraph as a whole.The body of the paragraph (developers) provides details to support the main idea. Developers may present examples or details of various kinds to support or illustrate the topic sentence, or they may introduce exceptions, alternatives, differences. In any case they provide a transition leading to the concluding sentence.The closing sentence (conclusion or terminator) logically concludes the ideas expressed in the paragraph in a psychologically satisfactory manner. The terminator often reaffirms or underlines the central idea. Alternatively it may provide a lead-in to the subsequent paragraph.

Introductory and concluding paragraphs Paragraphs which serve to introduce or conclude a longer text have specific characteristics.

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The introduction may have one or more of the following functions: to arouse interest in the subject to indicate which aspects of the subject you are going to deal with to define the subject or the words of the title to give your own or someone else's opinion on the subject (if the topic is controversial) to express some general considerations about the topic to be developed

The conclusion usually includes one or more of the following, depending on the topic: a logical deduction based on the points made a personal opinion based on/ justified by what you have said a pertinent quotation a reaffirmation of what you said in the introduction a brief summary of the points you have made and what can be deduced from them outlook for the future

Development paragraphsIn a standard composition of 500-700 words, the section between the introduction and the conclusion is called the development. The paragraphs in this section each develop a particular aspect or feature of the main topic. They should follow in a logical order and be linked so as to form part of a cohesive whole, in harmony with all the other elements of the text. Decide in advance what the theme of the paragraph is to be, how you are going to open and close it, how it is to be linked to what comes before and after and which is the best order to arrange the paragraphs.

Individual paragraphs may be developed in a variety of ways. Depending upon the purpose or intent of the writer, particular paragraphs may be thought of as aiming to persuade, inform, argue, or arouse interest or they may have a specific function such as summarising, introducing, explaining, describing or defining. Paragraphs are often developed according to such techniques as comparison, contrast, advantages

versus disadvantages, cause/effect relationships, or by listing, classifying or giving examples. Another developmental device might be to organises items or ideas chronologically or spatially. These different ways of developing paragraphs are characterised by specific discourse markers:

Contrast: on the other hand, on the contrary, conversely, whereas, by contrast, unlike Similarity: similarly, in the same way, likewise, just as ..... so Adding something: moreover, furthermore, in addition, as well as, not only ..... but also, what is more Cause and effect. therefore, as a result, thus, accordingly, for this reason, this is why, as a

consequence Chronological: later, subsequently, afterwards, the following year, next Example: for example, for instance, a case in point

Whatever the function of the paragraph may be, and whatever the technique used to develop it, each paragraph should have a recognisable introductory and concluding sentence. Each sentence should contain a key idea and the sentences should follow on in a logical manner, linked by appropriate cohesive devices.

EXERCISE 1: Contrasting paragraphsNote: The following two paragraphs are developed by contrasting advantages with disadvantages. Paragraph 1 presents the advantages and Paragraph 2 the disadvantagesComplete the paragraphs putting one suitable word in each gap.

There are many obvious advantages to using foreign labour. First of all, it is usually cheap. Workers from Bangladesh, India or the Philippines are happy to (1) w........................................... for salaries which are high in (2) co........................................... to their home countries but (3) l........................................... in the host (4) c........................................... . Foreign workers are also ready to work in remote (5) lo........................................... or at times (6) w........................................... local workers would not. A (7) s........................................... point is that foreign workers are usually job-ready. They do not need expensive college education or training. They may have skills not available in the new country. A third point is that many migrant (8) w........................................... are ready to work in jobs that are (9) t........................................... dirty or dangerous for nationals (10) s........................................... as construction or cleaning. All these advantages mean that the economy is boosted by cheap labor and low production costs.

However, there are hidden costs to the economy of the country. One (11) ma........................................... drawback is that the workers are sending a lot of money home, (12) in........................................... of spending it.

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This results in a loss of foreign exchange for the country. Another point is that they may take jobs from locals. More importantly, they reduce the salaries for some job (13) cat........................................... . For example, employers will pay very low (14) w........................................... for some jobs which some locals might like to do but could not survive on. Security is (15) a........................................... issue. Foreign workers can leave at any (16) m............................ if there is a political or other problem, and this can (17) br........................................... about a sudden loss of skills and experience. An additional (18) fa........................................... is that the influx of foreign workers can put pressure on services such as hospitals or housing, and these costs have to be (19) m........................................... by the state, not the employers who are getting rich. All these factors can result in economic problems for the government.

EXERCISE 2: Paragraph development by classificationAdd articles where necessary.CarsEach year (1)........................................... car industry throughout (2)........................................... world produces (3)........................................... glittering array of (4)........................................... different models, designed to appeal to every age, to every taste, to every pocket. For (5)........................................... person who needs (6)........................................... reliable transportation with (7)........................................... minimum operating costs, there is (8)........................................... large selection of (9)........................................... small, lightweight cars that travel (10)........................................... great distances on (11) ....................................... very little petrol. For (12)........................................... young, who demand (13)........................................... ultimate in (14)........................................... appearance and performance, there is (15).................................... great variety of sports and speciality models. For (16)........................................... 'young at heart' - (17)........................................... middle-aged, middle-class citizen who wants (18)........................................... prestige mix of (19)........................................... style, size, and comfort - there is (20)........................................... wide range of (21)........................................... big, sleek cars available with all (22)........................................... sorts of (23)........................................... optional equipment. And finally, for (24)........................................... truly wealthy, there is (25)........................................... select group of (26)........................................... luxury cars, custom-built to satisfy (27)........................................... most fastidious tastes. On (28)........................................... basis of just these four categories, it can be said that (29)........................................... car industry exemplifies (30)........................................... seller's slogan: 'You pays your money, and you takes your choice.'

EXERCISE 3: A cause/ effect paragraph Decide where to insert the four sentences in the paragraph.The promise of a better education persuaded many families to leave farming communities and move to the cities. There are several reasons for this.These included stadiums, theatres, and museums. These jobs, with their promise of a better material life, attracted many people from rural areas. In recent decades, cities have grown so large that now about 50% of the Earth's population lives in urban areas. (1)......................................................................................................................................... First, the increasing industrialization of the nineteenth century resulted in the creation of many factory jobs, which tended to be located in cities. (3)...................................................................................................................... Second, there were many schools established to educate the children of the new factory labourers. (4)......................................................................................................................................... Finally, as the cities grew, people established places of leisure, entertainment, and culture. (5)................................... ...................................................................................................... For many people, these facilities made city life appear more interesting than life on the farm, and therefore drew them away from rural communities.

EXERCISE 4: Narrative development followed by conclusions drawn from the storyComplete the paragraph with phrases from the list. Five are distracters.24,800 people / a fundamental truth / a multinational company / a small family business / its first loss / its first profit / subsequent fall / subsequent rise / the founder / an employee / the business / the modern façade / the social capital / very few peopleChinese business practice: the case of Wang LaboratoriesWang Laboratories of Lowell, Massachusetts began as (1)...................................................................... . A maker of computers, Wang grew rapidly and had revenues of US$2.28 billion by 1984, and at one time employed

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(2)...................................................................... in the Boston area. All seemed to go well until (3)...................................................................... , An Wang, got ready to retire in the mid-80s.Wang Laboratories’ (4)...................................................................... was dramatic even by the standards of the unpredictable computer industry. The company registered (5).................................................................... the year after An’s son, Fred Wang, took over the business. Within 4 years, 90% of its market capitalization had disappeared and in1992 the company declared bankruptcy. The elder Wang was finally forced to admit that his son couldn’t handle (6)...................................................................... and had to fire him.The story of Wang Laboratories, although far removed from China itself, shows us (7)........................................................ about Chinese business; despite (8)...................................................................... of Chinese business around the world, it continues to be based on family ties. The Chinese family provides (9)........................................... ........................... to start up the business, but it also imposes a limitation, which prevents them evolving into lasting, large scale institutions.

EXERCISE 5: Paragraph development by classificationSentence endings; complete the paragraph with the phrases belowa wallet-emptying extravaganza / clothes and accessories / impulsive shoppers / regular shopping technique / over-spenders / too much money on them. / useless items / when they need themShoppersShoppers can be classified according to their shopping techniques as necessity shoppers, over-spenders, and (1)........................................................................... . Necessity shoppers have an uncomplicated and (2)........................................................................... . They purchase only the items that are necessary, such as food and toiletries, and they only get these items (3)........................................................................... . The over-spenders purchase too many items and they spend (4)........................................................................... They buy unnecessary products, such as (5)........................................................................... . They can turn a simple trip to the store into (6)........................................................................... . Finally, there are impulsive shoppers. They are a combination between necessity shoppers and (7)........................................................ . They intend to be necessity shoppers by buying items that they need, but they turn into over-spenders by buying unnecessary clothes and (8)...................................................................... . Even though there are millions of shoppers worldwide, they can generally be classified by their techniques as necessity shoppers, over-spenders, or impulsive shoppers.

EXERCISE 6: Paragraph development through examplesSentence openings: complete the text with phrases from the list.A decision at the national level / A farmer's carefully maintained fields / During the Vietnam War / Furthermore, a country's economic development / Similarly / The coffee-growing regions / There are many examples Limiting one's view to an area that is too small in relation to the world can be disappointing and dangerous. (1)................................................................................ of a person striving mightily to solve some immediate local problem, only to find his efforts defeated by events occurring in a larger context. (2)............................... .................................... can be destroyed by an international war.(3).................................................. .............................. , for example, the rice fields of the Mekong Delta were obliterated. (4)...................... .......................................................... , local officials' plans can be overturned by a national policy. (5)................................................................................ that relocates a major highway away from a town can mean ruin to the unwary gas-station operator or restaurant owner. (6)............................................................. can be thwarted by a lack of world demand for its products. (7)........................................................................ of Brazil or Uganda could suffer if people stopped drinking coffee. Indeed, there is increasing concern today that most personal and national objectives may ultimately be frustrated by long-term global trends.

EXERCISE 7: Presenting a point of viewComplete the text with words from the list. Five are distracters.caused / enthusiastic / means / occupants / plating / profile / provoked / put / safety / security / steering / thirds / threes / wear / willing Do cycling helmets save lives?Campaigners for compulsory cycling helmets approach the issue of cycle (1).................................................... from the wrong direction, because two (2).................................................... of the most serious bike accidents are (3).................................................... by car drivers, so legislation should be aimed at them. Pedestrians and car (4).................................................... are more likely to suffer head injuries from road accidents than cyclists yet no one

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seriously suggests they should (5).................................................... helmets. Cycling is good for you - as long as you don't get knocked off. Forcing people to use helmets reduces the number (6)................................................. to ride bicycles. Less cycle use means more obesity, more heart attacks, and the use of less environmentally-friendly (7).................................................... of transport. Making helmets compulsory gives cycling an undeservedly dangerous (8).................................................... , and may discourage bicycle use even further. Rather than encasing cyclists in armour (9).................................................... , we should be directing our attention to the nutter behind the wheel.

UNIT 4

TYPES OF EXERCISE DESIGNED TO ENHANCE WRITING SKILLS AND INCREASE VOCABULARY (2)

WORD FORMATION: COMPLETING WORDS IN A TEXT

TEXT 1 : Portobello MarketLondon's Portobello Market is like a bazaar. During the week it rings with the shouts of barrow boys selling fruit and ve........................................ from every cor........................................ of the globe, whilst the shops are verit........................................ Aladdin's caves stuffed with exotic and richly-crafted merch......................................... The cafés and restaurants, French, Italian, Portu........................................, Moroc........................................, Asian and Carib........................................, cater for an equally cosmo........................................ and lively clientele. At weekends, thronged with tourists and loc........................................ alike, searching for barg........................................ from stalls lining the pave........................................, the market truly justifies its worldw........................................ renown. Something of intere........................................ can always be found, from expen........................................ anti........................................ at the Notting Hill Gate end to bric-a-brac, old clothes and just plain ju........................................ at the Goldbourne end.

TEXT 2 : Solsbury HillWho can calculate the loss of our heri........................................ ? Just outside Bath there is a gorgeous, peace.................... hill. Solsbury Hill was immort.................................... in a song by Peter Gabriel, but it has a far more signif........................................ history. It was the first place in the area to be inhab........................................, becoming an important Iron Age hill fort. The hill is inextri........................................ linked to the forma..................... of the city of Bath, for it was on its slopes that the exiled King Bladud lived, and from where he followed his pigs to the hot springs that cured his leprosy, thus estab........................................ it as a site of heal......................................... Many people have pointed out that the benef........................................ gained by road users as they reduce their trav........................................ time on the stretch of road now under constr........................................ through the hill are hardly compa........................................ to the loss.

TEXT 3 :The River GangesFor centuries the Ganges or Ganga, has remained the most sac........................................ river in the world. No other river has been worshipped by so many for so long. Flo........................................ some 1,500 miles from the source in the Himalayas, across Varanasi into the Bay of Bengal, Mother Ganges is the spir........................................ and phys........................................ lifeline of India. Every Hindu hopes to be crem........................................ on her banks and pilg........................................ flock unceas........................................ to the important relig........................................ sites along her banks. She has puzz........................................ scientists with her extrao........................................ properties: the water keeps for at least a year when bottled; Asiatic cholera has been present in her tribut........................................ but not in the Ganges itself and the heal................................. qualities of the river are revered in every Hindu household.

TEXT 4 : The CarEnvironmentalists are pointing their fing........................................ at the car. They see it as the arch-ene............................., the fearsome beast that is laying siege to our towns and countr......................................... It is

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creating havoc - pollu........................................ the air, causing noise and destr........................................ of flora and fauna, and it is holding society in a vice-like grip of increa........................................ depen......................................... If only we could get r........................................ of this mons........................................, surely, everything would be qui........................................ and peac........................................ again.Yet, unden........................................, the car is a seductive creature. Each new model is so tempting, more respons........................................, more comf........................................, qui........................................ (inside) , and more sensual in form and shape. There it sits so innocently outside the house, waiting to do our bidding: go shopping, see friends, run the kids around. It is so pleas........................................ to cruise down the motorway in the evening when the roads are cle........................................, enveloped in the stereo strains of our favourite music. It is so satis........................................ to take control of such a pow........................................ object and to prove our skill in hand........................................ it to perfection.

EXERCISE 1 WORD FORMATION: Forming words from a base wordComplete the sentences with words related to the words in capital letters.

1. Now that the old man's sight is failing, he is becoming ........................................ ........................................ on his children. (INCREASE / DEPEND)

2. The cost of the damage caused by the earthquake is ........................................ (CALCULATE)3. The police persuaded the demonstrators to disperse ........................................ so fortunately no one was

injured. (PEACE)4. "Lead us not into ........................................" is a well-known line from the Lord's Prayer. (TEMPT)5. Children under 10 are entitled to a ........................................ (REDUCE)6. Sadly, the patient is in the advanced stages of a/an ........................................ disease and

is ........................................ to ......................................... (CURE / RESPOND / TREAT)7. There is no ........................................ for your disgraceful ........................................ (JUST / BEHAVE)8. Once the disease begins to spread it becomes ........................................ (CONTROL), in other words we can't

stop it.9. After the ........................................ of an explosive device in the courtyard, all the ........................................

were asked to evacuate the building. (DISCOVER / INHABIT)10. How many countries in the world possess weapons of mass .........................................? (DESTROY)11. The baby cries and screams ......................................... No one knows how to stop him. (CEASE)12. She finds her job intellectually ........................................ (SATISFY)13. The trains are ........................................ uncomfortable but they are much cheaper than the plane. (DENY)14. The doctors say they are ....................................... to help him unless he stops smoking. (POWER)15. The story of the real-life newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst is ....................................... by Orson

Welles in the film Citizen Kane. (MORTAL)

EXERCISE 2 DEFINITIONS: Matching the definition to the wordbargain / merchandise / faith / healer / bazaar / bric-a-brac / leprosy / to / flock / clientele / barrow / heritage / throng

1. a chronic infectious disease occurring mainly in tropical and subtropical regions ..........................................2. a market consisting of a street lined with shops and stalls, especially one in the Middle East .......................3. a person who treats disease with prayer .......................................................4. a small cart with handles and wheels for carrying goods .......................................................5. customers collectively, especially of a restaurant or store .......................................................6. goods bought and sold commercially; commercial wares .......................................................7. small, cheap, usually ornamental objects ....................................................... 8. a large group of people gathered or crowded closely together .......................................................9. something offered or acquired at a price advantageous to the buyer .......................................................10. something that is passed down from preceding generations such as a tradition ...........................................11. to congregate or move in a large crowd .......................................................

EXERCISE 3 Words frequently confusedChoose the correct word.

1. People come to Lourdes to be healed from every angle / corner of the globe.2. Dieticians think that overconsumption of junk / rubbish food can lead to obesity.3. The fount / source of the River Ganges is in the Himalayas.4. Benares lies / lays on the Ganges.

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5. Hindus consider the Ganges to be holy / sacred.6. The early humans didn't live in houses, they lived in caverns / caves.7. He's nearly thirty, old enough to gain / earn his own living.8. The Adda is a/an tributary / affluent of the Po.9. Onlookers crowded / lined the pavements to cheer the marathon runners.10. No one has yet found the Holy / Sacred Grail.11. A flock / swarm of sheep were grazing peaceful on the hillside.12. We use these soft clothes / cloths to polish the silverware.13. The stuffed animals in the Natural History Museum are very lively / lifelike.14. The ambulance crew realised immediately that the injured man was in very bad form / shape.15. What he says doesn't make sense. He's talking junk / rubbish.

EXERCISE 4 SynonymsMatch a word from List A with a word from List B with approximately the same meaning.List A linked / fame / plain / properties / disease / stuffed / significant

List B characteristics / connected / filled / illness / meaningful / renown / simple

EXERCISE 5 Words used as different parts of speechUse the words in the sentences as verbs, nouns or adjectives/adverbs according to the context.bottle / clear / line / long / cruise / control / shop / puzzle / flock

1. "A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse," is a famous ................................... from Shakespeare's Richard III.2. Calm down, try to .................................. your temper.3. Don't you .................................. to return to your homeland?4. During the summer we went on a .................................. round the Greek islands.5. He lost .................................. of the car and ran into a tree.6. Henley-in-Arden's mile-long high street is ........................................ with mediaeval buildings.7. I bought this basket at the craft .................................. in the high street.8. It didn't take me .................................. to realise he was lying.9. People .................................. to the stadium to watch the derby.10. It took several hours to ........................................ the road after the accident.11. Many people prefer to buy .................................. water even though it's perfectly safe to drink tap water.12. Most people prefer to .................................. in supermarkets rather than in the high street.13. On a ........................................ day you can see the French coast from Dover.14. Some people seem to think it's clever to drink beer straight from the ...................................15. The children spent the afternoon doing a jigsaw .........................................16. The mystery of the Loch Ness Monster continues to ........................................ people.17. You can board the ferry boat at Mandalay and ............................ down the Irrawaddy River to Pagan.18. A ................................ of birds got caught in the aircraft engine causing it to cut out.

EXERCISE 6: Words with two or more distinct meaningsComplete the sentences with the correct form of the following words. Each word is required at least twice.spring / plain / ring / craft / bank / strain / present

1. ........................................ such as lace-making and glass-blowing are dying out.2. Being childless put a great ........................................ on their marriage.3. I prefer ........................................ chocolate to milk chocolate.4. What did you give to Monica as a wedding ........................................?5. If the ........................................ in the watch is broken it won't work.6. I'll give you a ........................................ to let you know I've arrived safely.7. Let me put it to you in ........................................ English. My answer is no.8. My ........................................ sends me a statement once a month showing how much money there is in my

account.9. Primroses and daffodils flower in the .........................................10. At ........................................ there are no direct flights between Atlanta and Beijing.11. She wears a ........................................ on every finger.12. The boatman managed to manoeuvre his small ........................................ into the bay before the storm broke.13. The water from the mountain ........................................ was pure and clear.

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14. Vigevano, Magenta and Mortara are all located in the Lombardy ........................................15. We could hear ........................................ of Beethoven coming from an upstairs room.16. We sat on the river ........................................ watching the boats go by.

COMPOUND WORDSExamplesarch-enemy archduke, archbishop, archdeaconlifeline lifestyle, lifetime, lifeblood, lifelike, lifeguard, lifeboat, life story, lifework, lifelong, lifeless, lifesizevice-like -like = having the qualities or characteristics of a person, animal or objectqueen-like, ape-like, lifelike, hymn-like, warlike, ladylike, childlike, jungle-likefearsome awesome, lonesome, tiresome, wearisome, troublesome, irksome, gruesome, wholesomeworldwide countrywide, nationwide, citywiderichly-crafted (adverb + past participle) densely populated, closely-connected, well-planned

EXERCISE 7: Compound words with life-Complete the text with words beginning with life-

1. I doubt whether the world will come to an end during my .....................................2. She wants enough money from her ex-husband to keep their daughter and two sons in the jetset

.................................... they always enjoyed, with homes in several countries. 3. Computers have become the .................................... of the modern office.4. The film is about a community where all the men replace their wives with glamorous,

obedient, ..................................... robots.5. They met at university and remained .................................... friends.6. After being hit by a lorry the poor animal lay .................................... by the side of the road.7. The sailors clung to the wreck in the freezing water until the .................................... arrived.8. The film tells the tragic .................................... of Jeannine Deckers, Belgium's so-called "Singing Nun".

EXERCISE 8: Multiple choice vocabulary in contextChoose the correct wordGetting ready for the Big One Earthquakes, wildfires, floods and mudslides: by almost any criterion California, the USA's most (1).................................................. (fully-populated / inhabited / populous / peopled) state, is also its most vulnerable to natural disaster. And perhaps to man-made disaster, too: Los Angeles Airport, the Los Angeles-Long Beach port complex, San Francisco's Golden Gate and Bay bridges and Disneyland are all (2).................................................. (targets / objects / objectives / intentions) for terrorists.

This week, when most of Los Angeles suddenly (3).................................................. (felt / received / effected / suffered) an electricity blackout, the immediate fear was al-Qaeda. That was misplaced, but it raised an obvious question: faced by a massive disaster, how well would California (4).................................................. (deal / cope / handle / run)?

It is (5)............................................ (fearfully / shockingly / scaringly / frighteningly) easy to give an alarm-ing answer. The Southern California Earthquake Centre reckons that there is an 80% to 90% chance of a tremor of seven or higher on the Richter scale (6).................................................. (trembling / hitting / shaking / quaking) Los Angeles (7).................................................. (by / within / over / for) the next 20 years. According to the US Geological Survey, an earthquake of that magnitude would kill up to 18,000 in Los Angeles; in San Francisco, a repeat of the 1906 earthquake might kill 5,800 – almost (8).................................................. (double / two times / twice of / double of) the last Big One. Six in ten Californians live in areas of (9).................................................. (big / full / high / top) earthquake risk; in Los Angeles County, just about everybody does.

Almost as (10).................................................. ( troublesome / concerning / tormenting / worrying) to the planners, the pipelines and aqueducts that bring natural gas and water from northern California to Los Angeles and San Diego run south across the San Andreas and other (11).................................................. (fault / faulty / defect / defective) lines. Meanwhile, one respected geologist says there is a two-in-three (12)................................... (opportunity / chance / hope / option) in the next 50 years of an earthquake or flood breaching the levees in the Sacramento San Joaquin delta, with disastrous consequences for California's agriculture.So how effectively have the planners planned? The verdict is mixed. Following the 1994 Northridge earthquake, which killed 57 people in the Los Angeles region, California's hospitals were (13).................................................. (demanded / commanded / required / ruled) by law to adapt their buildings by 2008 to (14).................................................. (withstand / react / adjust / prevent) major tremors; yet some 78% of them have at least one building still at risk and many are getting an extended (15)..................................................

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(deadline / lifeline / longlife / hotline) of 2013. (16).................................................. (Beside / And more / Even So / Similarly), some 7,500 school buildings built before 1978 have yet to be brought up to standard.UNIT 5

THE SENTENCE

Features of the sentenceA sentence should express only one main idea. It may contain more than one fact, but all the facts must be related to the central idea. Whatever fact, idea, focus or contrast the sentence is intended to convey, it should be balanced, well constructed and free from grammar and spelling mistakes. Do not write sentences that are too long. English sentences are normally made up of one main clause plus one, or at the most two, subordinate clauses. Remember that the average length of an English written sentence for academic writing is 22 words, the average length for modern novels is 14 words.

Word orderThe standard word order of the English sentence is:

1) Subject2) Verb3) Object4) Adverbs and adverbial phrases in the following order: 5) a) Manner b) Place c) Time

This classic order is sometimes referred to as SVOMPT.

This order may be varied for a number of reasons. Some adverbs are normally placed before the main verb; some adverbs are followed by inversion of subject and verb if placed at the beginning of the sentence; questions require inversion and in passive sentences adverbs of manner are often placed before the past participle. Sometimes adverbs of place and time are placed at the beginning for emphasis or to avoid a long string of adverbs at the end.N.B. In English the verb and object should not be separated.

Emphasis within the sentenceStandard word order is often varied for purposes of emphasis or dramatic effect: Out of the wardrobe felt a body.Never before had I been in such a dilemma.Only now do l understand why he behaved as he did.Drunk though he was, he managed to carry the child to safety.That the students were bored was obvious.

"It is"/was" or an initial phrase beginning with "what" or "all" are sometimes used for emphasis within the sentence:It was an interesting story that he told.What these signs mean is a mystery.All he did was ask you a simple question.

Repitition for emphasisRepetition of the same word or phrase may also be used for emphasis"Men in great places are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business." (Francis Bacon)"A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse ""Do", "does" or"did" can be added for emphasis:These people don't have many resources but they do know how to make the best use of what they have. He did nothing to help the poor. what he did do was throw away his money on gambling, women and fast cars.

Structural repetitionHere's a short example of structural repetition from the play Getting Married, by George Bernard Shaw:“There are couples who dislike one another furiously for several hours at a time; there are couples who dislike one another permanently; and there are couples who never dislike one another; but these last are people who are incapable of disliking anybody.”

PRACTISING WRITING SENTENCES

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When writing a composition it is important to use a range of simple and complex sentence structures. The exercises which follow aim to give practice in producing alternative sentence structures, matching the two main parts of a sentence and linking sentences in a logical way.

EXERCISE 1Reword the sentences using the word in capital letters.

1. A rock fell on the sheep's head and knocked it out. (Use BY)2. This is the first time I've drunk vodka. (Use BEFORE)3. Philip is a Democrat whereas his brother is a Republican. (Use UNLIKE)4. Mrs Comfort said the accident was the other driver's fault. (Use BLAMED)5. People live longer now than they used to. (Use DIDN'T)6. The President made a two-hour speech on inflation. (Use LASTED)7. There is nothing for you to do but wait. (Use ALL)8. This house has changed hands many times. (OWNERS)

EXERCISE 2Re-express the sentences without changing the meaning.

1. Antique furniture is expensive in England but you can still buy it cheaply in some parts of Ireland.You can still buy ..........................................................................

2. The only way for this party to win the election is to gain the support of he working classes.Unless ..........................................................................

3. I never intend to spend a holiday on a cruise ship again.This is the last ..........................................................................

4. I was so infuriated by what he was saying that I walked out.What he ..........................................................................

5. The invading forces conquered the country and attempted to convert the inhabitants to Christianity.After ..........................................................................

6. No one is ever going to account for the missing money.The missing money ..........................................................................

7. The train stopped at Lancaster and most of my colleagues got off.Most ..........................................................................

8. If you marry too soon you'll have longer to regret it.The sooner ..........................................................................

9. I didn't know what to say so I said nothing.Not ..........................................................................

EXERCISE 3Match the two parts of the sentences in a logical manner.

1. They had waited outside the theatre for two hours

2. I'm not going to stay here all night to finish ft

3. I don't agree with you4. How would you spend a million pounds,5. His scheme will come to nothing6. We all enjoyed the excursion7. He is not to be trusted .8. No sooner had I recovered from flu9. You'd better carry a first aid kit10. He wore a false beard11. The workmen left a red light near the

hole12. Some women dye their hair when it

goes grey

a) than I went down with bronchitis.b) to warn the motorists.c) so that he wouldn't be recognized.d) however urgent this business is.e) despite the torrential rain.f) in case anyone gets hurt.g) nevertheless they couldn't get a ticket.h) supposing you had it?i) in order to look younger.j) unless he can get a bank loan.k) although lots of people would see some advantages in what

you propose.I) however friendly he seems

EXERCISE 4Decide which of the possibilities in italics could be correctly inserted in the sentences.1. Mrs Brimbelow has ..................................................... me a book.

stolen / promised / paid / suggested / bought / given

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2. My teacher ..................................................... me to buy a new computer.said / recommended / advised / proposed / discouraged / encouraged

3. I ..................................................... that you come with me.insist / wish / want / like / suggest / hope

4. Buildings can grow old and feeble ..................................................... people do.just as / the same as / in the same way as / the same like / how / similar to

5. I covered my face ..................................................... recognised.for not being / to not be / so as not to be / in order not to be / so that I would not be / for not to be

6. He asked me .........how was I / who was I / the time / my name / a cigarette / where I lived / a few questions

7. The campaign .....................................................did much damage / did great harm / did very well / made great impact / was unsuccessful / had a great success

8. Alexander considered himself ..................................................... on quantum physics.as an expert / like an expert / as being an expert / to be an expert / an expert / expert

9. I can't believe Father Jonathan ...................................................... a thing like that.would do / doing / to do / have done / doing / did

10. Sally and Max ..................................................... to spend too much money.can afford / don't wish / would have liked / would like / are thinking / oughtn't

EXERCISE 5: Rearranging phrases to form a sentence1. in countless ways / and arranged / can be combined / the basic parts of a sentence2. is / in our writing / along with a key word or phrase / one way to achieve cohesion / to repeat a particular

sentence structure 3. is / in your writing / to create variety / to alter the length of your sentences / the easiest way4. why English / there are several important reasons / in America / the national and primary language /

should remain5. that they have a lot of cool places to eat / why I like this town / where they play cool music / such as Hard

Rock Café / one of the reasons / is 6. to which we human beings belong / is / especially of Homo sapiens / the biological species / anthropology /

the study of humankind.

EXERCISE 6: Completing sentencesCompleting sentences in an appropriate way.

1. No sooner had the performance started.................................................................2. But for the intervention of the police .................................................................3. Not until he visited Japan .................................................................4. It was only after living in New York for six months .........................................................5. If only you .................................................................6. Only after hearing that his son was safe .................................................................7. The harder you work .................................................................8. Since arriving in this country I .................................................................9. It wasn't the first time .................................................................10. Had I known how old you were .................................................................11. I shall stay here until .................................................................12. I shall stay here as long as .................................................................

EXERCISE 7: Completing sentences with a word or phrase1. As the last train had gone, I had no .................................................... walk.2. They offered me the job on ................................................... start the following day.3. The question at issue is not whether the project is a good one but .......................................... will cost.4. Only time will tell ...................................................... right decision when we adopted the twins.5. I think you would do ....................................... your computer repaired by an expert than try to do it yourself.6. Max .............................................................. attempt to avoid the rabbit; he just ran straight over it.

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7. As ........................................................ isn't much traffic, we should get to Skipton in time for lunch.8. It ........................................................... wonderful news that we decided to celebrate.9. .................................................... I'm worried about is how we're going to get back before dark.10. It rained non-stop for four days, with .......................................................... that several roads were flooded. 11. A: Can you ................................................................. a violin and a viola? B: Yes, a viola is bigger than a violin.12. If Max throws Jill out of the house, she won't have ........................................................ live.13. Most people no ............................................................. that the earth is flat, do they?14. A: It's .................................................... since anyone walked on the moon, isn't it? B: Yes, at least forty, I think.15. I'd prefer you .................................................... your car right in front of my of my house. Why don't you park it

further down the road?16. I don't know ................................. take to get the results of your test, Mrs Benson, a week or two at least, I'd say.17. There's ................................................................... in waiting any longer. The last bus has obviously gone.18. Did you get used .................................................................. on the left when you were travelling round Britain?19. Can you explain why .................................................... stop when the police told you to, Mrs Horrocks?

EXERCISE 8: Completing sentences within a paragraphno matter where you live / and they love to be around people / and doesn’t require a lot of room / whether it be living in the suburbs or downtown / not to mention that they have a lovable personality / when you need them most / that warms your heart with its character / that you won’t want to do withoutThe poodle makes a perfect pet because poodles offer their owners a companionship for life, (1)................................................................................. . Poodles are sweet, smart, playful, and well mannered (2)................................................................................. . They are always willing to lend their unquestionable love and loyalty (3)................................................................................. and they are yours for life. Apart from being a happy spirited dog and a great companion, the poodle is small (4)................................................................................. , so they are ideal for apartments or city settings. The poodle is suited to most environments and lifestyles; (5)................................................................................. , with one person or a couple, or even living with a family and children, the poodle fits right in. The poodle is a dog (6)................................................................................. . It becomes a part of your family (7)................................................................................. and it can provide you with love and companionship (8)................................................................................. . In fact, you can’t ask for a better dog.

EXERCISE 9: LINKING DEVICESComplete the sentences with a suitable word or phrase from the list.even though / however / even if / despite / though / on the contrary / compared to / although

1. ........................................................ he's been really ill lately, he insists on going into work. 2. I'll never forget you, ........................................................ I live to be 100. 3. We decided to go to China for our holiday, ........................................................ it meant getting a visa.4. She decided to travel by plane ........................................................ being very scared of flying. 5. I'm going out tonight, I'll be in tomorrow night, ........................................................... 6. ........................................................ old, the car was still very reliable. 7. ........................................................ the party they had last year, this one is rather tame.8. I do not agree with the criticism that her latest film is disappointing ........................................................, I find it one of

her best pieces of work so far. 9. I'm determined to get David Beckham to sign my football, .......................................................... long I have to wait.

UNIT 6

THE PHRASE

Definitions of phrase A small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit, typically forming a component of a clause. Any small group of words within a sentence or a clause.

In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words which form a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence.

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For example, the house at the end of the street is a phrase. It acts like a noun. It can further be broken down into two shorter phrases functioning as adjectives: at the end of the street, a shorter prepositional phrase within the longer noun phrase. At the end of the street could be replaced by an adverb such as nearby. The end of the street could also be replaced by another noun, such as the crossroads to produce the house at the crossroads.

Categories of phrasesPhrases may be classified as follows:

Prepositional phrase (e.g. only on Saturdays, over the rainbow, out of sight). Noun phrase (e.g. a bunch of flowers, that man over there, the girl with the pearl earring) Verb phrase (e.g. phrasal verbs and verbs followed by a preposition or adverb, collocations containing verbs) Adverb + adjective/participle phrases (e.g. not easily comprehensible, totally wrong, fairly well dressed) Participial phrases (e.g. not knowing what to do, while working abroad, once left alone)

Idioms, stock phrases, collocations Many phrases are idiomatic, in other words, it is not always possible to understand their meaning from the

individual words that form them (e.g. out of the blue (= unexpectedly), to smell a rat (= to be suspicious), to cut no ice (= to have no effect), over the moon (= very happy).

Many phrases are fixed expressions, that is sets of words always used in the same order (e.g. last but not least, all things considered, first and foremost).

Many phrases are collocations, that is they are made up of words that tend to be used in combination (e.g. to make a mistake, to find out the truth, the same old story).

EXERCISE 1: Phrases containing the word “all”all the better / all agog / all ears / all and sundry / all the best / all very well / all for / all the rage / by all means / all in all / all out / all the same / all told

1. A: Can I use your phone? B: Of course, ..........................................................2. A: Guess what happened to me last night? B. Go on; I’m .........................................................3. I like dogs, ......................................................... I wouldn’t want to have one as a pet.4. I wished him ......................................................... for his new career in the diplomatic service.5. I’m ......................................................... helping people in need, as long as they really are in need.6. It’s ......................................................... for you to talk about going on a Mediterranean cruise but I haven’t even

got a job.7. Little Red Riding Hood: O grandmother, what great big ears you’ve got.

Wolf: ......................................................... to eat you with, my dear.8. The children were ........................................................., waiting for the pantomime to start.9. A: How many people attended the meeting? B: Twenty-one, ................................................................10. The groundsmen are going ......................................................... to clear the pitch of water for this afternoon’s

match.11. There were some boring moments but ......................................................... it was a good conference.12. Timberland shoes are still pretty popular but they’re not exactly ......................................................... , are they? 13. They were giving out free samples to ........................................................., irrespective of whether people really

wanted them or not.

EXERCISE 2: Noun phrases referring to peoplea hard task master / a university drop-out / my guardian angel / a prime suspect / an asylum seeker / a leading light / a slippery customer / an eligible bachelor / a living legend / a social climber

1. Bill Gates was ........................................................... , which just goes to show that you don’t necessarily have to have a degree to get on in life.

2. Carol was ........................................................... in the “save the whale” campaign, so much so that she eventually gave up her job to devote herself to it full-time.

3. Darcy was ........................................................... and so was Bingley, and Mrs Bennet was hell-bent on marrying two of her daughters off to them.

4. He defines himself as ........................................................... but it turns our that he had no good reason to leave his native country, least of all persecution.

5. He was ........................................................... ; all his staff had to do their bit and no messing.6. I had just gone out to post a letter when the house fell down; ........................................................... must have

been watching over me.

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7. Natalie Cole is ........................................................... in the music world, and she continues to produce great songs in spite of her health problems.

8. The main reason why Mrs Jones joined the golf club is that she’s ........................................................... ; she has no interest whatsoever in the actual game.

9. The polic:........................................... and they never managed to catch him.10. The woman’s former husband is ........................................................... in her murder.

EXERCISE 3: Phrases often used at the beginning of sentencesAdd or complete the initial phrases.As far as / As time goes by / Far be it / Just as / Little does / The main reason why / Quite frankly / Strange though it may seem / To put it / Whether or not / With hindsight

1. .............................................................. from me to cast aspersions on your reputation.2. .............................................................. he know what a hard task lies ahead of him.3. .............................................................. I know, none of the candidates speaks a word of Japanese.4. ............................................ the residents like it, we’re going to build a motorway through the middle of the town5. ............................................................., some students couldn’t tell the difference between and adjective and an

adverb.6. ..................................., people will forget about this unfortunate episode and remember only the good times.7. .............................................................., it’s obvious that building a nuclear power station in an earthquake-

prone area was a ghastly mistake.8. ..................................., I don’t think you’re up to the job, I don’t think you know the first thing about marketing.9. .............................................................. in a nutshell , your report is rubbish.10. .............................................................. birds build their nests in trees, so rabbits dig their burrows underground.11. ............................................................... I don’t want a dog is that I live in a very small apartment.

EXERCISE 4: Phrases related to timeChoose the most suitable phrase to complete the sentences.all of a sudden / for as long as I can remember / at the turn of the century / at no time / at which point / during which time / for the time being / in good time / in the nick of time / one of these days / in those days

1. The firemen arrived ................................., another ten minutes and the building would have been razed to the ground.

2. ..................................... have I ever considered asking students to help me to prepare my lessons.3. My grandfather was born ...................................., in January,1902, to be exact; ................................ children as

young as 12 often had to go to work down the mines or in the cotton mills.4. Anthea spent a year in the New Hebrides as a student, ................................... she met her present husband.5. Absalom started ranting and raving about animal rights, ................................ I decided to make my exit.6. I've known Aloysius .......................................... but not once has he invited me to his home.7. If you get to the theatre .................................... you stand a chance of getting a seat in the front row.8. ....................................... I'll teach you how to make tea the way we do it in Japan.9. ......................................... Arlene and Avery are living with his parents but they hope to move into their own

home in the new year. 10. According to legend, Archimedes was lying in his bath when .................................... he jumped up and shouted

"Eureka".

EXERCISE 5: Negative phrasesby no means / in no time / neither here nor there / never mind / no big deal / no good / not so much / not to mention / not to speak of / nothing like / nothing out of the ordinary / on no account

1. .................................................... must you take these pills on an empty stomach.2. A: Was the film any good? B: It wasn’t bad, .....................................................3. I found Mr Munder extremely obnoxious, .................................................... his wife; she was even worse.4. He’s a very fast worker; he’ll do the job .....................................................5. The hotel was .................................................... the description in the brochure.6. It’s .................................................... asking Steve for a loan, he’s stony broke.7. A: We’ve missed the last bus. B: That’s .................................................... ; we’ll take a taxi.8. Whether it’s a novel or a novella is ....................................................; the fact is it’s a very good story.9. The story is .................................................... about his life as about his contribution to scientific research.10. Not so long ago women weren’t even allowed to vote .................................................... become members of

parliament.

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11. Though not a box-office success, it’s .................................................... a bad film, with a strong message for today’s youth..

12. The hotel provides facilities for small babies, the visually impaired, the old and infirm, .................................................... pets of all shapes and sizes.

EXERCISE 6: Prepositional phrasesNote: most prepositions can be combined with a noun to form a so-called prepositional phrase.Most of these phrases are invariable and many are idiomatic Complete the sentences with phrases from the list.at a glance / at long last / on the scene / at a standstill / at short notice / by surprise / by heart / in all likelihood / in view of / without delay / out of the ordinary / on second thoughts / in short supply / on the safe side

1. .................................................... the threat of power cuts I bought a supply of candles to be ....................................................

2. He knows all Shakespeare’s sonnets .....................................................3. He received news that his wife had been taken ill and had to leave ....................................................4. I could see .................................................... that Steve had had one too many.5. I think he’s had a heart attack; we must get him to hospital .....................................................6. I had been planning to go to Thailand for Christmas but ............................................ I decided to stay in Europe.7. The doctor told Julie that in view of her rapid recovery, .................................................... she would be

discharged from hospital the very next day.8. The enemy attack took us .................................................... ; that’s why we lost so many men.9. The fog cleared .................................................... and the plane was finally able to take off.10. These items are .................................................... at the moment because production is

practically .................................................... due to the recession.11. We called the police and they were .................................................... within minutes.

EXERCISE 7: Phrases often used in the middle of sentencesComplete the sentences with phrases from the list.in order not to / only to find / instead of which / however long / that’s why / rather than / thanks to / as long as / ever since / in such a way that / as a result

1. I thought he would come over and say hello to us, ..................................... he jumped into his car and drove off.2. We decided to try and put the fire out ourselves ...................................................... wait for the fire brigade.3. The police have vowed to find the culprits, ...................................................... it takes.4. We ran all the way to the station ...................................................... that the train had already left.5. He’s very self-opinionated and full of himself , ...................................................... I don’t want him on the team.6. I don’t mind helping to serve the lunch ...................................................... you don’t expect me to stay behind

afterwards to clear up.7. I’ve been scared of thunder storms ...................................................... I nearly got struck by lightning.8. I’ve tried to write the report ...................................................... no one will have difficulty in understanding it.9. Tevez refused to play and .................................................... he not only had to pay a heavy fine but was also

sacked.10. We have been able to repair the church roof ...................................................... a very generous gift from an

anonymous donor.11. We left early ...................................................... miss the last bus.

EXERCISE 8: Noun + noun phrasesMatch a noun from List A with a noun from list B to form a collocation.List Aalarm / banner / bargain / computer / department / flash / flower / garden / heritage / hotel / love / milk / oil / park / power / research / standard / theme / trade / warList Bbell / chocolate / cut / fair / flood / flower / game / garden / guest / headline / keeper / memorial / park / poem / price / project / site / size / store / well

Now use some of the above phrases in sentences.

1. You can find designer clothes at ......................... .........................s at some of those special outlets in the Milanese hinterland.

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2. The Prime Minister’s demise was announced with ......................... .........................s in many European newspapers.

3. The recent ......................... .........................s in Genova caused widespread damage as well as loss of life.4. I prefer ......................... ......................... to plain.5. I understand that most of the ......................... .........................s that were closed during the Libyan uprising are

now operating again.6. Many English towns and villages have had their ......................... .........................s defaced by scrap metal

thieves.7. Shakespeare wrote several ......................... .........................s, mostly in sonnet form.8. When the ......................... ......................... rang everyone headed for the exit.9. The ......................... ......................... lasted for several hours; during that time no one could use washing

machines or other electrical equipment.10. The ......................... ......................... told the children to keep off the grass.

EXERCISE 9: Idiomatic noun phrases not referring to people a patch of fog / a deep debt of gratitude / a foregone conclusion / a blessing in disguise / a Herculean task/ a loose end / a roving eye / a sharp tongue / half an eye / the chance of a lifetime

1. We owe .................................................................... to the people who risked their lives in the rescue attempt.2. Breaking his leg was ......................................................................... it meant that he had to take a back seat

and let his son take over the business.3. It’s ......................................................................... ; you’ll never get an opportunity like this ever again.4. It’s true that she has ......................................................................... but I’m sure she didn’t mean to upset you.5. You can see with ......................................................................... that Andrew has his eye on Sally.6. He has ......................................................................... and many a girl has already fallen victim to his charms.7. Clearing up the mess after the floods was ......................................................................... .8. The outcome of the election was ......................................................................... ; everyone knew in advance

who would win.9. I’m at ......................................................................... this afternoon so I suppose I’d better mow the lawn.10. He ran into ......................................................................... and almost lost control of the car.

UNIT 7

THE WORDWords are classified as:

nouns verbs adjectives adverbs prepositions conjunctions

In English these forms often overlap in usage or in meaning. In other words a word with same form may be both a noun and a verb; nouns are often used adjectivally, prepositions may also be conjunctions or they may function as adverbs (as in phrasal verbs).Many words have both a literal and a figurative meaning and some words are only used in specific phrases.Many English words have two or more distinct meanings (homonyms).Many English words resemble Italian words but mean something different (false friends)Many English words are actually two words (compound words)

EXERCISE 1: Related wordsChoose two words from each line theta's in some way linked.Example: bullet, calendar, skirt, brick, gun

1. tree, sock, stone, branch, blanket2. weed, horse, tune, mane, mayor3. bark, gang, receiver, joint, knee4. thread, tree, needle, crown, tea5. kettle, reins, hen, teapot, office6. key, surgeon, scalpel, desk, band

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7. floor, pew, trial, fire, church1. foot, fringe, plait, pavement, basket 2. net, stitch, step, drum, stair 3. string, cord, bow, arch, violet

EXERCISE 2: Words used for emphasisNOTE: Instead of saying very tired we can say dog tired; instead of saying very dark we can say pitch dark Match a word from list A with a word from list B to make the adjective more emphatic.List Ablind / squeaky / stinking / fighting / saving / piping / shock / deadly / soaking / ice / stony / jamList Bmad / clean / boring / wet / rich / cold / broke / packed / fit / full / hot / drunkNow use the phrases in sentences

1. The sermon was………………………… and some members of the congregation actually dozed off.2. After six whiskies he was ……………………………………………….and could hardly stand up.3. The bin was ………………………………………………. of rubbish and it was impossible to close it.4. We were………………………………………………. after standing outside in the rain for two hours.5. You don't stand a chance of becoming President of the US unless your reputation is ………………….. 6. What I feel like in this sweltering heat is an …………………………………. drink.7. I wouldn't go to Venice in July if I were you; it'll be …………………………… with tourists.8. I'm afraid I can't offer you a drink, I’m …………….9. He may be ……………………. but he's terribly tight-fisted and penny-pinching.10. He must be …………………… to take up bungee-jumping in his eighties.

EXERCISE 3: Compound wordsMake two compounds for each of the words in List A and combining them with Iwo words from List B List Ahouse / head / sun / lain / foot / fire / blood / bookList Bbeam / bow / forest / light I line / man / path / place / print I shop I spot / stain / stream / wife / work / worm

EXERCISE 4: Parts of things Complete the words.church I window / fish / hat / knife / flower / wheel / brush / foot / egg / belt / chain / shoe / ladder / pen / ship

1. a blade is part of a ..........2. a bristle is part of a .........3. a buckle is part of a .........4. a fin is part of a ...........5. a link is part of a ...........6. a mast is pail of a ...........7. a nib is part of a ...........8. a pane is part of a ..........

9. a rung is part of a ........10. a toe is part of a .........11. the brim is part of a .......12. the hub is part of a .......13. the yolk is part of a .......14. the spire is part of a .......15. the stem is part of a .......16. the sole is part of a .......

EXERCISE 5: Less common irregular verbsswear / tread / thrust / shed / flee / withdraw / swell / slit / cast / slide I slay

1. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Joseph and Mary .................................... into Egypt to avoid the massacre of the innocents.

2. Have all the deciduous trees already .................................... their leaves?3. He .................................... at me when I .................................... on his foot.4. He .................................... his hand into the rabbit burrow and pulled out a rabbit5. He .................................... open the envelope, .................................... his eyes over the enclosed

document and .................................... it under his newspaper.6. He .................................... his application when he realized he didn't stand a chance of getting the job.

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7. His leg had .................................... to twice its normal size.8. The battle lasted for several hours and many soldiers were .................................... on both sides.

EXERCISE 6: Adjectives and adverbs beginning with a - alike / awake / asleep / alive I alone / afraid / aware / amiss / aloft / afloat / afoot / far afield / abreast / abroad / aboard / alert l ajar / (all) agog / aloof l aloud / apart / astray / aboveUse the above words to complete the sentences.NOTE: The adjectives in the list are used only after a verb, not before a noun. For example we can say "a living legend" but not "an alive legend", "a lonely person" but not "an alone person".Some of these words are used only in idioms or stock phrases. For example: trouble is afoot = ci sono guai in vista, to start afresh = ricominciare da capo, to keep abreast of the news: tenersi aggiomato

1. I knew there was something ....................................when I saw his long face.2. The two sisters look very ...................................... but they're not twins.3. Although the Chinese student said his name.............................. several times I was unable to pronounce it4. Elderly people living .................................... in isolated places are particularly vulnerable to burglaries.5. We are.................................... of the problem but so far we have been unable to find a solution.6. Please leave the door.................................... so that se get a bit of fresh air in the office.7. The journalists were all ................................................... to know who the next president would be.8. I think it’s best for the boss to keep...................................................... from the workers and to speak to

them only by appointment9. He said he was not a criminal at heart and that it was his friends that had led him ....................................10. The captain of the team held the cup .................................... while the fans cheered.11. "Great minds think ......... ................. “, as the saying goes.12. The rescuers found the trapped miners still .................................... but unconscious.13. The pirates jumped .................................... the yacht and took the crew hostage.

EXERCISE 7: Adverbs that are also adjectives.Complete the sentences with words from the lists. Adverb / adjective: close I straight / clean / deep / dear / late / early / live / direct / fair / best / fast / hard Adverbs only: closely / deeply / clearly / lately / lively / directly / fairly

1. ‘A new broom sweeps ..................................’ as the saying goes.2. 'Better .................................. than never", as the saying goes.3. 'Still waters run ....................................... as the saying goes.4. The .................................. bird catches the worm", as the saying goes.5. A:Can you fly ..................................from Milan to Vancouver? B: Not as far as I know, you have to change at

Heathrow.6. Don't offer this cake to the guests, it's rock ..................................7. Have you seen any good films ..................................8. He looks very like his .................................. grandfather.9. He says he........................ regrets having supported a man who turned into a ruthless dictator.10. I caught the train by the skin of my teeth; it was a .................................. shave.11. I'd say you stand a .................................. good chance of passing the exam.12. I'm in a dilemma; I'm between a rock and a .................................. place.13. If you are being blackmailed you should go .................................. to the police.14. If you don't play .................................. you will be disqualified.15. It was ........................ from the outset that Andrew could never follow in his father's footsteps.16. Most people can't draw a .................................. line without a ruler.17. On his release from prison he was determined to go .................................. 18. The burglar jumped .................................. through the window to avoid being caught.19. The Duke of Edinburgh is........................ descended from Queen Victoria. He's her great, great

grandchild20. The police told the bystanders to stand .................................. as the popemobile drew ..........................

21. The shop assistants all put their .....................................foot forward to cope with the Christmas rush.22. There are no.................................. and .................................. rules about who sits in the front row; it's a

question of first come, first served.

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EXERCISE 8: Different ways of doing the same thing Match two words from List A to one word from List

LIST A1. to flare up 2. to gush 3. to gleam 4. to haul5. to limp6. to mutter7. to pant8. to smoulder9. to totter10. to trickle11. to tug12. to twinkle13. to wheeze14. to whisper

LIST Ba) speaking

b) walking

c) shining

d) flowing

e) breathing

f) burning

g) pulling

Now use the words in sentencesNOTE: Some of these words can be used figuratively and most of them function as both verbs and nouns. 1. The horse was sweating and ………………… at the end of the race,2. I ………………. at the label but it wouldn't come off.3. a After being shot in the leg he always walked with a …………………..4. She flew into a temper and was still …………………. an hour later.5. After the fire I could see people searching desperately for their belongings among the

.....................remains of their homes.6. I glimpsed what I thought was a ghost but it was gone in a ………..……ing so I couldn't be

sure.7. Several pretty girls …………………… past on their ridiculously high-heeled shoes.8. At the height of the drought the river dwindled to a …………………………….9. Trouble ………………………….. again in Cairo when the government failed to keep its promises.10. He spoke in a …………………………….. so that no one but me could hear what he was saying.

EXERCISE 9: Things that contain somethingWhat would you expect to find in the following things or places?

1. cockpit .......................................................12 well..................................2 crow's nest ................................................13. glove..............................3. burrow .. ....................................................14. boot ...............................4. kennel ......................................................15. tub..................................5. purse .........................................................16. mug................................6. stable .........................................................17. pond...............................7. tank ...........................................................18. pigeon hole.............................8. safe ..........................................................19. nest ...............................9. cradle ........................................................20. chimney.............................10. hive .........................................................21. carton ................................11. shell ........................................................22. socket................................

EXERCISE 8: Position of adjectivesNOTE: When a noun is described with several adjectives these are arranged in a fixed order.Examples: a small brown Swiss cuckoo clock / three thick, new orange foam life jacketsRemember that colours, adjectives of nationality, proper names and substances should be placed as close as possible to the noun. If more than one of these adjectives are used the order is usually1) colour 2) nationality 3) substance 4) proper nameDeterminers (my, this, that) are always in the first position, followed by numbers.Example: a beautiful white Italian marble fountain / my two lively long-haired two-year-old Yorkshire terriersArrange the adjectives in brackets in the most appropriate order.

1. watering can (big, a heavy, metal)2. teapot (white, old, porcelain, her)3. computer games (Nintendo, new, two, exciting)

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4. rose bush (prickly, small, two-year-old, this)5. table cloths (lovely, linen, these, pink)6. willow branches (green, wet, trailing, long)7. fire engines (new, medium-sized, red, two)8. overcoat (old, his, brown, heavy)9. flower beds (heart-shaped, five, beautifully-designed)10. front door (imposing, wooden, the, black, shiny)11. flower pot (green, big, plastic, that)12. bath towel (square, a, white, warm, cotton)13. city buses (orange, ten, efficient, large)14. watch dog (one-year-old, fierce, small, their)

UNIT 8

More about words

EXERCISE 1: Making connectionsWhat are the following groups of words related to?Example: . chain / saddle / frame / bell ……….bicycle ……….

1. ball / socket / pupil / lens ....................................................2. spire / pew / chancel / aisle ....................................................3. frame / pane / sill / catch .................................................... 4. bark / blossom / sap / trunk .................................................... 5. moat / drawbridge / tower / dungeon .................................................... 6. deck / hold / bows / stern ....................................................7. bridge / string / fingerboard / bow .................................................... 8. rod / line / hook / bait ....................................................9. cockpit / aisle / undercarriage / fuselage ....................................................10. sole / heel / lace / tongue ....................................................

EXERCISE 2: ConnectionsLink a word from List A to a related word from List B.Example: horse / mane, sea / wave, ship / mastList Acar / guitar / shirt / bottle / lamp / bird / pan / plant / needle / bread List Bbulb / tyre / lid / eye / string / top / leaf / crumb / beak / sleeve

EXERCISE 3: HomophonesNOTE: Many English words sound the same but are spelt differently. These are called homophones.Match one of the following pairs of homophones to one of the definitions below.gilt / guilt, carrot / carat, draft / draught, chord / cord, pane / pain, urn / earn, mayor / mare, fair / fare, lute / loot, aisle / isle

1. part of a window .................. 2. a current of air .................. 3. blond .................. 4. similar to gold .................. 5. a weight for diamonds, gold, etc. ..............

6. corridor between two rows of seats ........... 7. a female horse .................. 8. musical notes sounded together .............. 9. a container for ashes .................. 10. stolen goods ..................

EXERCISE 4: Adjectives and definitionsSuggest an adjective corresponding to the phrases in italics.

1. a coal mine that is no longer used ..............................................................

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2. a journey that seems never to end .............................................................. 3. a substance that cannot catch fire .............................................................. 4. instructions that cannot be understood .............................................................. 5. a story that is difficult to believe .............................................................. 6. an appetite that cannot be satisfied .............................................................. 7. a child who refuses to do what he is told .............................................................. 8. a river that is not very deep .............................................................. 9. a person who can't read or write .............................................................. 10. a phenomenon that can't be explained ..............................................................

Now use the adjectives in sentences1. All the fittings and furnishings in the old people’s home are made of .................................................... material

as a precaution.2. He’s already stinking rich yet his desire to make more and more money seems ...................................3. It is estimated that in Egypt at least 30% of the population is ....................................4. The ......................................................... saga of the economic recession drags on and on.5. The boat foundered in ......................................................... water and it was impossible to refloat it.6. The document was practically ......................................................... to anyone but an expert.7. The rave party was held in a ......................................................... warehouse.8. The discovery of a valuable diamond necklace in the waste paper basket was completely ………...

EXERCISE 5: Tools and instrumentsGive the name of a tool or instrument used by the following people.

1. surgeon ............................................2. jockey ............................................3. barber ............................................4. butcher ............................................5. tailor ............................................6. mechanic ............................................7. farmer ............................................8. dentist ............................................

9. orchestral conductor ..................................10. astronomer ............................................11. golfer ............................................12. carpenter ............................................13. painter ............................................14. chef ............................................15. prison warder ............................................16. soldier ............................................

EXERCISE 6: Adjectives or adjectives used as nouns and definitionsComplete the sentences with a word from the list.fair / broad / broken / close / emerald / fellow / leap / narrow / patron / guardian /

1. .......................... English is imperfect English, as spoken by a foreigner who doesn't know the language.2. a ................................... angel is an angel which is supposed to help or watch over a particular person3. a .......................................... copy is a neat, legible copy4. a .......................................... escape is an escape involving risk, almost an accident5. a .......................................... saint is a saint who is supposed to keep a town or country under his/her special

protection6. a .......................................... shave is almost an accident7. a .......................................... traveller is someone who is making the same journey as you are8. a .......................................... year is a year of 66 days9. in .......................................... daylight in the open, in full daylight10. the .......................................... isle is a poetic term used to refer to Ireland

EXERCISE 7: Verbs in collocationsNOTE: Many common verbs are used in idioms and collocationsComplete the phrases with verbs from the list. In some cases there is more than one possibility.keep / make / join / break / fall / give / go / drive / run / set / hold

1. to ...................... short of someone’s expectations2. to ................................. a club3. to ................................. an example4. to ................................. flat (of jokes)5. to ................................. on the left6. to ................................. someone mad7. to ................................. the bad news

8. to ................................. the law9. to ................................. a business10. to ................................. a meeting11. to ................................. a queue12. to ................................. a risk13. to ................................. a secret14. to ................................. mad

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15. to ................................. one’s tongue16. to ................................. a trap17. to ................................. pace with

18. to ................................. rise to something19. to ................................. to rack and ruin20. to ..................................way

EXERCISE 8: Words used in different waysWhat’s the missing word?Example: a ............... temper / in ............... supply / at ............... notice / a ............... cut ________ short _______

1. every cloud has a ............... lining / ............... paper / to be born with a ............... spoon in one’s mouth / ............... wedding _________________________

2. ...............-handed / in ............... file / a ............... decker bus / every ............... one _________________________

3. ............... effects / a ............... street / to be on the safe ............... / to look on the bright ............... _________________________

4. to kill two birds with one ............... / ............... dead / to leave no ............... unturned / a ............... wall _________________________

5. the ............... eye, the lesser ..............., to put off the ............... hour / money is the root of all ............... _________________________

6. to take a ............... breath / a ............... voice / still waters run ............... / a ............... hole _________________________

7. at ............... of night / to drop ............... / to flog a ............... horse / a ............... end _________________________

8. a case in ............... / power ............... / up to a ............... / to ............... a finger _________________________9. ............... screen / at the ............... of a button / out of ............... / to lose ...............

_________________________10. to put on ............... / worth its ............... in gold / ............... lifting / to pull one’s ...............

_________________________ 11. to walk ............... in ............... / to cost an ............... and a leg / to keep someone at ...............’s length / to

welcome someone with open ...............s_________________________

Now use some of the above phrases in sentences (one for each set)1. Now you can book a holiday ..............................................................................; no wonder so many travel

agents have gone out of business.2. Please be careful with that priceless statuette, it ..............................................................................3. The police will .............................................................................. to find the killer.4. After nearly 25 years of marriage they are about to celebrate their ........................................................................5. The thieves broke in .............................................................................. when all the family were fast asleep.6. You should tell the management one month beforehand if you intend to leave your job; you shouldn’t

leave ...............................................................................7. I agree with you .............................................................................. but not completely.8. He has a criminal record; if I were you I’d ..............................................................................9. I can’t do the job .............................................................................. I need someone to help me.10. He eats too much junk food; that’s why he has ..............................................................................11. He .............................................................................. and jumped into the water.12. It’s not all doom and gloom, let’s ..............................................................................

EXERCISE 9: Words frequently confusedChoose the correct word.

1. Elsie Bertram, who has died aged 91, is survived/outlived by her two sons.2. Identity theft/stealing is one of the fastest-growing forms of fraud.3. Mistaken identity was accused / blamed for the wrongful arrest of a retired British engineer in South Africa.4. Increased use of credit cards has created new opportunities/occasions to steal someone's identity.5. The popularity of cycling in Ireland is partially/partly due to the international success of its cyclists.6. Typical base/basic pay for a nine-hour day as a film extra is around £80. 7. Please send your CV and a/an covering/accompanying letter with your application.8. You should book accommodation at least 3 months in anticipation/advance.9. Our trip to China proved to be more like an endurance test/proof than a holiday.10. The turning/changing point in my brother's career came when he joined the rock group Yes.

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EXERCISE 10: Word formation Form adjectives from the following nouns.1 ornament .............................. 2 quarrel .............................. 3 victory .............................. 4 winter .............................. 5 melody .............................. 6 friend .............................. 7 fault .............................. 8 mercy .............................. 9 coward .............................. 10 giant ..............................Form nouns from the following verbs.1 merry .............................. 2 renew .............................. 3 repent .............................. 4 exhaust .............................. 5 deceive .............................. 6 pursue .............................. 7 revive .............................. 8 provide .............................. 9 rebel .............................. 10 hate .............................. 11 strong ……………………. 12 false ………………….

Form verbs from the following nouns and adjectives.1 blood .............................. 2 relief .............................. 3 simple .............................. 4 sharp .............................. 5 strong .............................. 6 beauty .............................. 7 false .............................. 8 terror .............................. 9 horror .............................. 10 grief ..............................

Now use some of the words to complete the sentences below.

1. After his success on the London stage he went to Hollywood in ................................................. of fame and fortune.

2. He was accused of ................................................. his late wife’s signature and drawing her pension illegaly.3. He was given morphine to ................................................. his pain.4. I don’t think it’s ................................................. to run away from a pack of hungry wolves, I think it’s common

sense.5. Rumour has it that terrible atrocities have been committed in the wake of the

Libyan ..................................................6. Doing crossword puzzles is supposed to ................................................. your wits.7. Samson was famous for his great ................................................. until Delilah cut off his hair.8. Some people start making ................................................. for their children’s education before they’re even

born.9. Sometimes it’s difficult to tell the difference between truth and ..................................................10. The bereaved families are still ................................................. for their loved ones, killed over twenty years ago.11. His femoral artery was severed and he ................................................. to death.12. The children are very ................................................. today:; there must be something amiss.13. The fans hope their team will be ................................................. in the final.14. The injured climbers were airlifted to safety suffering from ................................................. and hypothermia.15. The machine was ................................................. so I took it back to the shop.16. The minister made a ................................................. blunder when he left his microphone on and made some

derogatory remarks about his eminent guest.17. The murderer showed no .................................................; he said that given the same circumstances he would

not hesitate to kill again.18. The two governments launched an educational exchange programme to ................................................. the ties

between their two countries.19. The two soldiers were killed in so-called ................................................. fire, in other words they were

accidentally killed by soldiers fighting on their own side.20. They got married on a cold ................................................. day in January.

EXERCISE 11: OppositesSelect pairs of words from the two lists with approximately opposite meanings.List Aaccept / conceal / curse / deep / dull / fresh / humble / narrow / rough / slim / wild List Bbless / bright / plump / proud / reject / reveal / shallow / smooth / stale / tame / wide

Give the opposite of the following words using the appropriate prefix: dis-, im-/in-/ir-, un-……… loyal / ......... favourable / ......... similar / ......... capable / ......... natural / ......... conscious / .........

polite / ......... respectful / ......... foreseeable / ......... eatable / …….. audible / ......... orderly / .........

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true / ......... honourable / ......... replaceable / ......... just / ......... justice / ......... realistic / .........

acceptable / ......... certain

UNIT 9

PREPOSITIONS

NOTEPrepositions cause problems for a variety of reasons:

they often have different meanings and different functions; they are used in many idiomatic phrases, the meaning of which is not always immediately apparent (e.g. at

large, by all means, for good, in return, at hand); they do not always correspond to the “same” preposition in Italian (i.e. ”on” is not always “su”, “in” is not always

“in”, etc.); English sometimes requires a preposition where Italian does not (wait for, pay for, look at) and vice versa; compared with Italian, prepositions in English may have a different function, e.g. the “to” of the infinitive, or to

form phrasal verbs; adverbial particles often have the same form as prepositions (e.g. on, off, by, in, over, etc.); two or more prepositions in English are often required where one preposition does the job in Italian (a = to / at,

in = in / into, da = for / since / from / by / at, di = of / than); prepositions often have the same form as other parts of speech: before the war (prep.), before I arrived

(conjunction), haven’t we met before? (adverb), he walked past the bank (prep.), the plane flew past (adverb), in the past (noun), in past times (adj.);

prepositions have a different position in modern English as compared with Italian (e.g. in questions and relative clauses): Who did you speak to? (not “To whom did you speak?”) ... the party I voted for (rather than “the party for which I voted”).

EXERCISE 1: Prepositions after nounsComplete the sentences with a noun related to one of the following adjectives and verbs followed by an appropriate preposition. In two cases the noun has the same form as the verb.Exercise adapted from Advanced English Grammar (Heinemann)admire / advise / cruel / discuss / expert / improve / influence / interview / short / proud / vaccinateExample: I am against any form of ... cruelty to ... animals but I would not support a ban on hunting.1. Maggie is still in hospital, but there has been a big ........................................... ....................... her condition in the

last couple of days.2. Maurice took great ............................................ ....................... his cooking, and was always eager to talk about

his recipes.3. The website is full of useful .............................................. ....................... how to lose weight.4. In her .................................................. .......................The Daily Herald, the Finance Minister denied that she plans

to raise taxes.5. I have the greatest ................................................... ....................... people who work full time and also study for a

university degree.6. We had a long .................................................. ....................... the relative merits of CDs and vinyl records.7. I had to have a ....................................................... ....................... typhoid before entering the country.8. Benny Carter had a significant ................................................. ....................... the development of British jazz.9. There is a severe ............................................... ....................... affordable housing in the city and many people are

homeless.10. Thanks to his ………………………….. ………………… legal matters he was able to present his case convincingly.

EXERCISE 2: of + -ing or to + infinitiveComplete the sentences with a suitable verb using either of + -ing or to-infinitive. Example : Although Debbie said she would think about it, she never had the slightest intention ..... of following / of taking ..... my advice.

1. It's going to be cloudy tonight so there is only a fifty-fifty chance ................................... the eclipse of the moon.2. I went to Rome but I didn’t have the chance .................................................... St Peter’s.3. It's pouring with rain. I hope David had the sense .................................................... an umbrella with him.

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4. It was the effort ........................................................... the motrobike out of the canal that brought on Tony’s heart attack..5. He has an annoying way ................................................................ me while I’m speaking.6. I knew that there was little chance .................................................... the job when there were so many

applicants.7. He never managed to overcome his fear ............................................................... by plane.8. The very thought ……………………………………….……... on a plane fills him with trepidation.9. We knew that the missing men had no hope …………………………………..………….. in those freezing waters.10. The snow has been falling for two days now and shows no sign ....................................................11. The exercise tests the child’s ability ..................................................................... simple mathematical problems.12. The local council defended its decision .......................................................... the children’s playground into a car

park.13. The patient was kept in isolation to reduce the risk ........................................ the virus to other people in the hospital.14. Everyone has the right …………………………………………….……….. their opinion.15. I’m in no hurry ……………………………………….…………..; I can stay as long as I like.16. He didn’t have the courage ………………………………………..…………. her the truth.

EXERCISE 3: Prepositions after verbsComplete the sentences with a verb from the list followed by a preposition.agreeapologiseapplyarrest

comebelieve belong benefit

blameborrowburst cater

charge complaincongratulatecrash

satisfysearch

1. He was ..... charged with ...... treason and sentenced to death.2. After ......................................................... the lost treasure for several weeks,

we ........................................................ the conclusion that we were wasting our time.3. All books ...................................................................... the library must be returned within two weeks.4. Gavin has ..................................................................... a job in New Zealand.5. Has Sam ........................................................... forgetting the appointment?6. He ................................................................ a radical protestant sect called the Plymouth Brethren.7. He eventually signed the document even though he didn't ........................................................... its contents.8. I didn't ......................................................................... ghosts until I saw one.9. Luke's parents hope he will .................................................................. studying abroad for six months.10. People are rarely .......................................................... the public transport system; they

always ..................................................... the service.11. Some of the hooligans were .................................................................. vandalising the city centre.12. The accident was ........................................................ human error.13. The cut-price airlines don't normally ..................................................................... unaccompanied children.14. The plane ............................................................... the hillside and ........................................................... flames.15. The players were ...................................................................... winning the competition.

EXERCISE 4: Idiomatic prepositional phrasesComplete the sentences with the following phrases.at cross purposes / by ear / by heart / in the balance / in tow / on the house / on the same wavelength / over the moon / to my taste / under the influence / up in arms1. After the accident no one knew whether he would live or die. His life was ............................................2. Everyone could see that he had had too much to drink. He was obviously ............................................3. He came to the party and brought two of his girlfriends with him. He came to the party with two of his

girlfriends .............................................4. He can’t read music but he can play ............................................5. He was talking about his wife and I thought he was talking about his girlfriend. We were talking ..................................6. I agree with you completely. We’re ............................................7. She can recite the poem from memory. She knows it ............................................8. She was delighted when she was offered the job. She was ............................................9. Some people may like couscous but I don’t. Couscous is not .............................................10. The students protested strongly against the proposed increase in tuition fees. They were ............................................11. You don’t have to pay for the drinks, they’re ............................................

EXERCISE 5: Prepositions in three-word phrasal verbs

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Complete the sentences with verb + adverbial particle + preposition from the list.come up …… / put up ….. / walk out …… / cut down ….. / check up …… / look forward …… / look out …… / get away …… / catch up ….. / go through …..1. After living rough in the jungle for three months it took me a while to .....................................................................

what had been happening in my absence.2. It’s not so easy to ..................................................................... employees who are working from home.3. Was anyone able to ..................................................................... a solution to the problem?4. He sold his house near the airport because he couldn’t ..................................................................... the noise made

by planes taking off and landing.5. My account is in the red again so I’ll have to ..................................................................... expenses.6. He stole three thousand dollars from his company and managed to .................................................................. it.7. Do you think Jonas will ......................................................... his plan to sail across the Atlantic single-handed?8. I ..................................................................... seeing you again in the near future.9. If you’re going to sail across Monterey Bay you should ..................................................................... killer whales.10. Flora’s husband ..................................................................... her when they’d been married only three months.

EXERCISE 6: Adjectives and past participles followed by prepositionsComplete the sentences with phrases from the list.sorry (3) / keen / fond / crowded / crammed / famous / short / interested / capable / tired / similar / different / responsible 1. Although Brian and I come from the same town, my accent is ............................................ his. 2. Britain certainly isn't ......................................... its food.3. I felt .......................................... Marion. She was the only girl without a dancing partner.4. I’m ............................................. the noise last night. We were having a party.5. I'd rather not go to an Indian restaurant. I'm not very .............................................. Indian food. 6. In the desk I came across a box ........................................ old letters.7. Kraft said they were ................................................... the lay-offs but there was nothing they could do about it. 8. Our house is............................................... theirs but I think ours is a bit larger.9. Rebecca is very ................................................. her little sister.10. That man's drunk. He isn't ........................................... driving a car.11. The police are ........................................... maintaining law and order.12. They looked bored. I don't think they were ................................................. what I was saying. 13. Thìs part of Copenhagen is always very lively on Saturday evenings. It's usually ........................................... people. 14. Travelling is great at first but you get .................................................. it after a while.15. We're ..................................................... staff in our office at the moment on account of the flu epidemic.

EXERCISE 7: Translating the italian preposition “IN”in testa ………………………….in viaggio………………………….in tavola………………………….andare in montagna………avere un bambino in braccio……in quel giorno………………….lo farò in settimana……………correre in aiuto……………viaggiare in treno………………bravo in latino…………………tagliare in due…………….una statua in legno…………….spendere i soldi in cose inutili…..

pagare in contanti…………….di giorno in giorno…………….in fretta…………….essere ancora in piedi…………….essere in vita…………….passeggiare in giardino……….ricevere qualcosa in premio…eravamo in tre…………….tradurre in inglese…………….in base ai sondaggi…………….in alto/ in basso…………….in mezzo ai guai…………….in cielo/ in terra…………….

in tutto il mondo…………….in ritardo/ in anticipo…………….in centro/ in periferia…………….dividere in due…………….in un prossimo futuro…………….nei prossimi giorni…………….in buone condizioni…………….in fiore (alberi) …………….aveva le chiavi in mano…..infine…..…………….in quanto a…………….in arresto…………….in cambio di…………….

in vigore…………….

EXERCISE 8: Prepositional phrases with “IN”Complete the sentences with phrases from the list.in view of / in return for / in the hearing of / in favour of / in season / in a hurry / in accordance with / / in addition to / in advance / in all likelihood / in charge of / in comfort / in custody / in danger of / in detail1. ......................................................................... being fined, Ironside was banned from driving for two years.

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2. “................................................................. your unacceptable behaviour you have been dropped from the team,” the coach said to the player.

3. Fruit is cheapest when it’s ........................................................................4. Good morning. Here is the news ...... Those were the headlines now here is the

news ..............................................................................5. He was arrested and is now ....................................................................... awaiting trial.6. I am not ................................................................ students helping one another with exam questions during the

examination.7. I gave her a bunch of flowers ................................................................................. her kindness.8. I would like to give up working and live ............................................................................. for the rest of my life.9. I’m sorry I can’t stop now I’m ............................................................................. .10. If there are only two specimens of fish in the aquarium ................................................................... the weaker

specimen will be killed by the stronger one.11. If you want to be sure of a place it’s best to book ...........................................................................12. Please don’t eulogise the Labour Party ........................................................................... my father. He’s a dyed-in-

the-wool conservative.13. The customs officer said he meant no offence; he was simply acting .................................................................. the

rules.14. The Sumatran tiger is one of many animals ........................................................................... extinction.15. Who is .............................................................................airport security?

EXERCISE 9: AT, IN, BYReplace the phrases in bold type with suitable expressions from the list below. Ten are distracters.at a glance / at a loss (2) / at all / at least / at most / at a glimpse / at all times / at cross purposes / at risk of / at short notice / at our expense / at sight / at random / at the expense of / by name / by chance / by themselves / by the skin of his teeth / by all means / by the way / by any chance / by sight / in the nick of time / in confusion

1. `May I open the window?' 'Certainly ....................................................!'2. I could tell by taking one quick look .................................................... that there had been a mistake. 3. I know that person from her appearance .................................................... but not what she's called

.....................................................4. I wonder if you know what's on at the cinema tonight, perhaps ....................................................?5. If you need to stay overnight, please book a hotel room and we will pay .....................................................6. Incidentally ...................................................., have you seen the new Coen Brothers film?7. It was a difficult problem and I was uncertain what to do .....................................................8. It was a wonderful show – anyway, .................................................... I enjoyed it.9. It's impossible to get tickets for such a popular show the day before.................................................... - you need to

book no less than six months in advance.10. She was working much too hard, causing harm to .................................................... her health.11. The hero was rescued a moment before it was too late .....................................................12. The show closed because it was running without making a profit .....................................................13. The winners are selected without any plan .................................................... by a computer.14. We were talking about different things .................................................... but didn't realise it at the time.15. When abroad, it's advisable to carry your passport constantly .....................................................16. The trapped potholers managed to get out of the underground cave without help ...................................... .

UNIT 10

IDIOMS AND STOCK PHRASES

IntroductionOne way of making your writing more colourful and interesting to read is to use idiomatic expressions and stock phrases in an appropriate way.An idiom is a combination of words with a special meaning that cannot usually be inferred from its separate parts. Words used idiomatically are often not used in the sense that you would normally associate with them.

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Type 1) idioms (the meaning can be deduced from the components of the phrase)Even if you had never heard the following expressions you would probably be able to understand them.“He eats like a pig”.“He took the lion’s share.”“Veronica’s on the wrong side of thirty.”

Type 2) idioms (literal and figurative meaning)“Rosemary wouldn’t say boo to a goose”. On the face of it this is a strange thing to say. Of course it is perfectly possible to say boo to a goose, but who would want to? This statement is only used idiomatically, meaning that Rosemary is very timid and wouldn’t dare to make even the mildest protest. Clearly, it’s impossible to deduce this figurative meaning from the separate elements. Thus, the sentence has two meanings – a literal meaning which you would be very unlikely to use, and a metaphorical meaning which all native speakers of English would understand.More examples:“Every family has a skeleton in the cupboard.”“He buried his head in the sand.”“Don’t rock the boat.”“He’s kicked the bucket.”

Type 3) idioms (only figurative meaning)“Shall we go Dutch?”This has no literal meaning at all, only an idiomatic one. It means “ I suggest that you pay for your meal and I’ll pay for mine. Again, it is impossible to infer the meaning from the individual words.More examples:“He sold those old paintings for a song, not realising their true value.”“The new job is right up his street.”“Jazz isn’t really my cup of tea.”

ConclusionMany idioms, proverbs and stock phrases are related to basic human needs and experiences. Many are therefore linked to the agricultural life, seafaring, warfare, the cycle of the seasons, celestial bodies, animals, food, clothing, family, parts of the body, the home, colours, numbers, money. Many were first used in works of literature such as fables, fairy stories, Shakespeare’s plays and the English translation of the Bible. Many are related to the culture and customs of a particular historical period. Many are similes or metaphors.It is quite common for the same word (e.g. game, time, ship, hand) to be used in several different idiomatic expressions.

EXERCISE 1Choose the correct word.

1. Was the exam difficult? No, it was a piece of pie/ a piece of cake. 2. I didn't sleep a blink / a wink last night so I'm feeling a bit under the time / the weather. 3. On the contrary, I slept like a log / a stick so I'm feeling full of peas / beans. 4. Our trip was wonderful; the only fly in the cream / the ointment was a four-hour delay at Lisbon airport on the

way back.5. This is just a wild goose chase / a wild cat chase we'll never find a restaurant open at this time of the

morning.6. Knowing that his violin teacher was rolling in money, Julius was over the sun / the moon when she asked him

to marry her.7. A bird in the hand is worth two in the tree / the bush.8. Julius's mother is going to go through the floor / the roof when she hears he's thinking of marrying a woman

twice his age.9. Winning the lottery twice is something that only happens once in a blue moon / a blue sky. 10. The trip went like a machine / clockwork until we had to cross the border into China.11. Mr Jewelstone is devoted to his stepdaughter; she's the apple / the pear of his eye.12. Joshua was given the sack / the bag because he was always late for work.

EXERCISE 2Choose the correct word.

1. The monotony of counting sheep / pigs / cows in one’s imagination is a supposed to induce sleep.2. Gazing at the night sky through my brother's homemade telescope on a cold December evening is not really my

cup of tea / cup of coffee / pint of beer.3. "There's nothing wrong with you," the doctor said, "You're as fit as a whistle / a drum / a fiddle.”

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4. Laura's expecting a baby but she doesn't want anyone to know yet, so don't let the mouse / the cat / the rabbit out of the bag.

5. Your so-called fiancé is already married so he's just been leading you up the hill / the mountain path / the garden path; in other words, you've been taken for a walk / a run / a ride.

6. One of my students actually had the tongue / the cheek / the nose to correct my English.7. Are you hungry? Yes, I could eat a horse / a dog / two rabbits.8. You'll have to pull your stockings / socks / sleeves up if you want to pass the exam.9. You really put your foot / leg / toe in it when you asked James if his grandmother was coming to the party; she

died ten years ago.10. No, of course I haven't lost the keys, I was only pulling your foot / leg / toe.11. No wine for me, thanks, I'm on the wagon / the water / the tea.12. By car the sea is fifteen miles from here but as the bird / the crow / the eagle flies it's only seven.

EXERCISE 3: Idioms with the word “game”Match the idioms to the definitions below.ahead of the game ...... / at this stage of the game ...... / fair game ...... / fun and games ...... / give the game away ...... / the name of the game ...... / a completely different ball game ...... / the game is up …

a. a totally new situation b. at a certain point in a process c. enjoyable activities d. to reveal a secret accidentallye. something or someone that can easily be taken advantage of f. the situation is lost and has a negative outcome (especially when someone has been caught doing something

wrong g. the most important feature / purpose of an institution or organisationh. in an advantageous position

Now use the idioms in sentences.1. In order to build up a successful company you always have to be .......................................... 2. On the face of it pop stars lead a glamorous life but it isn’t all ................................................3. It’s too early to say what the final outcome will be ........................................................4. When the burglars heard the police sirens they realised that ..................................................5. These thin, weak animals are ....................................................... for hungry predators. 6. She didn't want anyone to know that she was getting married but her sister .............................................7. Being a student is one thing but the world of work is ........................................................8. Academic excellence is ....................................................... at this university.

EXERCISE 4:Idioms with furniture and household items.Complete the sentences with words from the list. Four are distracters.window / table / tables / stools / shelf / plate / drawer / door / dish / desk / carpet chairs / armchair / bed

1. I’m just a/ an ............................................... traveller. I love watching documentaries about exotic places, but I’ve never actually been out of Britain.

2. He turned down the first job in the hope that he would get the second, but in the end he didn’t get either. Her fell between two ................................................

3. This is a problem you have to face up to. You can’t just sweep it under the ........................................4. She can’t be out of the top ..............................................., can she? She says “serviette” for “napkin” and

“dinner” for the midday meal.5. At half time Arsenal were leading by three goals to nil, but in the second half United turned

the ............................................... on them, winning the match by 5 goals to 3.6. Veronica’s already 32. If she doesn’t get married soon she’ll be left on the ........................................7. You’re not playing fair. How can we negotiate an agreement if you don’t put your cards on

the ................................................8. I can’t take on any more work. I’ve already got far too much on my ................................................9. When he lost his job, his plans to spend the month of August touring the States went out of

the ................................................10. He never had a proper interview for the job. He just pulled a few strings and got in by the

back ................................................

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EXERCISE 5: Idioms and stock phrases containing the word "nothing" or "thing(s)"Examples: "let’s set off first thing" (= early in the morning), "this new car has nothing on my old one" (= the old one was better)Complete the sentences with words and phrases from the list.a pretty little thing / a thing (2) / a thing or two / all things considered / better than nothing / last thing / no such thing / nothing / nothing doing / one thing / the thing is / the wrong thing / their own thing / nothing in it

1. We never go on holiday as a family. We think it's better for everyone to do ......................................2. A: What's his wife like? B: She's ......................................................... but not much up here.3. ......................................................... we decided to put our winnings in the bank instead of going out on a

spending spree.4. A: Can you lend me a tenner? B: Sorry, .........................................................5. You'll never get Stella on a plane. She's got ......................................................... about flying.6. She suddenly burst into tears so I realised I must have said ..........................................................7. He's an aeronautical engineer so I think he knows .......................................... about aircraft engines.8. None of the journalists could get ......................................................... out of the Prime Minister about the date of

the next elections.9. He opened a Japanese restaurant even though he didn’t know ......................................................... about

Japanese cuisine.10. It was rumoured that he was going to run for the presidency but later it turned out there

was ..........................................................11. A: Would you like a ham sandwich? B: Well, what I really fancy is a three-course dinner but I suppose a ham

sandwich is ..........................................................12. Arnold's got money to burn. He'd think ......................................................... of spending a couple of hundred

pounds on an umbrella.13. I'm not going on holiday this year. ......................................................... , I can't really afford it.14. He was up till ......................................................... , trying to get his article finished by the deadline.15. What with ......................................................... and another I just haven't had time to get Grandma a birthday

present.16. There's really ......................................................... as an environmentally friendly car.

EXERCISE 6: Speculating on the meaning of idiomatic phrasesSuggest the meaning of the phrases in bold type.

1. He’s always harping on the same string. All he talks about is money, money, money.2. Veronica spent so long shopping around, that in the end she got left on the shelf.3. The new office block is a real eyesore, it looks completely out of place among all those lovely mediaeval

buildings.4. Arnold’s failure to get into university was a blessing in disguise. He’s only twenty-three and he’s already

earning more than the Prime Minister.5. The banking community are more interested in lining their own pockets, than in saving their customers

money.6. The football player saw red when one of the other team started making disparaging remarks about his country

of origin.7. Before getting down to brass tacks they offered everyone a drink to break the ice.8. People who blow their own trumpet all the time really get under my skin.9. In the office he’s something of a tyrant but at home it’s his wife who wears the trousers.10. If you think I’m going to clear up after you, you’ve got another think coming.11. He didn’t want to play second fiddle, he wanted to run the show.12. When he came out of prison he was determined to turn over a new leaf.

EXERCISE 7: Animal idiomsset the cat among the pigeons / cry wolf / are all bark and no bite / are bearding the lion in his own den / are closing the stable door after the horse has bolted / back the wrong horse / cook someone's goose / get on your high horse / have butterflies in your stomach / have other fish to fry / kill two birds with one stone / make a beeline for a place

1. When you talk tough but take no decisive action, you .............................................................. .2. If you ........................................................... , you give your support to the losing side in something.3. If you .............................................................. , you head there directly.4. If you confront a powerful or dangerous rival on their territory, you ..................................................

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5. If you aren't interested in something because it isn't important to you and there are more important things for you to do, you .............................................................. .

6. If you feel nervous before something important or stressful is known you ........................................ .7. If you .............................................................. , you create a disturbance and cause trouble.8. If you try to fix something after the problem has occurred, you ......................................................... . 9. If you .............................................................. , you ruin their plans.10. If you .............................................................. , you raise a false alarm about something.11. When you ............................................. , you resolve two difficulties or matters with a single action.12. When you .............................................................. , you are being inflexible, arrogant and will not make any

compromises.

EXERCISE 8: More verbal idiomsExplain the meaning.

a. to spill the beansb. to steer clear of someonec. to put the cart before the horsed. to make ends meete. to bury the hatchetf. to pay through the nose for sthg.g. to beat about the bushh. to go downhilli. to be at a loose endj. to see eye to eye with someonek. to put one’s foot downl. to know the ins and outs of sthg.m. to know a place like the back of your handn. to strike while the iron is hot

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UNIT 11

How English Is Evolving Into a Language We May Not Even Understand

By Michael Erard

As Shanghai cleans up its more humorous Chinese to English mistranslations, some folks are regretting the loss of this unwitting source of humour. Some targeted offences: IF YOU ARE STOLEN, CALL THE POLICE AT ONCE. DEFORMED MAN LAVATORY. DYING RIGHT HERE IS STRICTLY PROHIBITED. 嚴禁就地死THANGS YOU FOR COME TO FISITING US.SHOW MERCY TO THE GREEN LIVES UNDER YOUR FOOT.DO NOT USE THE LIFT IF IT CATCHES FIRE.NOTICE THE SAFETY PLEASE SLIP CAREFULLY.

EXERCISE 1Find words with similar meaning among the words in bold type in the text. The form of the words may not be the same (e.g. verb forms, plurals)make up / foreign / lack / limit / more and more / period / remove / ridicule / search / silly / use / co-existFor the past 18 months, teams of language police have been scouring .............................. Beijing on a mission to wipe out .............................. all such traces of bad English signage. They're the type of goofy .............................. transgressions that we in the English homelands love to poke fun at .............................., devoting entire Web sites to so-called Chinglish. But what if these sentences aren't really bad English? What if they are evidence that the English language is happily leading an alternative lifestyle .............................. without us?Thanks to globalization, the Allied victories in World War II, and American leadership in science and technology, English has become so successful across the world that it's escaping the boundaries .............................. of what we think it should be. In part, this is because there are fewer of us. By 2020, native speakers will comprise.............................. only 15 per cent of the estimated 2 billion people who will be using or learning the language. Already, most conversations in English are between non-native .............................. speakers who use it as a lingua franca.In China, this sort of free-style adoption .............................. of English is helped along by a shortage .............................. of native English-speaking teachers, who are hard to keep happy in rural areas for long stretches .............................. of time. An estimated 300 million Chinese — roughly equivalent to the total US population — read and write English but don't get enough quality spoken practice. The likely consequence of all this? In the future, more and more spoken English will sound increasingly .............................. like Chinese.

EXERCISE 2Complete the text with verb phrases from the list.begin words / gives spoken Mandarin / is pronounced / may introduce tone / pronounce English / to agree / to alter / will be ignored / will be salted / will become more like Chinese

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It's not merely that English (1)………………………………………………………. with Chinese vocabulary for local cuisine, bon mots, and curses or that speakers will peel off words from local dialects. The Chinese and other Asians already (2)………………………………………………………. differently — in both subtle and not-so-subtle ways. For example, in various parts of the region they tend not to turn vowels in unstressed syllables into neutral vowels. Instead of "har-muh-nie," it's "har-moh-nee." And the sounds that (3)………………………………………………………. like “this” and “thing” are often enunciated as the letters f, v, t, or d. In Singaporean English (known as Singlish), think (4)………………………………………………………. "tink," and theories is "tee-oh-rees."English (5)………………………………………………………. in other ways, too. Some grammatical appendages unique to English (such as adding "do" or "did" to questions) will drop away, and our practice of not turning certain nouns into plurals (6)………………………………………………………. . Expect to be asked: "How many informations can your flash drive hold?" One noted feature of Singlish is the use of words like ah, lah, or wah at the end of a sentence to indicate a question or get a listener (7)………………………………………………………. with you. They're each pronounced with tone — the linguistic feature that (8)………………………………………………………. its musical quality — adding a specific pitch to words (9)………………………………………………………. their meaning. (If you say "xin" with an even tone, it means "heart"; with a descending tone it means "honest.") According to linguists, speakers(10)………………………………………………………. into Asian-English hybrids.

EXERCISE 3: GapfillGiven the number of people involved, Chinglish is destined to take on a life of its (1)........................................ . Advertisers will play 2)........................................ it, as they already (3)........................................ in Taiwan. It will be celebrated as a form of cultural identity, as the Hong Kong Museum of Art (4)........................................ in a Chinglish exhibition last year. It will be used widely online and in movies, music, games, and books, (5)........................................ it is in Singapore. Someday, it may even be (6)........................................ in schools. Ultimately, it's not that speakers will slide along a continuum, with "proper" language at (7)........................................ end and local English dialects at the other, as happens in countries where pidgins are spoken. Nor (8)........................................ Chinglish replace native languages, as pidgin sometimes (9)........................................ . It's that Chinglish will be just as proper (10)........................................ any other English on the planet.And it's possible Chinglish will be more efficient (11)........................................our version, doing away (12)........................................ word endings and the articles "a", "an", and "the". After (13)........................................ , if you can figure out "Environmental sanitation needs your conserve," maybe conservation isn't (14)........................................ necessary.

EXERCISE 4: Sentence beginningsA less familiar example isAny language isBut what's happening to English could beEnglish is mingling

If the trend continuesNor is it surprising that The obvious comparison isThe speakers of its myriad dialects are

(1)........................................................................................ constantly evolving, so it's not surprising that English, transplanted to new soil, is bearing unusual fruit. (2)........................................................................................ a language, spreading so far from its homelands, will begin to fracture. (3)........................................................................................ to Latin, which branched into mutually distinct languages over hundreds of years — French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian. (4)........................................................................................ Arabic. (5)........................................................................................ connected through the written language of the Koran and, more recently, through the homogenized Arabic of Al Jazeera. (6)........................................................................................ something quite different from the case of either Latin or Arabic. (7)........................................................................................ with so many more local languages than Latin ever did, that it's on a path toward a global tongue — what's coming to be known as Panglish. (8)........................................................................................, when Americans travel abroad, one of the languages they may have to learn will be their own.

VOCABULARY AND USAGE

EXERCISE 1: Word formation, nouns ending in -ageFrom the text: language, signage, appendage, shortage, garbageOther examples: vintage, courage, marriage, cabbage, cottage, postage, carnage, luggage, garbage, rummage, ravage From French: entourage, fuselage, collage, barrage, camouflage, sabotage, mirage, montage

1. The BBC provided extensive co..............................age of the Costa Concordia disaster.

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2. Supermarkets are ensured against accidental br..............................ages so if you knock a bottle of oil off a shelf you shouldn’t have to pay for it.

3. From this va..............................age point you can see the waterfall plunging into the rugged Yellowstone River Canyon as well as the Yellowstone River itself meandering below you.

4. If you buy a pure wool cardigan it’s a good idea to get a larger size to allow for sh..............................age when you wash it.

5. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales is the story of fictitious characters as they travel together on a p..............................age from Southwark to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket.

6. The medicine is effective but you should take care not to exceed the recommended d..............................age.7. Due to the sh..............................age of st..............................age space the painter decided to rent a garage to

keep his paintings in.8. After her mother died, Ella Fitzgerald was placed in an or..............................age.9. It is estimated that it will take at least six months to remove the wr..............................age of the Costa

Concordia.10. Amateur fo..............................age of the disaster can be accessed on YouTube.11. A bird’s pl..............................age changes as it grows to adulthood.12. Do you know what pe..............................age of the world’s population is left-handed on

a..............................age?13. Deciduous trees lose their fo..............................age in the autumn.14. Because of the petrol s..............................age there was a huge increase in the demand for bicycles.15. The Ancient Egyptians used to pay ho..............................age to the sun god Ra.16. You can find vandal-proof bev..............................age dispensers in most underground stations.17. Do you think passengers’ personal possessions can be sa..............................aged from the wreck.18. Oil le..............................age from fuel tanks is a serious cause of pollution.19. Thomas Jefferson’s home, Monticello, near Charlottesville, Virginia, was designated a world

he..............................age site in 1987.20. Many insects have ap..............................ages such as legs and antennae that are much longer than their

bodies.

EXERCISE 2: -AGE vs –AGGIONote. Many Italian words ending in –aggio have corresponding English words ending in –age (drenaggio, ancoraggio, dosaggio, passaggio) but not all. Give the English equivalent for the words below.

allunaggio ................................. / ammaraggio ................................. / babysitteraggio ................................. / boicottaggio ................................. / canottaggio ................................. / vagabondaggio ................................. / dribblaggio ................................. / gemellaggio ................................. / giardinaggio ................................. / hackeraggio ................................. / linciaggio ................................. / pattinaggio ................................. / riciclaggio ................................. / sciacallaggio ................................. / sondaggio ................................. / tatuaggio ................................. / doppiaggio ................................. /

EXERCISE 3: Metaphors and stock phrases from agriculture and farming.From the text: to transplant to new soil, to bear fruitbranch / bud / chickens / fruits / furrow / goats / goose / hay / haystack / horse (3) / roost / roots / scarecrow

1. He’s the kind of person who will always plough a lone ....................................... . He hates teamwork and he likes to do his own thing.

2. I think we should give them an entrance test before letting them join the course. That should separate the sheep from the ........................................

3. It’s too late to intervene at this stage of the game. It’s no use closing the stable door after the ....................................... has bolted.

4. It’s too early in the game to say how much money we’re going to make. Don’t count your ....................................... before they’re hatched.

5. It’s Mrs Bennet that rules the ....................................... in that household. Mr Bennet wouldn’t say boo to a ........................................

6. I have worked hard all my life and now I’d like to settle down and enjoy the ....................................... of my labours.

7. What on earth have you done to your hair? You look like a ........................................8. At the moment, things are looking good, but you never know what might happen tomorrow, so let’s

make ....................................... while the sun shines.

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9. George is a rolling stone, I doubt whether he’ll ever put down ....................................... and settle down.10. The Arab Spring was already well underway before anyone could nip it in the ........................................11. Arnold’s business did so well that he was able to ....................................... out into other areas.12. Never look a gift ....................................... in the mouth.13. You’re putting the cart before the ........................................ You should make sure you’ve got the job before you

start spending your wages.14. Trying to find a parking space in the city centre is like looking for a needle in a ........................................

EXERCISE: Hybrid wordsFrom the text: Chinglish, PanglishWhat two words are the hybrids taken from and what do they mean?

1. breathalyser 2. brunch 3. camcorder 4. chunnel 5. electrocute 6. emoticon ;-) 7. Franglais 8. guesstimate 9. guitarthritis 10. heliport 11. infomercial 12. infotainment 13. modem 14. motel 15. netiquette 16. newscast 17. Oxbridge 18. sexploitation 19. sitcom 20. smog 21. stagflation22. staycation 23. telegenic 24. workaholic25. chocaholic

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UNIT 12

CULTURE SHOCK

Look out for: words referring to people (host, immigrant, returnee, theorists, the new arrival, traveller, resident, non-native speaker), use of “will” to describe stages in a process, consequences, cause and effect, contrast, expressions of time and place, generalisations, relative clauses

EXERCISE 1: Focusing on sentence endingsComplete the text with phrases from the list.as the vital factor in causing culture shock / contemplate living in another country / that will lessen its effect / the first language of the country will be different / will suffer from some form of culture shock / with the same lingual backgroundCulture Shock (Introduction)In today's global economy, where major firms have branches in most areas of the world, many more people than ever before (1).......................................................................................... . For some this means a job in a country with the same first language, but for most (2).......................................................................................... . This is especially true of non-native English speakers. The culture of the host country may also be very different, even when the shift is to a country (3).......................................................................................... . These factors lead to a condition referred to as culture shock. The simple fact is that everyone who lives in a country with a different language (4).......................................................................................... . Although the conclusions appear to have validity for people who move to a country with the same first language, theorists regard the different lingual background (5).......................................................................................... . The secret to dealing with it lies in recognising the symptoms and being aware of the approaches (6).......................................................................................... .

EXERCISE 2: Focusing on verbswill move / will go through / will delight and amuse / will be studied / stay / lasts / has travelled / can go on / aims / acknowledgesWhat is Culture Shock? (Definition, quoting a reliable source)The term comes from Schumann's Theory of Acculturation which (1)....................................................... to explain the stages that an immigrant goes through from arrival to eventual assimilation. As Schumann himself (2)....................................................... , very few people will stay long enough in a foreign country to fully assimilate, but those people that (3)....................................................... for a year or more (4)....................................................... along the continuum to some extent.

The Euphoric Stage (Paragraph 1 of the body of the essay)

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When a person arrives in a new country the first stage that they (5)....................................................... is the euphoric stage. At this stage everything about the new culture (6)....................................................... the new arrival. The country from which the person (7)....................................................... will be constantly compared to the new country in disparaging terms. It is very common for the new immigrant to try to assume the cultural imperatives of their new hosts even if the language is hard to master. The language itself (8)....................................................... with enthusiasm and the first few months are usually a time of great progress. This honeymoon period commonly (9)........................................ from three to six months, but for some people it (10)................................................ for up to a year.

EXERCISE 3: Jumbled phrasesRearrange the words in bold type in the correct orderThe Hostile Stage (Paragraph 2)After the first stage, new immigrants will be shocked to find themselves becoming antagonistic (1)..................................... ........................................................................................................ about culture everything host the to. This second stage is the hostile stage. It arrives with little or no warning, and can be triggered by a seemingly small incident (2)..................................................................................................................................... have cause apparent or no even. This stage is characterised by depression and in some cases (3)............................................................... .............................................................................. revered the towards previously hosts aggression. The person affected will attempt to reconnect with their home culture, by watching films or reading books and papers (4)....................................................................................................... ................................... with are that homeland their connected. Cultural differences will no longer be celebrated, but seen as a source of conflict. Familiar or comfort food from the traveller's home country (5)......................................................................................................................... out and be delight will consumed sought with. Language study will stall or even go into reverse as the immigrant decides that their own language (6)................................................................................................................................... most acceptable is situations for quite. This stage will often last for six months, (7).................................................... ...................................................................... to varies it person person from but.

EXERCISE 4: Missing words

The Acceptance Stage (Paragraph 3) The (1).......................................... stage is the acceptance stage. In this stage a kind of equilibrium is reached where the immigrant learns to accept the differences (2).......................................... their host culture and their home culture and to celebrate (3).......................................... differences where appropriate. There are certain customs (4).......................................... the host culture reveres, (5).......................................... will become part of the everyday (6)....................................... of the new resident. A good example of (7).......................................... is the custom of leaving shoes outside the house in Japan, (8).......................................... many one-time residents of that country take back to their home (9).......................................... . On the other (10).........................................., the custom of slurping noodles as loudly (11).......................................... possible is probably best left behind at Osaka Airport.

Reverse Culture Shock Stage (Paragraph 4) Finally, in the vast (12).......................................... of cases the immigrant will eventually return to their (13)...................................... country. Once there the fourth, and most unexpected, (14).......................................... occurs and this is referred to as the reverse culture shock stage. Upon arriving back, the returning resident will be eager to share their experiences of another culture that have (15).......................................... them a different person. However, they have returned to a group of people, and indeed a country, that (16).......................................... changed in the interim. These changes can be subtle or far-reaching, but they will affect the way in (17).......................................... the returnee is accepted by, or accepts, their own host country and its residents. Often the change required will be too great. The returnee will in many cases (18).......................................... with this by returning to the host culture or exploring another culture and language.

VOCABULARY AND STRUCTURES

EXERCISE 1: Focusing on words with different meanings and usesComplete the sentences with the correct form of one of the following words. Use each word three times.SHIFT / LIE / STAGE / SHARE / LEAD1. A ........................................ detector is a device used to determine whether or not a person is telling the truth.

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2. A marriage stands more chance of success if the couple ................................................ the same views.3. After winning the lottery he was able to ................................................ a life of leisure.4. Britain will ................................................ the Olympic Games in 2012.5. Colin Firth played the ................................................ in “The King’s Speech”.6. He tried to ................................................ all the blame for the disaster onto his assistant.7. He’s doing the night ............................ this week so don’t phone him in the morning because he’ll be sleeping.8. If you want to avoid stirring up trouble, let sleeping dogs .................................................9. No one can foresee the problems that ................................................ ahead.10. Poor Harold has had more than his fair ................................................ of bad luck.11. Shakespeare wrote mainly for the .................................................12. The ................................................ from fossil fuels to alternative energy sources is not always practicable.13. The family who founded the company still own a large ................................................ of its assets.14. The negotiations have reached a crucial .................................................15. Two minutes after kick-off United went straight into the .......................................... with a goal from Rooney.

EXERCISE 2: The suffix –eeComplete the words.1. The name of the ad...............................ee is printed on the envelope.2. All our em...............................ees are entitled to three weeks’ annual holiday.3. Many of the det...............................ees at the Guantanamo Bay facility claim to have been ill-treated.4. The ev...............................ees will not be allowed to return to their homes until the flood waters have receded.5. Thousands of re...............................ees have fled from Syria amid bloodshed and devastation.6. As things stand at present the Church of England does not allow di...............................ees to take holy orders.7. All the am...............................ees have been fitted with state-of-the-art artificial limbs.8. The re...............................ee sent off two players in the second half.9. Some ret...............................ees suffer from reverse culture shock when they go back to their own country after a

spell abroad.10. If it is found that the ab...............................ees stayed off work for no good reason they will be suspended.11. The aim of the scheme is to expose tra...............................ees to a wide range of work experiences before

assigning them to a specific job.

EXERCISE 3: Sentence restructuringRe-express the sentences as indicated.1. Japanese people slurp their noodles whereas English people don’t.

Unlike ..............................................................................................................................................2. The first few months are usually a time of great progress.

Great progress ..............................................................................................................................................3. Very few people will stay long enough in a foreign country to assimilate.

Most people ..............................................................................................................................................4. It is very common for the new immigrant to try to assume the cultural imperatives of the host country.

The new immigrant ..............................................................................................................................................5. They think the vital factor in causing culture shock is the different lingual background.

The vital factor in causing culture shock ................................................................................................................6. It would be better not to slurp your noodles when you return to your home country.

You had ..............................................................................................................................................7. He said it was the host country’s fault that he was unable to integrate.

He blamed ......................................................................................................................................................

EXERCISE 4: Relative pronounsComplete the sentences with a relative pronoun and decide whether there are other possibilities.Example: He was the first person ..... that ..... reached the top of Mount Everest.OR: He was the first person to reach the top of Mount Everest.1. The people ...................................... are most likely to be affected by culture shock are those from a different lingual

background.

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2. He was the only person ......................................... completed the exercise.3. The prince was welcomed in the style ......................................... befitted his position.4. Do you remember the name of the person to ......................................... you spoke?5. This is the last time ......................................... I’m going to tell you not to touch my computer while I’m out.6. He always phones me after midnight, ......................................... annoys me intensely.7. We will punish anyone ......................................... breaks the rules.8. I’ve lost the piece of paper on ......................................... I wrote his telephone number.9. Prince Charles, .................................. I have met only once, is famous for his concern for environmental issues.10. No one has ever found the photograph of Mallory’s wife, Ruth, ......................................... he promised to place at

the summit of Everest.11. Do you know the name of the man ......................................... is sitting next to Susan?12. All the soldiers ......................................... were left behind were taken prisoner.

EXERCISE 5: Using words from the textComplete the sentences with words from the list.affecting / conflicting / contemplating / dealing / disparaging / honeymooning / majoring / mastering / occurring / regarding / seeing / slurping / suffering / triggering1. A Korean couple, .......................................... aboard the cruise ship, were among those rescued in extremis.2. .......................................... one’s soup is considered bad manners in most European countries.3. Rachel decided to ditch her boyfriend because he kept making .......................................... remarks about her

Birmingham accent.4. Many non-native speakers of English have difficulty in .......................................... the pronunciation of sounds such

as the th- and the tr- at the beginning of words.5. Skiers were warned not to ski off piste for fear of .......................................... an avalanche.6. Skiers were warned not to ski off piste to reduce the risk of an avalanche ...........................................7. The secret to .......................................... with culture shock is being aware of it.8. In an attempt to reconcile their .......................................... interests some archaelogists joined the tomb raiders on

one of their expediitions.9. How is the Arab Spring .......................................... the global economy?10. Gabriel is .......................................... emigrating to Australia.11. Many of the passengers from the stricken vessel were admitted to hospital ................................... from shock.12. Sarah Palin attended Idaho University ..........................................in Journalism and Broadcast Media.13. The minister expressed concern .................................. the fall in educational standards over the past decade.14. .......................................... that very few people attended the first performance, the second one was cancelled.

EXERCISE 6: Linking devicesComplete the sentences in an appropriate way.1. Cities are growing in size .............................................. rural populations are shrinking.2. .............................................. Rachel never actually graduated she became a world-famous novelist.3. You don’t stand a chance of winning the marathon .............................................. you train hard for several months

beforehand.4. The main .............................................. she married him was that he was extremely rich.5. .............................................. I hadn’t caught a single fish I decided to use a different bait.6. .............................................. you train hard beforehand do you stand a chance of winning the marathon.7. You will have to treat your maid better, .............................................. she will leave.8. I’m afraid you’ll have to sleep in the cellar .............................................. you like it or not.9. .............................................. having lived abroad for many years, he always longed to return to his homeland.10. You have not paid the enrolment fee, ………………………………….. you will not be allowed to take the exam.

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UNIT 13

Inside the Muslim Eton: 20 hour days starting at 3.45am with the aim of producing Muslim elite of leaders

By EDNA FERNANDES

The clock strikes 11am and boys spill out of classrooms into the corridor to move on to their next lesson. There is no noise and no jostling. Instead they walk in an orderly manner, heads bowed respectfully and eyes downcast to avoid my gaze. The boys, all aged between 13 and 19, are dressed in ankle-length white robes and white skullcaps. Their feet are bare. For this is no ordinary school. This is Darul Uloom*, a Muslim madrassa or religious school, set in the pretty Kent village of Chislehurst. It is one of 166 Muslim schools in Britain today.

*house of knowledge

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EXERCISE 1: Sentence endingsComplete the sentences.are shaping young Muslims in Britain today / fear they may be academies of radicalism / have been operating in Britain for 25 years / wish to send their children to Muslim-only schoolsOf the 166 Muslim schools in Britain, 26 are Darul Ulooms, religious seminaries rooted in the Islamic orthodoxy of sharia. According to a recent survey, almost half of British Muslims (1).................................................................... ........................ Secretive and protective, Darul Uloom schools (2)..................................................................................... although most Britons have never even heard of them. Their importance in the Islamic world is paramount, however, and they (3)............................................................................................ In terms of significance, Darul Uloom is no less than the Eton of Islam. But since 9/11 they have faced closer scrutiny by police who (4)........................................................................................... – something the headmasters deny.

EXERCISE 2: Focusing on nounsComplete the text with nouns from the list.awe / brand / elite / establishment / haven / integration / movement / opinion / returnThe first Darul Uloom or ‘House of Knowledge’ was set up in Deoband, northern India, in 1866 as a/an (1)............................................ of Islamic purity. Its purpose was to see a/an (2)............................................ to the ways of the Prophet Mohammed, to when Islam was born in the 7th Century AD. Since then Darul Uloom’s (3)............................................ of Islam has spread from India, across Pakistan and Afghanistan, the Middle East and Africa and into Britain’s educational (4)............................................ . Its alumni are some of the most important and influential Muslim leaders in the world: imams and scholars who help shape Muslim (5)............................................ . Because Darul Uloom is about creating an Islamic (6)............................................ who will rule the Muslim world. It is about offering a classical education and its very name inspires (7)............................................ among the Muslim community. Yet some in this (8)............................................ are anti-Western and against (9)............................................ with other cultures, which they view as anti-Islamic.

EXERCISE 3: Focusing on verbsComplete the text with verbs from the list.allowed / bought / charges / cover / covers / frown / greeted / led / moving / raise / remove / setting up On entering the school, I was instructed to (1)............................................ my shoes and (2)............................................ my head with a scarf before being (3)............................................ to a bare room overlooking the playing fields. The boys are (4)............................................ to play football and cricket in their spare time but such encouragement of sport is unusual – more hardline schools (5)............................................ upon games. The headmaster, Mufti Mustafa, is in his 60s, and has a grey beard and penetrating eyes. He (6)............................................ me with hands joined together in a salaam. It was Mufti Mustafa who first had the dream of (7)............................................ the school in London 20 years ago. He (8)............................................ his first premises in Forest Gate, East London, in 1990 before (9)............................................ to the current site in 1993. Today 155 boys board there, although there are plans to (10)............................................ that number to 225. The school (11)............................................ £2,400 a year, which (12)............................................ tuition fees, books and meals.

EXERCISE 4: Sentence beginningsComplete the sentences.We’re not on Earth / The aim / We teach / More important / We live / It is / It is the obligation / Unlike other / Our aim is / The choice (1)................................................................................... schools in Britain , Darul Uloom offers a classical Islamic education in the mornings and National Curriculum subjects in the afternoons. (2)......................................................................... of curriculum subjects availableis tailored to comply with sharia obligations. ‘(3)......................................................................... of this private school is to educate our students in a sharia environment,’ said Mufti Mustafa. (4) ‘.............................................................. in the same way as the Deoband madrassa in India, except here we teach the children for GCSEs and A-Levels as well. Our purpose, however, is not to groom students for British universities with a view to entering mainstream professions. (5)................................................. for students to devote their lives to Islam by becoming scholars, imams and religious leaders.(6) ‘.................................................................. than exams is the learning of the Koran, the Hadith [ways of the Prophet] and Islamic law,’ said Mufti Mustafa. (7) ‘..................................................................................of every Muslim to live according to sharia law. As Muslims, we’re not interested in an education that is simply about getting a job. (8)..................................................... for this reason. (9)....................................................................... on this Earth merely with a view to the next life.’

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EXERCISE 5: Missing wordsComplete the sentences putting one suitable word in each space.Preparing the boys for the afterlife means having a gruelling timetable in this (1)............................................... . The day starts at 3.45am when students (2)............................................... the first of five daily prayer sessions. They return to their dormitories at 4.30am and rest. Breakfast is (3)............................................... at 7.30am and lessons (4)............................................... at 8am. The boys display monastic-like control. I met one young boy of about 13 who had already memorised the entire Koran. I saw (5)............................................... one cleaning the library carpet during his break.Critics of the schools warn that it is time for the Government to wake (6)............................................... to the reality of what goes on in the world of the madrassas in Britain, where our (7)............................................... of life is deemed incompatible with that of the orthodox Muslim. According to the headmaster Chislehurst’s Darul Uloom is interacting with the local community and working hard to (8)............................................... bridges. Its reputation with locals is exemplary. These religious schools are now part of the fabric of Britain’s education system and indeed (9)............................................... is much to admire in the more moderate examples: the instilling of respect, discipline and dedication to scholarship. But the risk lies in allowing such schools to (11)............................................... become islands of Islam within Britain. To avoid tomorrow’s generation of Muslims retreating (12)............................................... a separate world, greater integration and a respect for core British values is key.

VOCABULARY AND USAGE

Exercise 1: Words ending in –mentThe suffix –ment can be added to many verbs to make nouns.From the text: establishment, movement, encouragementUse words from the list + –ment to complete the sentences.amaze / replace / acknowledge / place / retire / accomplish / amuse / assess / arrange / improve / impede / endear / require

1. “Darling” is a term of ......................................... used by some married couples to address each other.

2. After lunch we took the children to a/an ................................................. park for a couple of hours.

3. All prospective students are required to take a/an .................................................................. test so that we can make a/an .................................................................. of their level of proficiency in English.

4. Children born with a hare lip and a cleft palate will inevitably have a serious speech .................................................................. unless they undergo corrective surgery..

5. Do you know who wrote the musical .................................................................. for the first talking film?

6. Everyone stared in .................................................................. when the Prime Minister turned up at the opening ceremony in shorts.

7. For a man with one leg, sailing across the Atlantic single-handed was a remarkable ........................

8. I sent a cheque for a thousand pounds to the earthquake appeal but so far I have received no .................................................................. of my donation.

9. I’m sorry to inform you that there has been very little .................................................................. in your grandfather’s condition.

10. One of the .................................................................. of the job is advanced computer skills.

11. The manager has taken early .................................................................. and we are still looking for a ...................................................................

EXERCISE 2: Verbs used with parts of the bodyFrom the text: no jostling, bow their heads, eyes downcast

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Match a verb from List A to a noun from List BList Ato shrug / to cast down / to crane / to sprain / to nod / to bow / to turn up / to shake (2) / to fold / to cross / to tap / to blow List Bankle / arms / eyes / fingers/feet / hands / head (3) / legs / neck / nose (2) / shoulders

Now use the phrases in sentences1. He caught his foot in a rabbit hole and ..................................................................2. I asked the bank manager for a loan but he .................................................................. It was clear he had no

intention of giving me one.3. The citizens ................................................................. as they filed past the dictator’s coffin.4. There’s talk of discouraging people from ................................................................. at the forthcoming Olympic

Games for fear of spreading infection, or at least wiping your hands on a sanitizer after every handshake.5. She ................................................................. in order to see over the heads of the people in front of her.6. You should wipe your hands on a sanitizer every time you ................................................................., in other

words every time you use a handkerchief.7. The speaker was pleased to see that a lot of people in the audience

were ................................................................. in agreement.8. It was a catchy tune and everyone was ................................................................. in time with the music.9. She ................................................................. to avoid meeting his gaze.10. At first she ................................................................. at Indian food but in the end she came to appreciate it.

EXERCISE 3: Education vocabulary (verbs)Use the correct form of verbs from the list to complete the sentences.amalgamate / attend / award / cater for / cheat / enrol / expel / fail / get into / graduate / motivate / range / retake / revise / send down / swot

1. Some students ............................................. for the exam but then fail to turn up on the day.2. ............................................. an exclusive public school such as Eton or Rugby is considered to be a passport

to Oxbridge.3. Honorary degrees are ............................................. not for academic merit but for outstanding achievement in

non-academic areas.4. He tried to ............................................. in the maths test so he was disqualified.5. Julian is in his final year at Oxford and hopes to ............................................. in June.6. You shouldn’t be playing computer games at this stage, you should be ............................................. for your

finals.7. In the 1970s and 1980s most of the old grammar schools and so-called secondary modern schools

were ............................................. to form comprehensive schools.8. Up to the 1970s children were required to pass an entrance exam called the eleven-plus in order

to ............................................. a grammar school.9. People who ............................................. their eleven-plus often felt stigmatised for life.10. Secondary modern schools didn’t ............................................. students who wanted to get into university.11. The grades for GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) ............................................. from A star to

G, whereas A levels are graded from A to E with a fail grade U (unclassified).12. Tom decided to ............................................. his A levels in order to get better grades.13. The poet Shelley was ............................................. from Oxford in 1811 for his contribution to the pamphlet “The

Necessity of Atheism”.14. When their son Kim was ............................................. from school for disruptive behaviour his parents decided

to have him educated at home by a private tutor.15. One of the things a teacher should aim to do is to ............................................. students to extend their learning

beyond the confines of the classroom.

EXERCISE 4: Education vocabulary (nouns)Use the correct form of nouns from the list to complete the sentences.

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alumnus / bachelor / background / chalk / competence / diploma / doctorate / fresher / higher education / result / subject / swot / syllabus / uniform

1. Study for chosen GCSE ............................................. normally starts at the age of 14 and the final exams are taken at the age of 16.

2. If a student gets good GCSE ............................................. he/she normally goes on to take A-levels at 18.3. ............................................. is third stage post-secondary non-compulsory education.4. Tertiary education normally results in the receipt of a certificate, ................................. or academic degree.5. People who spend all their time studying are called ............................................. in British English and “grinds”in

American English.6. To become a laboratory technician you should have a scientific educational ..............................................7. The old-fashioned traditional method of teaching is sometimes referred to as ............................... and talk.8. A book that often appears on the A-level English literature ............................................. is Brighton Rock by

Graham Greene.9. The school ............................................. seems to be making a comeback even though some pupils object to

wearing it.10. It is estimated that as many as 70% of primary school pupils in some British primary schools have poor

literacy ............................................. in the English language.11. A/an ............................................. or Ph.D is an academic degree of the highest level, which implies recognition

of the of the candidate as an equal in the university faculty under which he/she studied.12. The first degree is called a .............................................’s degree and it is normally awarded after a three-year

study course.13. A former student of a university or prestigious eduactional establishment is referred to as a/an ................14. A first-year university student is known as a/an ..............................................

EXERCISE 5: Correcting common errorsCorrect or improve the following sentences.

1. Being educated means to have an investment in the future.2. It is proved that nowadays workers with degrees have more choices.3. A good education should train people to think for yourself and do better they can.4. Some people believe that have a degree means to conquer the world.5. The most population was analphabet.6. Some people believe that have a degree means to conquer the world.7. To be graduated is only the first step.8. The biggest part of people is in favour of the educational reform.9. Not the whole responsibility for education should be left to schools.10. In the education the role of machines changed the way of learning.11. The study of the past takes a big place in our culture today.12. The Cairo museum is the only all over the world.

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UNIT 14

The Elgin marbles should stay.

To take them from the British museum would impoverish the world.By Alan Howarth, The Guardian

IntroductionThe Parthenon Marbles, forming a part of the collection known as the Elgin Marbles are a collection of classical Greek marble sculptures (mostly by Phidias and his pupils), inscriptions and architectural pieces that originally were part of the Parthenon and other buildings on the Acropolis of Athens. Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799–1803, obtained a controversial permit from the Ottoman authorities to remove pieces from the Acropolis. From 1801 to 1812 Elgin's agents removed about half of the surviving sculptures of the Parthenon, as well as architectural members and sculpture from the Propylaea and Erechtheum. The Marbles were

transported by sea to Britain. In Britain, the acquisition of the collection was supported by some, while other critics compared Elgin's actions to vandalism or looting.Following a public debate in Parliament and subsequent exoneration of Elgin's actions, the marbles were purchased by the British government in 1816 and placed on display in the British Museum, where they stand now on view in the purpose-built Duveen Gallery. The debate continues as to whether the Marbles should remain in the British Museum or be returned to Athens.

Look out for: prefixes en-, dis-, mis-, un-, re-, under-, suffixes: -ment, -ism, -ness;imbalance between for and against, giving credibility to a point of view, emotive language

EXERCISE 1: Focusing on articlesInsert a, an, the or their where necessary.It has often been asserted by those who wish to send (1)............................ Elgin marbles back to (2)............................ modern Greece that they are (3)............................ special case and we should be able to treat them in isolation without opening (4)............................ floodgate of (5)............................ similar requests.Such claims have sounded pretty hollow in (6)............................ light of the recent flurry of demands from Nigeria for (7)............................ repatriation of (8)............................ Benin bronzes, and from Ethiopia for (9)............................ return of (10)............................ Christian relics. So (11)............................ Greek claim is not unique and acceding to it would certainly increase the pressure on (12)............................ great museums and libraries of (13)............................

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world to dismantle (14)............................ collections. There is (15)............................ principle of profound importance at stake here. We either believe in (16)............................places like the Louvre in Paris, the Smithsonian in Washington, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, the National Gallery of Canberra as (17)............................ cultural centres of (18)............................ education and scholarship, addressing (19)............................ international audience, or we hold that (20)............................ collections should be redistributed and (21)............................ purpose reduced to showing only (22)............................ French, American, Canadian and Australian art and artefacts.It is foolish, on an impulse of misguided post-imperial revisionism, to under mine the world's great collections. The major museums have always promoted (23)............................ cultures of other nations by showing and sharing them in (24)............................ international and historical context. The Elgin marbles, displayed in London, have been (25)............................ inspiration to (26)............................ generations of people of all nationalities. Their continuing presence in (27)............................ British Museum attests to (28)............................ diffusion and influence across the world of (29)............................ classical Greek civilisation. They have taken on (30)............................ identity as icons of civilisation, invested with values that cannot and should not be reduced to (31)............................ national particularisms.

EXERCISE 2: Phrases beginning with “and”Complete the text with phrases from the list.and artefacts / and cross-fertilising / and it is his magnanimity / and indeed the present / and learning / and still are / and staff / and cultural sustenance I heard Nelson Mandela give an address at the British Museum in November 2000, when he said he was particularly proud that the museum was about to open three new African galleries that would give full credit to the contribution Africa had made to world art. "The great artistic achievements have depended on reaching out to other cultures, (1)....................................................... from them," he said. "That is why I take special pride in being invited here to the British Museum, where the world's art (2)..................................................................... are displayed all around us, each having played its part in enriching (3)..................................................................... the world's civilisations. This great museum may have begun as the beneficiary of British imperial power, but it has become a truly international institution."As ever, Mandela spoke for the unity and benefit of mankind (4)..................................................................... that should guide us.To be sure, there are aspects of the history of the accumulation of the great museum collections that we must deprecate from our 21st-century perspective, but it is futile to attempt to rewind history. These museums have been, (5)....................................................................., forces for great educational and cultural good . They transcend the barriers that divide people.The trustees (6)..................................................................... of the British Museum maintain this heritage not in insular possessiveness, but as trustees for all mankind. Many millions of visitors come, free of charge, to find pleasure, instruction (7)..................................................................... there. In the British Museum are assembled some of the grandest works of art, from some of the greatest of civilisations. A vast encyclopaedia of the past, (8)....................................................................., is laid out in visible and - in the museum's new Parthenon touch-gallery - tangible form.

EXERCISE 3: Missing words (gapfill)Like some great tree of knowledge, the collections (1)..................................... put down roots, with branches spreading and connecting. This celebration of the world's cultures is newly articulated and accessible, now (2)........................... the Great Court has opened up the heart of the museum and the department of ethnography has returned to Bloomsbury.As Sir David Attenborough said: "Now we will (3)..................................... again be able to view superb golden jewels made for the kings of East Anglia, and others, equally astonishing, (4)..................................... for the emperors of the Andes. We will be able to (5)..................................... delicate textiles woven in China with (6)..................................... made in the forests of Borneo. We may admire the superb statuary of ancient Egypt, then walk a (7)............................... yards and be astonished and moved by the great masterpieces of sculpture from sub-Saharan Africa."This universal museum, this place of big ideas, cannot be reconciled with the narrow claim that (8)................................... a thing was made in a particular geographical place, it should be returned to it. Modern nationalism seems small-minded in an institution (9)..................................... embraces the world.The assertion that the case of the Elgin marbles is unique defies common sense. If they (10)..................................... to leave the British Museum, Pandora's (11)..................................... would be opened. There would be no end to the claims that would be made for restitution of the exhibits of all the great museums of the world. The world (12)..................................... thereby be impoverished.

VOCABULARY AND USAGE

EXERCISE 1: Word formationComplete the sentences with words derived from the following words. Use each word twice.

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Example: MOVEIn late 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia to ..... remove ..... the Khmer Rouge from power and to limit China's control in Southeast Asia.The so-called "Tea Party" ..... movement ..... derives its name from the Boston Tea Party, a protest by colonists who objected to a British tax on tea in 1773 and demonstrated by dumping tea taken from British ships into the harbour.

ABLE / CHARGE / FORCE / PLAY / TREAT / WIND1. After watching the slow-motion ............................................... of the match, the coach decided not to appeal

against the referee’s decision.2. He blamed his ............................................... to pass the exam on his teacher.3. He was unable to board the bus because of his ...............................................4. If the disease is ............................................... it can become chronic.5. After a busy week she liked to go walking in the hills at weekends just to .......................................... 6. The computer won’t work unless you ............................................... the battery.7. The detainees complained that they had been ............................................... while in police custody.8. The most memorable feature of the opening ceremony was a spectacular firework ............................................9. The worsening weather conditions only served to ..................... his anxiety about the outcome of the expedition.10. There are strict rules about safety precautions but many hospitals fail to ............................................... them.11. With old-fashioned tape recorders you had to ............................................. the tape in order to listen to it again.12. You will not be ............................................... from hospital until you have made a complete recovery.

EXERCISE 2: Using the article in prepositional phrasesFrom the text: at stake, on an impulse, in the light ofUse a, an, the where necessary.

1. The business had been running at ........................ loss for several years so they decided to close it down.2. The tiger that escaped from the zoo is still at ........................ large.3. The prisoners that escaped from the prison are still on ........................ loose.4. I heard he was at ........................ death’s door so I rushed to see him.5. The hotel’s clients are retired people for ........................ most part.6. Her name is Drusilla, Dru for ........................ short.7. Images of Father Christmas dressed in .............................. red started to appear on Christmas cards in late

Victorian times.8. Our house is being refurbished so we are living in a tent for ........................ time being.9. I would like a room with ........................ view.10. They’ve known each other since ........................ year dot.11. The earthquake struck out of ........................ blue. No one expected it.12. Savonarola was burnt at ........................ stake.13. Japan sits on ........................ boundary of at least three tectonic plates.14. The house was in .............................. darkness so we assumed that the occupants 15. The fire brigade were on ........................ scene within minutes of the fire breaking out.16. Spending the night in ........................ open in these sub-zero temperatures is out of ........................ question.17. The police were able to make an arrest in ........................ light of new DNA evidence.18. Your account is already in ........................ red so we can’t grant you a loan.19. Which American president was in ........................ office when the second world war broke out?20. People have been advised not to travel to Japan in ......................... view of the present crisis.

EXERCISE 3: Idioms and metaphors relating to metals and other mineralsChoose the correct word.

1. According to an oft-quoted proverb, all that glitters is not silver / gold.2. “Every cloud has a silver / golden lining” as the saying goes.3. He never needed to work; he was born with a silver / gold spoon in his mouth.4. This copy of the first folio edition of Shakespeare’s plays is worth its weight in silver / gold.5. He was not charged with the murder because he had a cast-iron / stainless steel alibi.

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6. When I found out how much my grandmother’s old Chinese vase was worth, I realised I had been sitting on a gold / diamond mine.

7. Tickets for the forthcoming Olympic Games are like gold / star dust.8. The 1920s is considered to be the silver / golden age of silent films.9. His company forced him to take early retirement but they gave him a silver / golden handshake when he left.10. They’ve been married 49 years so next year they’ll celebrate their gold / golden wedding.11. He was a ruthless dictator who ruled his country with a rod of steel / iron.12. The earthquake was not entirely unexpected. The people of Japan had been steeling / ironing themselves for

decades for “the big one”.

EXERCISE 4: The prefix en- Complete the sentences with words from the list in the correct form.enhance / ensure / enchant / entitle / engrave / enlarge / encompass / encircle / enrage / endanger / engulf / enforce / enrich / engross / entomb

1. All the inhabitants were evacuated before the floodwaters ...................................................... the village.2. He was so ...................................................... in his work that he didn’t hear the alarm go off.3. Many people feel that they have been ...................................................... by experiencing a culture different

from their own.4. Please ...................................................... that you take all your belongings with you when you leave the hotel.5. She hung a few pictures on the walls to ...................................................... the general appearance of the room.6. Some of the old laws are out of date and will no longer be .......................................................7. The course ...................................................... all subjects required for anyone seeking work in broadcasting or

journalism.8. The European mouflon, which used to be common in Sardinia, is now an ............................................... species.9. The field is ...................................................... with an electrified fence to prevent the animals from escaping.10. The government’s announcement to increase taxes has ...................................................... the public.11. The name of the occupant is ...................................................... on the tombstones.12. We rearranged the furniture in order to ...................................................... the space available for dancing.13. According to ancient funeral rites, slaves were ................................................... with their master.14. If you are over sixty-five you are .............................................. to travel free.15. The wonderful scenery of the Dolomites never ceases to ............................................... me.

EXERCISE 5: Nouns that go together (e.g. a flurry of rumours, a team of players, a set of tools)Match a noun from List A with a noun from List B.LIST Ashower / blanket / rumble / herd / load / chain / swarm / patch / flood / lock / pinch / slice / flash / flock / blade LIST Bbees / bread / cattle / fog / grass / hair / land / lightning / mountains / rain / rubbish / salt / sheep / tears / thunder

EXERCISE 6: CollocationsDecide which noun would not normally be combined with the verb.Example: to set: an example, a performance, a trap, a record

1. to spread: a rumour, one’s influence, a shadow, the blame2. to open: a bank account, a rumour, a book, someone’s eyes3. to return: a book, a journey, a compliment, someone’s feelings4. to promote: a product, a student, an employee, a scheme5. to claim: a right, a reimbursement, the truth, possession6. to maintain: a position, a building, a wife, a dog7. to address: a problem, a house, a letter, an audience 8. to undermine: a building, someone’s confidence, people’s beliefs, someone’s health9. to hold: an opinion, a baby, a house, someone’s hand

EXERCISE 7: Words used as nouns and verbs.

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Use each word at least twice in its correct form to complete the sentences.charge / value / shower / guide / return / view / root / divide

1. All the profits made by the company will be ............................................... among the shareholders.2. Angus’s brilliant rise to fame was followed by a .................................................... of public engagements.3. Entrance to the museum is free but there is an extra .................................................... if you want a professional

.................................................... to show you round.4. He studied archaeology at university with a ............................................... to becoming an archaeologist.5. How much did they .................................................... you for those Armani jeans?6. I .................................................... your friendship but I have no intention of marrying you.7. In ancient times sailors used the stars to ............................................... them in the right direction.8. Jefferson planted many varieties of vine at Monticello but none of them took ................................................9. On his ............................................... to his native country he suffered from mild culture shock.10. The newly-weds were .................................................... with rice as they came out of the church.11. The religion of these primitive peoples is ............................................... in ancient superstitions and traditions.12. The so-called north-south ............................................... is even more evident in Italy than in the UK.13. These artefacts are priceless. It’s impossible to estimate their .....................................................14. You can ............................................... the body of Oetzi at the South Tyrolean Museum of Archaeology in

Bolzano.15. You must ............................................... the book to the library within two weeks.

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UNIT 15

Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello

Monticello sits atop a lofty hill in Albemarle County, Virginia, not far from the birthplace of Thomas Jefferson, its creator and most prominent resident, who spent more than four decades designing, dismantling and reimagining the estate he called his “essay in architecture.” A UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage Site since 1987, the property is considered a national treasure not only for its beauty and historical significance but also for what it reveals about the third U.S. president, a complex and controversial figure whose political philosophy fundamentally shaped the nation. As Franklin D. Roosevelt once wrote, “More than any historic home in America, Monticello speaks to me as an

expression of the personality of its builder.”

EXERCISE 1: Noun phrasesComplete the text with phrases from the list.49 American Nobel Prize winners / a decades-long process / a stock design for their home / his favorite boyhood haunt / several thousand acres of land / the quintessential polymath

The First MonticelloBorn on April 13, 1743, Thomas Jefferson grew up at Shadwell, one of the largest tobacco plantations in Virginia. At the age of 21, he inherited (1)......................................................................................... that encompassed the family estate as well as (2)........................................................................................., a nearby hilltop called Monticello (Italian for “little mountain”) where he resolved to build his own home. In 1768, a year after the future president was admitted to the Virginia bar, workers broke ground on the site, beginning (3)...................................................................... that would captivate Jefferson, bankrupt his family and produce one of America’s most iconic and historically significant architectural masterpieces.In those days, it was common for landowners to choose (4)..................................................................................... from an English architectural handbook; a contractor would then oversee the project from start to finish. But this particular landowner was Thomas Jefferson, (5)............................................................................... ,whose passions ranged from political philosophy, archaeology and linguistics to music, botany, bird watching and pasta making. (At a dinner honouring (6)....................... .................................................................. , John F. Kennedy famously quipped, “I think that this is the most extraordinary collection of talent, of human knowledge, that has ever been gathered together at the White House, with the possible exception of when Thomas Jefferson dined alone”).

EXERCISE 2: Sentence endingsfor Monticello’s neoclassical mansion, outbuildings, gardens and grounds / and the main buildings at the University of Virginia / but also in its use of local resources / particularly that of ancient Rome / were manufactured on site / with clay found on the propertyRemembered for drafting the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson also drafted the blueprints (1)................................................................................... . Though he had no formal training, he had read extensively about architecture, (2)............................................................................... and theItalian Renaissance. Years later, he would become an accomplished architect whose designs included the Virginia state capitol (3)................................................................................... .Monticello was unique not only in its design (4)................................................................................... . At a time when most brick was still imported from England, Jefferson chose to mold and bake his own bricks

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(5)................................................................................... . Monticello’s grounds provided most of the lumber, stone and limestone, and even the nails used to construct the buildings (6)......................................................... .

EXERCISE 3: Sentence beginningsTaking with him / Among other enhancements / Devastated / He was immediately struck / Monticello was also filled / The couple had / These included / This “second Monticello” / Two years laterThe Second MonticelloIn 1770, the family house at Shadwell burned down, forcing Jefferson to move into Monticello’s South Pavilion, an outbuilding, until the main house was completed. (1).......................................................................... he was joined by his new bride, Martha Wayles Skelton, the 23-year-old widowed daughter of a prominent Virginia lawyer. (2)........................................................................... six children, two of whom lived to adulthood, before Martha’s death in 1782. (3)........................................................................... by the loss of his wife, Jefferson moved to France, where he served as the U.S. ambassador from 1785 to 1789. (4)........................................................................... by the architecture of the buildings there, particularly a certain Paris home with a U-shaped design, colonnades and a domed roof. (5)........................................................................... a massive treasure trove of art, furniture and books, he returned home with a new vision for the estate. (6)........................................................................... , he added a central hallway, a mezzanine bedroom floor and an octagonal dome – the first of its kind in the United States.(7)........................................................................... was double the size of the first version, designed to accommodate not only Jefferson’s steady stream of house guests but also his boundless collections of books, European art, Native American artifacts, plant specimens and mementoes from his travels. (8)........................................................................... with Jefferson’s unique - and often ingenious - inventions. (9)........................................................................... a revolving bookstand, a copying machine, a spherical sundial and a toenail clipper, among dozens of other devices.

EXERCISE 4: Missing wordsComplete the text putting one suitable word in each space.Suggest an alternative word or phrase for the underlined word.Monticello's GardensIn (1)........................................... to its architecture, Monticello is renowned for its extensive gardens, (2)........................................... Jefferson, an avid horticulturist, designed, tended and painstakingly monitored. Every year, throughout the time (3)........................................... he resided at Monticello, he kept a log of its flora – as (4)........................................... as the insects and diseases that ravaged (5)........................................... – in a diary known (6)........................................... the Garden Book. He grew hundreds of varieties of fruits and vegetables there, using cultivation techniques (7)........................................... were revolutionary for his time. A connoisseur of European wines, Jefferson also attempted to plant a number of different types of vine at Monticello; although his vines largely failed to thrive, he developed a reputation (8)........................................... America’s first serious viticulturist.

Monticello After JeffersonKnown for spending lavishly on books, wine and and, above (9)........................................... , his beloved Monticello, Jefferson left his heirs under a small mountain of debt (10)........................................... he died on July 4, 1826. His daughter, Martha Randolph, was forced to sell the estate, (11)........................................... had already entered the early stages of decay due to years of neglect. In 1836, it was bought by Uriah Levy, a real estate speculator (12)........................................... was the first Jewish American to serve an entire career as a commissioned Navy officer; he and his nephew, Jefferson Monroe Levy, are largely (13)........................................... for its restoration and preservation. The Thomas Jefferson Foundation, a non-profit organization, purchased the property in 1923 and continues to operate it (14)........................................... a museum and educational institution.

VOCABULARY AND USAGE

EXERCISE 1: Words with similar meaningsMatch a word from the list with the word in bold type in the numbered phrases.

(1)clever (2)decide (3)devastate (4)eminent (5)expert (6)extravagant (7)flourish (8)include (9)innovative (10)keen (11)phase (12)succession (13)supervise (14)unlimited (15)souvenir

1. the land encompassed the family estate2. a prominent Virginia lawyer3. oversee the project4. resolved to build his own home

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5. boundless collections of books6. an ingenious invention7. the vines failed to thrive8. mementoes from his travels9. the early stages of decay10. a stream of house guests11. insects ravaged the Monticello flora12. Jefferson was a connoisseur of European wines13. Jefferson’s techniques were revolutionary14. Jefferson was an avid horticulturist15. he spent lavishly on books

EXERCISE 2: Words with more than one meaningUse words from the list in the sentences. Use each word twice.(1)gather (2)haunt (3)grounds (4)state (5)nail (6)kind (7)join (8)bound

1. A hammer is an essential tool for a carpenter. He needs it to hammer in .............................s.2. All the participants in the prayer meeting .............................ed hands and prayed for peace.3. What ............................. of stone did Jefferson use to build Monticello?4. The report ......................s that less than 50 per cent of the electorate turned out to vote.5. The Opening of Parliament is a ...................... occasion which marks the beginning of the parliamentary year.6. His personality seems to have changed completely since he .............................ed that obscure religious sect.7. The hill on which Monticello was built was one of Jeffersons favourite childhood ......................s.8. Jefferson invented a device for cutting toe .............................s.9. Jefferson’s slaves lived in log cabins located in the mansion’s .............................s.10. Nathan comes from Sydney so he’s ......................... to know who the prime minister of Australia is.11. People ......................ed in the streets to pay their last respects to the victims of the disaster.12. The campaign ......................ed momentum when several famous film stars joined it.13. The ghost of Mary Queen of Scots is supposed to ...................... Fotheringhay Castle, where she was executed

in 1587.14. It was ............................. of Joseph to let us use his cottage in the Lake District for our summer holiday.15. I have .............................s to believe that one of my employees has been cooking the books.16. When he went to Norway on a research project his Norwegian improved by leaps and ......................s.

EXERCISE 3: Word formation: words ending in –inglyComplete the words.

1. The asteroid didn’t hit the earth but it passed fri.........................ingly close.2. The weather was depr.........................ingly cold and wet all weekend.3. Because of his lack of understanding of his colleague’s culture he unwi.........................ingly upset him.4. Even when she’s angry, she’s unfa.........................ingly polite and courteous.5. Contrary to all expectations Basil did am.........................ingly well in the maths test.6. The police had pain.........................ingly assembled a large corpus of evidence from a vast variety of sources.7. Ift was suff.........................ingly hot inside the burial chamber.8. It’s getting inc.........................ingly difficult to find a parking place in the city centre.9. We were expecting the performance to be a flop but everything went swi.........................ingly.10. Wor.........................ingly, cases of TB are becoming increasingly frequent.11. Mrs Newman looked on admi.........................ingly as her son scored the winning goal for the school football

team.12. The Ukraine is still an overwh.........................ingly agrarian country.13. He wondered fle.........................ingly if he had made the wrong decision.

EXERCISE 4: Linking devices used at the beginning of sentences.Complete the sentences with one or two words.

1. .................................. against slavery on principle, Jefferson kept over 200 slaves.

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2. .................................. teaching slaves to read was not against the law, there is no evidence that Jefferson did so.

3. .................................. their cramped quarters many slave couples had large families. 4. .................................. hard he tried, Jefferson couldn’t get grapevines to grow at Monticello.5. .................................. Jefferson, today’s Virginia wine-growers have been very successful.6. .................................. the excellent soil and climatic conditions, vines now thrive at Monticello.7. .................................. to the toenail clipper, Jefferson invented dozens of other useful devices.8. .................................. speaking, Jefferson was kind and considerate towards his slaves.9. .................................. many of his contemporaries, Jefferson considered slavery to be a necessary evil.10. .................................. did he keep slaves but he also fathered several of their children.

EXERCISE 5: Idioms and stock phrases connected with buildingsComplete the sentences with phrases from the list.(1)by the back door (2)down the drain (3)in ruins (4)in the air (5)not-in-my-back-yard (6)on a pedestal (7)Rome wasn’t built in a day (8)through the roof (9)to bang one’s head against a brick wall (10)to wipe the floor with (11)up against a stone wall (12)up the wall

1. “..........................................................................” is a way of saying that you can’t achieve great things in a short time.

2. After being found guilty of money laundering, the minister’s reputation was ..........................................................................

3. All he talks about is football. It drives me ...........................................................................4. He didn’t pass the entrance exam; he got into Oxford ...........................................................................5. He’s just building castles ........................................................................... He hasn’t the means to realise his wild

dreams.6. It’s foolish to spend your money betting on horses; it’s just

money ..........................................................................7. Many local people adopt an ambivalent .......................................................................... attitude to immigration.8. She had always put her boss .......................................................................... so she was devastated when it

was discovered that he had been cooking the books.9. Susan went .......................................................................... when I accidentally formatted her hard disk.10. The boss .......................................................................... Veronica when she turned up late for the third time in

a week.11. We’re ........................................................................... Nothing will make the dictator step down.12. You’re .......................................................................... if you think you can get the bank to lend you money for

such a risky venture.

UNIT 16

BBC programme triggers huge interest in astronomyFrom The Observer by Robin McKie, Science Editor

Around 36.000 people have already taken part in Stargazing Live BBC-led events around the UK this year, and there are many more

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thousands attending local events in your local area. There are hundreds of events and star parties being organised from Lands' End to Aberdeen with the help of partners around the country right up until the end of January.Bringing together astronomical societies,museums and discovery centres, country parks and local authorities, these exciting events include planetarium shows, star parties, astrophotography. night walks as well as topical talks anddiscussions contributing to a national stargazing celebration.

EXERCISE 1: Sentence beginningsComplete the text with phrases from the list.A hobby once considered a pastime for anoraks*(1) Amazon has reported(2) What's more(3) It takes you away(4) Thanks to a boom in technology (5) Live TV programmes(6)Across Britain, men, women and children are turning to the heavens. (1)......................................... ................................................. and a series of television promotions by some star showbiz names, amateur astronomy is going through its own big bang in popularity. (2).......................................................................................... a 500% increase in telescope sales. (3).......................................................................................... are bringing the joys of stargazing to homes around the nation every night; and subscriptions to amateur astronomy magazines, such as the BBC's Sky at Night, are rocketing. (4).......................................................................................... has gone stellar. As Chris Bramley, editor of Sky at Night, puts it: "Amateur astronomy is an ideal hobby. (5).......................................................................................... from everyday life. It lifts your horizons. What more could you ask?" (6).........................................................................................., the stargazer can quickly make an impact in the field, say enthusiasts, and help to discover exploding stars, called supernovas, and sources of the massive eruptions of energy called gamma-ray bursts that appear in the night sky.*a person obsessed with an outdoor hobby such as train spotting, stargazing, fishing, bird watching (from the type of jacket they wore)EXERCISE 2: VerbsComplete the text with verbs from the list.used to take(1) required(2) presented (3) have become(4) has been rising(5) has been (6) cannot be attributed (7) can make(8) As Sir Patrick Moore, who (1)........................................................ the first edition of the Sky at Night TV programme in 1957, put it: "The amateur astronomer (2)................................................... a real contribution to the science. It is a truly wonderful hobby."The success of stargazing has not been an overnight affair and it (3)................................................. solely to the BBC's current hit, Stargazing Live, or the attractions of its presenter, Brian Cox. Its popularity (4)........................................................ for a decade and the key factor (5)........................................................ a technological one. To put it simply, telescopes (6)........................................................ fun to use.In the past, an interest in the heavens was often stymied by equipment. Telescopes (7)........................................................ hours to set up and align, and they (8)................................... complex clockwork motors to keep them pointed towards a particular star or planet as the Earth turned. It was a fiddly business, particularly on a cold, windy night.

EXERCISE 3: GapfillComplete the text putting an appropriate word in each space.But that all changed a decade (1)............................................. A new generation of telescopes appeared, fitted (2)............................................ "go-to" computer control systems. These meant that users merely had to set (3)............................................ their equipment in their garden, align it carefully on Polaris, the pole (4)............................................, and key in the object that was to be observed. The telescope would then swivel automatically towards (5).............................................Previously the domain of a few earnest, young, usually male enthusiasts, the hobby (6)............................................ wildly popular and "telescope fever" spread. Hundreds of groups (7)............................................ formed. "Star parties" - communal observing evenings - were organised and astronomers competed to (8)............................................ increasingly sophisticated photographs of stars, planets and comets. And it's (9)............................................ hard to see the hobby's attraction, says Bramley. "You may start with only a small telescope, one that will not let (10)............................................ see the glowing dust clouds in nebulae that are shown on television. However, on a clear (11) ............................................ you can still see a great (12)............................................ of detail in objects like the Andromeda galaxy or a planet (13)............................................ Jupiter with its colour bands and moons. And while these images may lack the detail of professional photographs, (14)............................................ is nothing to beat the

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magical feeling (15)........................................ an image of a planet slides into your eyepiece for the first (16)............................................ and you see it with your own eyes. That is the real joy of the hobby."

EXERCISE 4: Word orderTen years ago the new breed of telescopes cost around £700 and the first users of this new wave of instruments (1)...................................................................................................... to and be men tended retired women - "woopies", or well-off old people. They had the time - and money - to take up (1)...................................................................................................... buying hobby and telescopes the started, tripods, electronic cameras and lenses, while turning their backs on gardening and flower-arranging as hobbies for their old age.But times have changed. Today (1)...................................................................................................... pick can an a instrument up beginner fitted with go-to pointing systems for around £250, a drop in cost (1)...................................................................................................... about change brought has that a in demographics. "We are getting many more families and youngsters (1)................................................ ..................................................... an and in subject interest taking the in our magazine," said Bramley. "We get letters from 12-year-olds enthusing about astronomy."Neither (1)..................................................................................................... this to likely is wane interest. A new wave of even easier to use telescopes, such as the Celestron Sky Prodigy, have been launched on the market, instruments that provide completely automatic alignment and which make the pinpointing of stars almost (1)..................................................................................................... as as remote television easy using a.Combined with the TV promotions such as Stargazing Live, these developments promise a healthy future for amateur astronomy and (1)................................................................................................. in a heavenly interest matters reawakened for succeeding generations in Britain. The cosmos has become cool again.

VOCABULARY AND USAGE

EXERCISE 1: Vocabulary related to hobbies and recreational activities Complete the sentences with words from the list. Three are distracters.jogging(1) end product(2) lead(3) leader(4) leisure time(5) pursuits(6) remuneration(7) topics(8) runner-up(9) skill(10) titles(11) sleeping(12) rehearsal(13) 1. I can’t come to the disco with you. I’m playing the ................................................ in the school pantomime and it’s

the dress ................................................ tonight.2. She didn’t actually win the talent contest, she came second, in other words she was

the ................................................ .3. After winning several amateur tennis ............................................. he decided to turn professional.4. She took up ................................................ in the hope that it would help her to lose weight.5. Personal .......................................... rather than financial reward is the aim of most hobbies.6. A hobby is a regular activity or interest that is undertaken for pleasure, typically done during

one's ................................................ .7. Examples of hobbies include collecting, creative and artistic ................................................ , sports and adult

education. 8. Engaging in a hobby can lead to acquiring substantial ............................ , knowledge and experience. 9. Some hobbies result in an ................................................ . Examples of this would be woodworking, photography,

moviemaking, jewelry making,10. Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun, rather than ............................................. , is called an

amateur (or hobbyist), as distinct from a professional.

EXERCISE 2: Vocabulary related to hobbies and recreational activities Complete the sentences with words from the list. Three are distracters.bee-keeping(1) choir(2) contributions(3) DIY(4) dizzy spells(5) equipment(6) geek(7) leisure centre(8) funny(9) bakery(10) professions(11) restriction(12) balls(13) 1. What are hobbies for some people are .......................................... for others: a chef may enjoy playing computer

games as a hobby, while a professional game tester might enjoy cooking. 2. Amateur astronomers often make meaningful ................................................ to the profession. It is not entirely

uncommon for a hobbyist to be the first to discover a celestial body or event.3. In the United Kingdom, the pejorative noun anorak, meaning a ................................................ or enthusiast, is often

applied to people who obsessively pursue a particular hobby that most people would consider boring.4. Finance may be a ................................................ on hobbies; for example, someone who has the financial means to

collect stamps might not be able to collect vintage cars.5. Our local ................................................ caters for a wide variety of interests.

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6. Gavin’s interest in ................................ started when he bought a house that needed doing up.7. His hobby is .................................. and every Christmas he gives me a pot of honey as a present.8. It costs a lot to join a golf club and you also need a lot of expensive ........................................... .9. He had to give up abseiling when he started suffering from ................................................ .10. It’s not a good idea to join a ................................................ if you can’t sing in tune.

EXERCISE 2: Noun+-ing for leisure activitiesMatch a word from List A with a word from List BLIST A bird............ bungee............ candle............ horse............ mountain............ rose............stamp............ tap............ trout............ whale............ story............ LIST B climbing(1) collecting(2) growing(3) telling(4) dancing(5) fishing(6) making(7) hunting(8) jumping(9) riding(10) watching(11) EXERCISE 3: Vocabulary related to astronomy and earth sciencesComplete the words. Each dash corresponds to a letter.

1. “My Very Energetic Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas” is a mne_ _ _ ic to help you to remember the order of the p_ _ _ _ts.

2. It is the grav_ _ _ _ _ _ _ al pull of the moon that causes the tides to ebb and flow on the earth.3. A bl _ _ _ h_ _ _ is a region of space that is so incredibly dense that not even light can escape from its surface.4. Most hea_ _ _ _ y bo_ _ _ s are beyond the reach of current optical telescopes. 5. Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of cel_ _ _ _ _ _ ob_ _ _ _ _ (such as stars, planets,

comets, nebulae, star clu_ _ _ _ _ and gal_ _ _ _ _ ) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth.

6. Ursa Major, also known as the Gr _ _ _ Be _ _, is a con _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _n visible throughout the year in most of the northern h_ _ _ _ _ _ere.

7. Polaris, also known as the P_ _ _ S_ _ _ or the Northern Star, remains in the same location in the sky all year, making it a useful navigational tool.

8. Shoo _ _ng stars is a name that people have used for centuries to describe me_ _ _ _s : intense streaks of light across the night sky caused by rock and debris crashing into Earth's upper

atm_ _ _ _ _ _e. 9. An 11m-wide ast_ _ _ _d passed within 60,000km of Earth in January, making it one of the closest recorded

approaches to our planet.10. The next t_ _ _ _ ecl _ _ _ _ of the sun visible in Europe will be in March 2015.11. In the late afternoon of November 11th, 2008 a piece of sp_ _ _ ju_ _ known as the EVS, hurtled towards earth

and landed somewhere in the Indian Ocean.12. Earlier this year two communications s_ _ _ _ _ites collided in outer space, generating over 60,000 pieces of

debris.13. After completing one orbit of the Earth, Yuri descended, ejecting from his sp_ _ _ _ _aft at an altitude of

approximately 2.5km and para_ _ _ _ing safely to the ground.14. I find it hard to believe that we are the only inte_ _ _ _ _ _ _ form of life in the uni_ _ _ _ _.15. It was the stars, twin _ _ _ _ _ in the sky above Brooklyn where he grew up, that fired Carl Sagan’s imagination

when he was only 5 and started him on his career as an astroph _ _ _ _ist.16. Amateur astr_ _ _ _ _ _ s have contributed to many important astr_ _ _ _ _ _ discoveries.17. From the earth the moon appears to w_ _ and w_ _ _ because as it travels around the Earth we see the sun’s

light reflected from it at different angles.

EXERCISE 4: Typical errorsCorrect the mistakes or improve the style of the sentences.

1. For the most part of their free time they cannot do nothing but watching TV.2. They are a lot of people that must take a long travel on the train for going to their job.3. In the latest years we can have the shopping made by internet.4. Going to the outskirts there was an old and big cemetery.5. We have to do many sacrifices to conquer these difficulties.6. She suggested me to ask more informations.7. After the bicycle's invention the motorcycle didn't make itself waited.8. Most of people prefers news that involve the blood and the violence.9. Since when the new law has been introduced the accident rate is dropping.10. I am used to live a comfortable life and I would not think to renounce to a pair of shoes for helping a poor.11. There are some people that making a movie make million of dollars.12. There are diseases that have a so rapid spread that neither medicines could stop them.

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13. Who goes fighting are men that serve the own country and make his duty.14. Television and publicity are more and more affecting our styles of living.

UNIT 17

Shopping in MilanFrom The Daily Telegraph, by Rodney Bolt

EXERCISE 1: VerbsComplete the text with words from the list.boarded(1) lined(2) lured(3) obliterated(4) offered (5) poked(6) ran(7) rattled(8)

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On the back of my travel pass, in tiny English print, came the rather strange warning: 'Valid for 24 hours after the obliteration.''Perhaps it's for the Tram Riders of the Apocalypse,' said my Italian friend, Lorenza, as we (1).......................................... an old-fashioned streetcar, duly '(2)..................................................... ' our passes in the franking machine and (3)..................................................... off towards the centre of Milan for some serious Christmas shopping.It seemed quaint to be heading for the vortex of European fashion and design aboard such an incongruous mode of transport. Polished, slatted wooden benches (4)..................................................... along the sides and picture windows (5)..................................................... a fine view.The route was (6)..................................................... with sleek, modern shop fronts and grand old buildings - some in sandstone, others in genteelly-fading yellow ochre. The odd medieval wall, Roman ruin or ancient dome (7)..................................................... out between façades.Lorenza had (8)..................................................... me to Milan on the promise that I'd be able to get all my Christmas shopping in one spree. I decided to give it a go.

EXERCISE 2: Adjectivesarched(1) Bogart-style(2) clear(3) coloured(4) crucifix-shaped(5) ever-informative(6) fancy(7) finest(8) glass(9) huge(10) saint-topped(11) smart(12) zodiac(13)8First stop was the Piazza del Duomo, a (1)............................................... city square in front of Milan's magnificent cathedral, a multi-steepled extravaganza so big that on a (2)............................................... day you can see it from the Alps.Next door to this cluster of (3)............................................... spires is the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele, a majestic (4)............................................... arcade, built in 1878 and crowned with a/an (5)............................................... glass roof. The walls are lined with carvings and sumptuous plaster decoration, the floors a kaleidoscope of (6)............................................... marble. Even though McDonald's and Burger King have crept in, the Galleria is still home to some of Milan's (7)............................................... shops.I managed to pick up a couple of (8)............................................... silk scarves and tasteful ties for relatives there.'The architect fell from the roof and died the day before the Galleria was opened,' said the (9)............................................... Lorenza. Under a gigantic (1)............................................... dome in the arcade's centre is a floor mosaic of (10)............................................... signs. We headed for Borsalino's where I could try a (11)............................................... hat.She didn't need to tell me that the word 'millinery' derives from this city of (12)............................................... goods.

EXERCISE 3: Adjectives and nouns used as adjectivesComplete the text with words from the list.classy(1) focal(2) marketable(3) multi-storeyed(4) rabbit-fur(5) security(6) shopping(7) side(8) sound(9) willowy(10)From the Galleria, we walked up to the Montenapoleone district, the (1)................................................. point of Italian fashion.Designers on the way up inhabit the (2)................................................. streets, but the emporia of Versace, Gucci, Valentino and their ilk lord it along the Via Montenapoleone. The boutiques are so (3)................................................. you feel you have to dress up just to gain entry.At the (4)................................................. Armani store, the hunks at the door - all in black with a big 'A' on their sweatshirts - looked more like stylish policemen than (5)................................................. guards.Haughty ladies in furs and (6)................................................. models strutted along pavements that ought to have been carpeted. Their shopping bags were so smart that in another country they'd be (7)..................................................Some of my trendier cousins got ticked off the (8)................................................. list, while I fantasised about an Armani overcoat, but dismissed the idea of a £300 pair of (9)................................................. boots. Being a golfer, I was momentarily tempted by an indoor 'Putter's Practice Gallery' complete with cheering crowd (10)................................................. effects, in a corner of the Brigatti sportswear store.

EXERCISE 4: Jumbled phrasesRe-arrange the words in the correct order.After a few hours, footsore and fashion-fatigued, we headed home. I was sneakily relieved (1).......................................... ................................................................................. nothing was that on there at the great La Scala opera house that night. So risotto not Rigoletto filled our evening –(2)......................................................................................................... saffron Milanese a speciality delicious with juicy, steaming osso buco (veal shank stew) and lots of Lombardy wine.

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Next day (3)..................................................................................................................... little off culture with kicked a: Leonardo da Vinci's magnificent mural of The Last Supper, newly restored and awe-inspiring in the refectory of the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie. The shop next door provided (4)............................................................................................................................. mats a of mouse wealth Leonardo, jigsaws and calendars for farther-flung relatives. Then we visited the Ticinese quarter, once Milan's dockland and a rough realm of sailors' bars, (5)..................................................................................... arty-crafty becoming now increasingly but. The canals that once connected the city to the sea (6)............................................................... .................................................................. lined romantically-crumbling with buildings old are. Short alleys lead to cobbled courtyards, many occupied by studios where (7)................................................................................................................................. work their artists paintings sell both and. We browsed through the Fiera di Senigallia, a Saturday flea market (8)............................................. .................................................................................... good of carvings source African is that a, bright Peruvian knitwear, fake Gucci handbags, rare LPs and antique knick-knacks. That evening we returned to Ticinese. The quarter is hip, ...................................................................... ......................................................... yet not trendy unbearably but - full of excellent little restaurants, bars with live music and cafés in barges along the canals.

VOCABULARY AND USAGE

EXERCISE 1: Linking devicesComplete the sentences with words and phrases from the list. Five are distracters.nevertheless / as a result / for example / namely / in other words / even so / even though / in particular / therefore / thereafter / similarly / in addition / in contrast / likewise / otherwise (2)

1. The two main Channel Islands, ........................................................ Jersey and Guernsey, are much closer to France than to England.

2. It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25%; ........................................................ , even fewer trainee nurses are expected to join the profession.

3. Their team hadn't lost a game the entire season, ........................................................ , we beat them by a huge margin last night.

4. Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months, ................................................, vinyl records have seen an increase in their share of the market, up to 1.7%.

5. The manager explained that in view of the current financial climate, it would be necessary to hold salary levels at their current level for all grades of staff, ........................................................, no-one was getting a pay rise.

6. In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has announced new restrictions on company parking spaces and, ........................................................ , a new tax on individual car use.

7. Essays must be handed in by the deadline, ........................................................ they will not be marked.8. You pay 100 euros for the first month and ........................................................ 50 euros per month.9. We are trying to keep the place clean and neat, and we’d like you to do ........................................................ .10. I wholeheartedly support a big increase in the tax on petrol ................................................ I'm a motorist myself.11. Proper antenatal care has saved thousands of children who would ..................................................... have died.12. Alexander II was an obscure but ........................................................ interesting Scottish king.

EXERCISE 2: Using words from the textComplete the sentences using the correct form of words from the list.obliterate / browse / head / board / line / rattle / crumble / creep / strut / lure

1. When I’m in Hay-on-Wye there’s nothing I like more than ...................................................... round the numerous second hand bookshops there.

2. He never completely managed to ...................................... the memory of that horrific experience.3. You’re not allowed to ...................................................... the bus without a ticket.4. She ...................................................... her head round the door and asked me if I wanted a coffee.

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5. Every room in Lorraine’s house is ...................................................... with books.6. I woke in the morning to the sound of carts ...................................................... over the cobblestones.7. The traffic ...................................................... along at a snail’s pace.8. The peacock ...................................................... up and down, displaying its magnificent tail.9. The sirens were sea nymphs who ...................................................... mariners to their deaths with their sweet

singing. 10. The mummified bodies will ........................................... to dust if you attempt to lift them out of the coffins.11. Everyone ..................................................... for the exit when the alarm went off.

EXERCISE 3: Adjectives ending in –edExamples from the text: cobbled, slatted, carpeted, archedComplete the sentences with words from the list.wrinkled / wooded / satisfied / qualified / pencilled / mounted / hardened / finished / escaped / concerted / blessed / bereaved / belated / battered / banned

1. Vincent sent me a ................................ birthday card which arrived two weeks after my birthday.2. Only a .................................................. doctor is allowed to make out a prescription.3. Letters of condolence have been sent to the .................................................. families.4. All the .................................................. tigers have been recaptured.5. .................................................. police were called in to disperse the crowd.6. You’re flogging a dead horse if you think you can get these .................................................. criminals to return

to the straight and narrow.7. He insists on driving around in a .................................................. old car that he bought when he was a student

in the seventies.8. A .................................................. sketch of the Ponte Vecchio, executed by the artist at the age of 18, recently

fetched a six-figure sum at auction.9. The family made a .................................................. effort to keep the wolf from the door.10. We drove through mile after mile of .................................................. countryside.11. We must make sure that the .................................................. product is absolutely perfect.12. The church is consecrated to the .................................................. virgin Mary 13. Strange though it may seem, George Orwell’s Animal Farm is on the .................................................. book list

of the United Arab Emirates.14. Obviously, .................................................. customers are never going to complain.15. The old man’s .................................. face suggested that he must have been at least in his eighties.

EXERCISE 4: Compound adjectives in collocationsLink an adjective from List A with a noun from List BList Amulti-storey / three-cornered / six-sided / newly-restored / long-lasting / low-cost / high-speed / rush-hour / Oscar-winning / state-of-the-art / price-sensitiveList Btrain / traffic / technology / painting / hat / geometrical figure / friendship / film / consumers / car park / airline

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LM1 STRUCTURE AND USAGE (REVISION 1)

EXERCISE 1: Constructions after verbsPut the verbs in brackets in the correct form.

1. It's no good (try) (start) the car, it needs (fill) up with petrol.2. She noticed the man (look) at the exhibits but she didn't see him (take) the chalice.3. He mentioned (buy) a house in the mountains and invited us (spend) the weekend there.4. Sandra has grown accustomed to (live) in the country though she would have preferred (stay) in the town.5. You'd better not (let) the horses (run) free, if you do, you risk (lose) them.6. The police caught him (try) (break) down the door but when (question) he denied (commit) any crime.7. In spring the swallows will be busy (build) their nests, (know) by instinct where (build) them.8. I was surprised (find) the dog (eat) a dead bird (bring) in by the cat.9. I don't really feel up to (walk) ten miles through rough country.10. Not (understand) the nature of the man's crime, the king agreed (spare) his life.11. He studied economics at university and went on (become) the manager of a multinational company.

EXERCISE 2: PassiveChange the sentences into the Passive Form.

1. You ought to have dealt with that complaint at once.2. They will have pulled down all those old buildings by the end of next year.3. I am not used to people treating me in that way.4. We had to put off our visit until later.5. The policeman asked the motorist a lot of questions.6. What kind of job would you like them to offer you?7. They arrested the thief after chasing him for over an hour.8. You needn't have typed the letter, you could have written it by hand.9. They had to carry out repairs on the car before they could drive it.10. People thought children had set fire to the hut.

EXERCISE 3: Restructuring sentencesRewrite the sentences without changing the meaning, using the words in brackets.Example: I was so surprised I didn't know what to say (I - aback - loss - words)Answer: I was so taken aback I was at a loss for words.

1. Our supply of ink cartridges has finished. (We - run - ink cartridges)2. We were surprised when all the lights were extinguished at midnight. (To - surprise - went - midnight)3. I always thought New York would be like this. (This - imagined - be)4. I thought he might have forgotten our appointment so I sent him a fax. (I sent - in case - appointment)5. You just can't compare the quality of her work with his. (There's - between - his)6. His financial difficulties only became clear later. (That he - difficulty - until later)7. His belief in ghosts seems rather strange to me. (I - that - ghosts)8. I don't understand Axel's refusal to discuss the matter. (What - is why - matter)9. We need a very experienced person. (What - someone - experience) 10. Who was responsible for maintaining the machines? (Whose - machines)

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EXERCISE 4: ArticlesAdd indefinite, definite articles or possessive adjectives where necessary.It’s ..................... real thrill to meet ....................... superstar in .................... flesh. And that’s exactly what happened to ............................ people of Lower Norton, when ........................ Rolling Stones paid .................... unexpected visit to ..................... village. “It’s always been ...................... ambition to meet ....................... real live pop star,” said Stephanie Heath, .................. local fifteen-year-old. “And now I’ve met five!” ........................ Stones were travelling by ...................... private plane to Bristol to give ................... concert, when ..................... bad weather forced ................... pilot to make ...................... emergency landing in .................... field close to ..................... village. They were enthusiastically welcomed by .................... villagers, who took ................... opportunity of asking for .................... autographs. However, despite ............................ excitement of .................... event, ................... people were careful to respect .................... stars’ desire for ......................... privacy, and ...................... accommodation was made available at ..................... village pub, where ……………….. band was left in ……………….. relative peace. .................... story has received ......................... considerable publicity in ................... area and they are currently ....................... most popular group among ......................... teenagers of Lower Norton.

EXERCISE 5: PrepositionsComplete the sentences in an appropriate way with a preposition and gerund.

1. Arnold has a gift ..........2. The teacher told the boy off ..........3. I'm not very keen ..........4. Ardella prides herself ..........5. Please refrain ..........6. Grandma gets a lot of pleasure ..........7. Angus takes pleasure ..........8. The passengers complained ...........9. Grandad has difficulty ..........

EXERCISE 6: Linking devicesComplete the sentences with words or phrases from the list. Some are required more than once.as (1) as long as (2) as well as (3) despite (4) hardly (5) nevertheless (6) so as not to (7) so that (8) though (9) whatever (10) no sooner (11)

1. I put the car in the garage .......... it wouldn't get wet.2. .......... had we set out when it started snowing heavily.3. .......... we felt rather hungry we decided to stop for a snack.4. I packed the glasses in boxes .......... break them.5. .......... the terrible weather conditions, all the climbers returned safely.6. .......... anybody says we're going to stick to the original plan.7. The horse was obviously dead, .........., its owner kept on trying to revive it.8. I won't give up the ranch ........... I can afford to run it. 9. ........... sailing round the world Sir Francis Drake defeated the Spanish Armada.10. ........... a qualified doctor, Arthur Conan Doyle devoted most of his life to writing detective stories.11. .......... coming last in the race, Grandad enjoyed taking part, 12. The cat won't scratch you .......... you don't tease it.13. .......... he had won millions of pounds on the National Lottery, Max wouldn't buy his grandmother a new

wheelchair.14. I crept upstairs on tiptoe .......... wake my parents.15. I'm determined to get Grandma a state-of-the-art wheelchair .......... it might cost.

EXERCISE 7: Modal verbsComplete the sentences using may, should, could.

1. There .......... be a quicker way to the airport but I'm afraid I don't know it.2. We had no choice. What .......... we do but leave our companions to their fate?3. I'll stand by you, come what ..........4. He .......... have written a book on Chinese cookery, but he has no idea how to make a cup of coffee.5. It's not right that you .......... have to do all the work.6. It's very important that the job .......... be completed by the end of the week.7. We'd better accept this offer; we .......... not have another chance.8. .......... the new evidence that has recently come to light prove Herbert's innocence?9. Who .......... I meet in the supermarket but Bill Gates!10. I .......... be in this evening but it's not very likely.

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11. If you .......... happen to see Mike, tell him to give me a call.12. How ........... you tell your father such a blatant lie?

EXERCISE 8: Completing sentences in a logical wayComplete the sentences with a suitable word or phrase.

1. All the tickets ................... sold by the time we get to the theatre, unless we get a move on.2. If you don't confirm your order by the end of the week, we'll assume you are no .................... in purchasing the

goods.3. I have no intention .................... lies just to please you, Max.4. Prince Charles has turned down my invitation to open our church bazaar but I hope to ................... change his

mind. 5. These artefacts date ................... when the Romans occupied Britain.6. If it ................... the rescue team's prompt arrival we would probably all have died.7. He deserves to be severely punished .................... such a terrible crime.8. If I .................... address, I would have sent you a postcard from Greece.9. I wasn’t in London last weekend so you ................... seen me there.10. Why don’t ................... tomorrow evening? My mobile number is 336 553 127.11. I'll let ..................................................................... possible whether I can attend the meeting or not.12. Arvard can't ...................................................................... mind whether to marry Amelia or not.13. It's advisable to take a map with you in .................................................................. lost.14. However hard he ................................................................... the car to go, it wouldn't start.15. If I'd known you were waiting for me, ................................................................... so late.

EXERCISE 9: Re-expressing sentencesRe-express the sentences using the given prompts.

1. The university’s use of dogs dates back to the mid-20th century. (SINCE)2. Scientists were surprised to discover that the species had not died out. (DISCOVERY)3. It’s as close to the real thing as it can be. (Begin: Nothing …..)4. You must arrange for the two elephants' carcasses to be removed immediately (IMMEDIATE)5. It was very difficult for James to tell Monica that he no longer wanted to marry her. (TELLING)6. The loudest singer was Mr Sullivan. (LOUDER)7. Most medical schools have eliminated the use of animal labs. (LONGER)8. Contrary to popular belief, moles are not blind. (BELIEVE)9. He's always talking to himself, which is very annoying. (HABIT)10. Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius, became emperor at the age of nineteen. (YEARS)11. After the accident Gordon couldn't see with his left eye. (BLIND)12. Practising on dogs is not necessary to teach students operating techniques. (Begin: Students can …..)

EXERCISE 10: Present participle used as an adjective in collocationsMatch a word from List A with a word from List B to complete the sentences.List Aburgeoning / running / opposing / seething / tiring / convincing / amusing / hanging / rolling / shooting List Bjourney / mass / star / hills / sides / gardens / commentary / anecdote / argument / economy

1. Italy and Russia were on .............................. .............................. in the last war.2. China’s .............................. .............................. makes it the most powerful country in Asia. 3. The city centre is a/an .............................. .............................. of people on Saturday afternoons.4. It was a long, .............................. .............................. and at the end of it, all I wanted was a good night’s rest.5. For me, the most .......................... ...................... against the existence of ghosts is that I have never seen one.6. He told us a/an .............................. .............................. anecdote about the time when he lost his key and had

to climb in through the window.7. We listened to a/an .............................. .............................. on the match on a portable radio.8. People say that if you see a/an .............................. .............................. and you express a wish, it will be

granted.9. One of the seven wonders of the ancient world was the .............................. .............................. of Babylon.10. From the top of the tower we could see .............................. .............................. stretching away into the

distance.

EXERCISE 11: Phrases referring to Cause and Effect, Reasons and Results

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Decide which of the options could be used to complete the sentences correctly (2 – 3 possibilities)1. We decided not to go to the Yemen for our holidays .......................................... the recent unrest in the country.

for / because of / for what concerns / as for / on account of2. He is blind in one eye, .................................................. the RAF turned down his application to train as a pilot.

seen this / which is why / for this / the reason why / this is why3. Investigators say that the illegal ivory trade ........................................... the depletion of the elephant population.

is caused by / has led to / has resulted in / is the result of / has brought about 4. At first the police thought the man had been murdered but the autopsy revealed that his

death ....................................................... natural causes.was caused by / was due to / came from / was the result of / brought about

5. ............................... his career prospects in his own country are limited he has decided to apply for a job abroadfor / seeing that / seen that / on account of / as

6. He is putting aside money for his retirement ........................................... he doesn’t know whether he will be entitled to a pension.for / since / hence / thus / because

7. Alcohol abuse ........................................... many road accidents.is attributed to / is behind / brings to / causes / originates

EXERCISE 12: Linking devicesComplete the sentences with an appropriate phrase.

1. We are not going to change our mind, ................................................ hard he tries to persuade us.2. Ships carry lifeboats ............................................ the crew can escape in case of a shipwreck.3. .............................................. I have my health, I won't worry about getting old. 4. You won't get a headache .............................................. you don't drink too much. 5. ................................................... all his efforts, he failed his driving test.6. I've decided to do it ............................................................ I am not paid for it.7. .................................................... short the journey is, you always get something to eat on this airline.8. ..................................................... you break the rules will you be penalised.9. He left early ................................................. get to the airport in time.10. .............................................. being very intelligent, she is .............................. very likable. 11. Who do you think you are? You talk .................................................. you were the boss. 12. Anne earns 100,000 euros a year ................................................... her husband earns less than half as much.

EXERCISE 13: Error correction1. Unemployment is more in the south respect to the north.2. Someone thinks it is better to not give money to poorer countries.3. A job seeker doesn’t have to start the interview asking what will be the salary. 4. He made me some questions to find out if I had the attitude to work in groups.5. It may happen that a product has success in a period but fails in an other period.6. This is due to the lacking consideration the governments give to human rights.7. The same Italy is made up by more than two cultures.8. Travel abroad represents a good way for a student to learn how to live with his own forces.9. I’m having some difficulties to establish relation with my colleagues.

LM1 STRUCTURE AND USAGE (REVISION 2)

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EXERCISE 1: Linking two parts of a sentenceLink the two parts of the sentences in a logical manner. 1. Unless another candidate with more qualifications applies in the next forty-eight hours......... 2. Since you didn’t answer the letter .........3. Many universities still use animals for research ..........4. Although he had prepared his presentation carefully .......... 5. Many universities no longer use animals for training purposes .........6. There are many alternative procedures available .........7. The doctor failed to explain the cause of the patient’s death.........8. The faculty’s facilities are out-dated, ......... 9. The university has eliminated the use of animal models for teaching .........10. Please deliver the animals by the end of this week .........

a) nor did he offer any sympathyb) which could account for the fall-off in enrolmentsc) so we will need to rely more heavily on alternative proceduresd) so that we can start the experiments early next weeke) you should get the positionf) we were forced to turn to another supplierg) it did not go down wellh) on the grounds that the practice is inhumanei) but not to train medical studentsj) that don’t involve killing a dog

EXERCISE 2: Filling in long gapsComplete the sentences in an appropriate way.

1. I wish you ............................................................................. interrupting when I'm trying to tell you something.2. If you had done as I told you, you ............................................................................. into trouble.3. There’s no point in applying for the job if ............................................................................. right qualifications.4. Although I ............................................................................. that book twice I'd like to read it again.5. I wish ............................................................................. sociology when I was at university instead of English.6. I'm ............................................................................. repaired at the moment so I'll have to go to work by bus.7. You can't pay me back! Well, that's the last time ............................................................................. money.8. Anyone that ....................................................................... the licence fee by 31st January will be liable to a fine.9. Next year he ............................................................................. in this house for thirty years.10. It's high time you ............................................................................. these simple grammatical rules.11. The President ............................................................................. present at the opening ceremony but

unfortunately he was ill.12. Only when the aircraft had landed safely ............................................................................. trembling.13. She ............................................................................. long when he asked her to marry him.14. I suggest ............................................................................. a map with you in case you get lost.15. If only the guard ............................................................................., the prisoners would never have escaped.16. The earlier you arrive, ............................................................................ you will have to wait.17. These artefacts date .................................................................. when the Romans occupied Britain.

EXERCISE 3: Sentence re-structuringRe-express the sentences using the word in capital letters. Do not change the form of the word.

1. He wrote down everything that happened during the voyage in a little black book. (RECORD).................................................................................................................................................

2. As well as his normal salary, he made some extra money by giving private lessons. (SUPPLEMENTED).................................................................................................................................................

3. The missing money wasn't mentioned. (SAID).................................................................................................................................................

4. No one could hear the speaker. (MAKE).................................................................................................................................................

5. The snow soon reached a depth of several inches. (LONG).................................................................................................................................................

6. How much money did Sally lend Max? (BORROW).................................................................................................................................................

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7. Max said the accident was the other driver's fault. (BLAMED).................................................................................................................................................

8. Rudolph only just passed the test. (FAILED).................................................................................................................................................

9. Someone has cut all the branches off the apple tree. (HAD).................................................................................................................................................

10. Phyllis is practically blind without her glasses. (HARDLY).................................................................................................................................................

EXERCISE 4: Phrases beginning with “as”Complete the sentences with words and phrases from the list. as best they can(1) as do we all(2) as does his sister(3) as long as I can remember(4) as long as you can afford it(5) as much as we have time for(6) as previousl announced(7) as such(8) as the need arises(9) as to the king’s whereabouts

1. He is a British subject and .............................................................. he is entitled to vote.2. He speaks five languages .............................................................. .3. He wants to be happy .............................................................. .4. I don’t mind what kind of a car you buy ...............................................................5. I’m afraid that’s .............................................................. . Good-bye.6. May I remind you that the meeting has been cancelled, .............................................................. .7. The cathedral has been under repair for .............................................................. .8. The family tries to get by on a tight budget .............................................................. .9. The government will send help to the flooded areas .............................................................. .10. The loyal subjects refused to give any information .............................................................. .

EXERCISE 5: Discourse markers and linking devices.Complete the sentences with words and phrases from the list.

throughout history (1) although (2) quite the contrary (3) not so long ago (4) despite I not surprisingly (5) always a scary place (6) for all its charm (7) while (8) whether (9)

1. There was a time, ........................................................... , when literacy was not available to everyone.2. As things stand at present no one can say ................................................ the president will stand down or

run for a second term in office.3. He wasn't lacking in talent, ........................................................... , he was extremely talented.4. ............................................, The Secret Garden is a book that always disturbs me.5. ............................................, at night time the forest is particularly frightening.6. ............................................, after six months at sea, the men were anxious to get home.7. ............................................ the country is rich in natural resources, many of its inhabitants live below the

poverty line.8. ............................................ everyone agrees that traffic is a problem, few are prepared to give up their

cars.9. ............................................ assurances to the contrary, it is feared that the death toll is likely to rise.10. ............................................ , wise people have killed each other for three main reasons: love, land and money.

EXERCISE 6: Adverb + past participle collocationsComplete the sentences with combinations from the two lists below.LIST Abadly / deeply (2) / densely / fully (2) / strictly / severely / completely / strongly / widely / wrongly / mortally / partially LIST Bconvicted / concerned / damaged / equipped / exhausted / involved / limited / opposed / populated / publicised / punished / sighted / wounded / occupied

1. Admission to the concert will be .................................. ............................... to membership card holders.2. After trudging through the snow for ten miles we were all ................................. ........................................3. All the instructions are in Braille in order to help the blind and ......................... ........................................

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4. Anyone found guilty of people trafficking will be ....................................... ........................................5. As a member of the Green Party, he is ........................... .............................. in environmental issues.6. He was ....................................... ....................................... of murder but was immediately released

when the actual murderer confessed.7. Israel is small, ....................................... ....................................... country and so it is extremely difficult

to find a site for a nuclear plant.8. It’s important to keep the children ....................................... ......................................., otherwise they’ll

get bored and start causing trouble.9. No one was seriously injured in the accident but all the vehicles involved

were ....................................... ........................................10. The President’s downfall was attributed to his numerous

and ....................................... ....................................... extramarital affairs.11. The Roman Catholic Church has always been ....................................... ....................................... to birth

control in any form.12. Two soldiers were ....................................... ....................................... in the attack. Their bodies will be

flown home tomorrow.13. The authorities are ....................................... ....................................... about the recent increase in

daylight robberies.14. This high-tech laboratory is ....................................... ....................................... with the apparatus

required to carry out complex analyses.

EXERCISE 7: Completing sentencesComplete the sentences using a word or phrase.

1. As the last train had gone, I had no ........................................................... walk.2. They offered me the job on ................................................... that I would start the following day.3. The question at issue is not whether the project is a good one but ........................................... will cost.4. Only time will tell ........................................................................ right decision when we adopted the twins.5. I think you would do ……………………......... your computer repaired by an expert than try to do it yourself.6. Max ..................................................... attempt to avoid the rabbit; he just ran straight over it.7. As ................................................... there isn't much traffic, we should get to Skipton in time for lunch.8. It was ............................................................................. wonderful news that we decided to celebrate.9. .................................................................. I'm worried about is how we're going to get back before dark.10. It rained non-stop for four days, with .................................................. that several roads were flooded. 11. Whatever you do, don't let Mrs Ashdown ........................................................ going; she might try to follow you.12. I ..................................................................... best to make Arvard change his mind but he wouldn't listen to me.13. I'd better say good-bye now .......................................................... left by the time you get home from the office.14. Now I wish ...................................................................... the advice you gave me.15. This time next week ............................................................... my way to Vancouver, God willing.

EXERCISE 8: Word formationComplete the words.Climate changeClimate change is inevitable, unpre.................... and has been resp..................... for bringing down some of the world's greatest civil..................... Soon it may do the same to ours. That is the conc.................... of researchers who have found that the Mayans - whose empire reached its peak around 700AD - were dest.................... because central America was affl.................... by a 200-year drought. The discovery has been made by the American arch.................... Richardson Gill, who argues that the Mayans - famed for their massive stepped pyra.................... and astronomy - simply star.................... to death when their water supplies ran dry, a fate that has profound impl.................... for the future of man..................... Gill's research, based on studies of ice cores taken from glaciers in the Andes, is contro..................... Many histor.................... believe only cult.................... changes such as war, trade or rebellion aff.................... the course of history and that people can always adapt to climate change. In the case of the Mayans, it is generally assumed they were destroyed by inv..................... Gill's work challenges this. 'I have seen with my own eyes the devas.................... effects of drought,' he says in the Scientific American. Deprived of water, the Mayans could no longer grow crops and perished. Gill and his contemp.................... argue that humanity is much more vuln.................... to weather changes than realised. Studies of tree rings and ice cores taken from glaciers have created a detailed patt.................... of climate fluct.................... going back a thousand years. When matched against hist.................... events, these have revealed startling corres.....................

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EXERCISE 9: Lexical errorsReplace the word in bold type with the correct word.

1 We had to affront many difficulties.2 I’ll advise you when the rent is due.3 I stuck the advice on the door with adhesive tape.4 I’ve left my agenda at home so I don’t know whether I have any appointments on the 28th.5 History was one of my preferred matters at school.6 We will probably never know the exact number of deads.7 The conductor lost control of the bus and it crashed against a tree.8 He won a conspicuous amount of money on the national lottery.9 The flight was very convenient – only £20 return.10 Failing the exam was a great delusion.11 He is a person whom I estimate highly.12 The mosquitoes are very fastidious in the evenings.13 The matter does not regard me.14 We were late because of the intense traffic.15 No one can understand what provoked the accident.16 Despite his richness he is not a happy man.17 He has plenty of money at his disposition.18 The actual situation is similar to the precedent one.19 Rimini is a well-known touristic destination.20 He hardly gains enough money to keep his family.21 This could provoke physical injuries.22 The occidental societies are mainly to blame for global warming.23 No one would argue that it is great significance to study history.24 Wars tend to repeat periodically.

EXERCISE 10: Collocations relating to the environmentMatch a word from List A with an appropriate word from List B.List Abottle / carbon / endangered / mountain / forest / nature / fossil / global / rain / greenhouse / polar / natural / ozone / refuse / solar / unleadedList Bdisaster / disposal / bank / effect / energy / fire / footprint / fuel / forest / layer / icecap / petrol / reserve / species / range / warming

WRITING TIPS (1)

THE FIVE PARAGRAPH ESSAY

Writing the Five-Paragraph EssayA good, clear format can make any essay easy to write. Structuring your ideas clearly, creating *a strong thesis statement, and providing lots of support make the essay easier to read. The five-paragraph essay provides a schema into which ideas will fit. By confining the ideas of your paper into this format you will increase your organization, your reader's attention and understanding, and thus your grade.

The Five-Paragraph FormatThe five-paragraph format is a tried and true way to structure an essay. The first paragraph is the introduction. It should include a basic overview of the subject matter, as well as an idea of what will be discussed in the body of the work. The paragraph should conclude with a strong thesis statement. The body of the essay should include approximately three paragraphs, each with one well-developed thoughts. The conclusion will sum up the material covered in the body and restate the thesis. By following this basic format, any essay can become easy to write.

The Introduction

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The introduction is the first thing a reader sees. It sets the tone for the entire piece by laying out not only what will be written, but also how it will be written. Begin the essay with something catchy. A bold statement or even a question is a great way to begin. Next, discuss what the body of the essay will include. This is a brief summary of what the subject is, and your opinion about the subject. Finally, conclude with a directly stated thesis. This is one sentence including what the point of the essay is and how you plan on proving it.

The BodyThe body is the true meat of your essay. This is where you lay out your ideas and make your point. Begin your paragraph with a topic sentence. State the point you're trying to make in this paragraph, along with how you intend to do that. If there is one thing to remember when writing your essay, it should be SUPPORT, SUPPORT, SUPPORT. Just as the essay has three supporting paragraphs, your paragraph should have three supporting points. These points, especially if the paper is for an English class, chould include citations. As long as you support the citation you've made, quotes can only help you. Conclude the paragraph with a wrap-up sentence revisiting the point of the paragraph.

ConclusionEnd your essay as neatly as you can. Restate the thesis you laid out in the introduction. Talk about the points you've made in the essay and to what conclusion those points ultimately lead. This is a great opportunity to look back over your essay and see whether you met the promise of your thesis. Did you discuss all the things you planned to? Did you support each with evidence from the text? Finally, did the things you wrote about in your essay point to one ultimate conclusion? The conclusion is the last chance you have to make your point and leave a lasting impression on the reader. Make the piece as memorable as possible. *Definition for “thesis statement”:

a brief sentence presenting the main point of a persuasive writing, usually in the introductory paragraph

a thesis statement clearly expresses the author's opinion on the subject and can be argued and supported with evidence.

an explicit statement of the purpose, intent or main idea of a piece of writing

POSSIBLE PARAGRAPH THEMES FOR A COMPOSITION ABOUT FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING difficulty of learning a foreign language

best way to learn a foreign language

opportunities for learning

foreign language teaching in your country

comparison with language learning in other countries

bilingualism

usefulness / necessity of knowing another language

social and cultural aspects

own experience

prospect for the future

N.B. Not all of these. Be selective.

WRITING TIPS (2)

DISCOURSE MARKERS, TRANSITIONAL DEVICES, LINKING DEVICES, CONNECTORS

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Two effective ways to achieve coherence in your writing are with transitions (or connectors) and with parallel structures linked by conjunctions (e.g. and, but, so, not only ..... but also) or adverbs (moreover, however, therefore). Transitions allow sentences to hang together and make connections between sentences and between paragraphs. These linking devices act very much like directional signals to your reader allowing him to follow your words. They can also be thought of as “bridges” that connect sentences and paragraphs to each other. The purpose of these connections is to show the relationship between succeeding parts of sentences, phrases and clauses.

A. To add, amplify or carry forward also / and / and then / as well / besides / beyond that / especially / first, second, etc. / finally / for example / for instance / furthermore / in addition / indeed / in fact / in other words / in particular / in the same way / likewise / moreover / namely / next / similarly / that is / too / to illustrate this point / what’s more / for one thing ..... for another

B. To show a result after all / and so / as a consequence / as a result / because of this / consequently / for this reason / hence / so / then / therefore / thus

C. To locate in a placeon the other side of the world / all over the world / worldwide / elsewhere / in most places / far and wide / in every corner of the world / in such places / here and there / nearer to home / locally / nationally / beyond national boundaries / further afield / further away / not far away

D. To locate in time after a while / at the same time / at last at present / briefly / currently / during ..... / earlier / eventually / finally / at first / formerly / gradually / immediately / in the future / later / today / meanwhile / subsequently / suddenly / soon afterwards / not long afterwards / until now / up to this point / previously / prior to this / in the last few years / throughout history / from time immemorial / within living memory / in those days / in Shakespeare’s day / in the distant past / at one time

E. To express similarityalso / as well / both (neither) / in the same way / in like manner / likewise / similarly

F. To express contrast although / be that as it may / but / even though / however / in (by) / contrast / in spite of / despite / nevertheless / on the contrary / on the other hand / otherwise / (and) yet still / though / whereas / conversely

G. To summarize / generalize all in all / altogether / as stated above / eventually / finally / in brief / in conclusion / in other words / in sum / lastly / on the whole / to sum up

H. To concede (a point) certainly / granted (that) / of course / no doubt / to be sure / undoubtedly / admittedly

I. To illustrate as a case in point / as an example / as an illustration / for example / for instance / in particular / one such example / yet another example / take, for example

J. To emphasize (or show authority) above all / certainly / especially / indeed / in fact / in particular / most important(ly) / naturally / obviously / of course / surely / to be sure

K. To express possibilityperhaps / maybe / it is possible that / it could be that / possibly

L. To give a reason as / because / for / since / this is why / that is why / for this reason

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF ESSAY

These essay types overlap. In other words they contain features of one another.N.B. Most essays are a combination of more than one of the types outlined below.

Argumentative Essay - An argumentative essay puts forward a strong statement which may be new or potentially provocative and uses the standard essay format to expand on and support the thesis with evidence which attempts to persuade the reader that the opening statement is correct whilst acknowledging other arguments.

Cause and Effect Essay - A cause and effect essay deals with why something occurs and the results of this. This seems very straightforward but it requires clear thinking and the ability to express concepts in straightforward language, with a logical presentational structure.

Classification Essay - Stated simply, the purpose of a classification essay is to organize things into categories. This is done by putting useful categories in place following a single underlying principle and finding examples that fit into each category.

Comparison Essay - The comparison essay is commonly used in essay writing across the disciplines. It requires the writer to look at the similarities and differences between two or more subjects which may, in fact, be related under an 'umbrella topic'. For example, a Literature essay might require you to compare how two writers approach the same theme by using a different genre.

Deductive Essay - Typically, the deductive essay is based on the premise that given a certain set of facts, by using deductive reasoning assumptions can be made leading to a conclusion. Thus, the three stages of a deductive essay would be the premise, the evidence and the conclusion.

Descriptive Essay - Of all , the descriptive essay is the one which requires most creative writing ability as it is based on the ability of the writer to facilitate the visualization of a scene, evoking sensory reactions and responses. Much of the writing will be adjectival and lexical variety is essential.

Evaluative Essay - The evaluative essay sets out to evaluate something according to predetermined criteria. For an evaluation to be recognised as valid, both the subject to be evaluated and the criteria to be used to make the evaluation must be stated clearly.

Expository Essay - The expository essay does not so much ask the writer to set out to give their views, unlike other essays. Instead, you are being asked to display, as fairly and comprehensively as possible, the views of others; as the name suggests, to 'expose' them. The expository approach is also used in the case of reportage e.g. in journalism.

Narrative Essay - A narrative essay tells a tale, usually a personal experience told in the form of a story. The point of view is usually personal and description is very important to contribute to the overall feel of the narrative. However, narrative essays can also be used for book reports.

Illustration Essay - In an illustration essay, the evidence is largely provided by the inclusion of examples, or 'illustrations', to support your argument; in many ways it is similar to a narrative essay. Basically, in an illustration essay you are literally inviting your reader to picture, via your 'illustrations', the argument's effectiveness.

Literature Essay - The Literature essay assesses a students ability to respond to a question about given texts or select texts that will be used to address a specific problem/topic. You may also have completely free choice and select both texts and topics yourself.

Persuasive Essay - The persuasive essay uses reasoned argument to persuade the reader to adopt/agree with the position being proposed in the opening statement. Experts are often quoted to support the central argument and give it additional credibility.

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Find out more from : http://www.ukessays.com/

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/

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PREPARING TO WRITE

Think, Make Notes, and Prepare the Material You Want to Use Before You Begin to WriteSpend a few minutes gathering the ideas and thoughts you will need to include in your essay. Then consider the most effective way to present that material to your reader. Remember that essay exam responses are usually read very quickly: the more quickly the reader can move through your writing, the less time he or she will have to consider its deficiencies. Many students find it useful to create a short topic outline or to draw a key diagram at this point, as a way to organize their thoughts.The focus of your writing depends on the task stated in the question. In a question that asks you to explain, for example, your focus should be on presenting information as clearly as possible so that the reader understands the topic. At other times you may be asked to take a position on a topic; in these cases, you need to state that position clearly and then prove to your reader, through the careful use of illustration and examples, the validity of the statement with which you started. But in either case, the reader needs a clear statement of your purpose at the beginning of your essay.

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Write StrategicallyWriting that merely responds to the question (no matter how accurately) may garner only an average grade unless it is also successfully presented in other ways. Here are some areas that often make a difference:

Unless you have been told for some reason to restate the question in your own words, do not waste valuable time repeating information is already written in the title. Move immediately to answering the question.

Order the points of your discussion. Follow some sort of sequence - logical, chronological, procedural, etc.

Add support to assertions. Incorporate examples or facts hat support these main statements.

Tie your discussion to your focus. Demonstrate, both along the way and in your conclusion, how everything relates to the topic.

Be direct when you write. Avoid overlong complex sentences (more than three clauses), use a mixture of long and short sentences, long lists, long parenthetical remarks, do not overuse the same boring adjectives (important, good, bad, etc.), do not use “etc.”.

Use signals to direct the reader through your points. For example:"There are three reasons why..." "First,....Second,......Finally,....." "In early Greece....But in Rome..."

Be legible. You will probably not be graded on neatness, but you could easily lose credit if your instructor has a hard time reading what you have written. Sloppy handwriting, multiple cross-outs, and confusing circles and arrows will all make grading difficult. Remember that your instructor has many other papers to read and may easily become impatient with anything that makes grading harder.

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Sample Essay OutlinesOrganize your ideasDevelop an outline to organize your ideas. An outline shows your main ideas and the order in which you are going to write about them. Sample Essay Outline

Competitive Swimming, an Ideal Sport for Kids1. Introduction

2. Competitive swimming provides same benefits as other sports

a. It is good exercise and builds muscular strength

b. It promotes cooperation among team members, especially in relays

3. Competitive swimming provides some additional benefits

a. Swimming is an important skill that can be used forever

b. There is a reduced risk of injury

c. Each swimmer can easily chart his or her own progress

1. My personal experience as a competitive swimmer

a. I enjoy working with my coach

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b. I've made a lot of friends on the swim team

2. Conclusion

Sample Research Paper OutlineThe Conquest of Mt. Everest

I. Introduction

II. Background Information

A. Location of Mt. Everest

B. Geography of the Surrounding Area

C. Facts about Mt. Everest

1. Height of the mountain

2. How the mountain was named

a. Peak XV

b. Joloungma (Tibetan name)

c. Sagarmatha (Nepalese name)

3. The number of people who have climbed Everest to date

III. Major Explorers Covered in this Paper

A. Sir Edmund Hillary

1. First to reach the summit (1953)

2. Led a team of experienced mountain climbers who worked together

A. Tenzing Norgay and the Sherpas

1. Norgay was an experienced climber and guide who accompanied Hillary

2. Sherpas still used to guide expeditions

B. Rob Hall

1. Leader of the failed 1996 expedition

2. Led group of (mainly) tourists with little mountain climbing experience

I. The Impact Expeditions have had on Mt. Everest and Local Community

A. Ecological Effects

1. Loss of trees due to high demand for wood for cooking and heating for tourists.

2. Piles of trash left by climbing expeditions

A. Economic Effects

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1. Expedition fees provide income for the country

2. Expeditions provide work for the Sherpas, contributing to the local economy.

B. Cultural Effects

1. Introduction of motor vehicles

2. Introduction of electricity

II. Conclusion

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The Expository Essay Expository writing is a type of writing that is used to explain, describe, give information, or inform. The

text is organized around one topic and developed according to a pattern or combination of patterns. The writer of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organization, one of the most important mechanisms to improve skills in exposition is to organize the text effectively. The patterns outlined below are frequently used to create an expository essay. Additionally, more than one pattern may be used within an expository essay.

Expository essays are written by students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of a particular topic. For example, a student might use a descriptive pattern to explain the features and characteristics of a place or person. Sequential writing emphasizes the order of events, listing items in numerical or chronological order. A writer might use a comparison or contrast pattern to emphasize the similarities or differences between two topics. A cause and/or effect pattern shows the relationship between events, while a problem/solution pattern shows a different kind of relationship that discusses a problem and suggests solutions. Variations of these patterns are sometimes used, as well as a combination of patterns to create an expository essay.

Expository writing is intended to convey the writer's knowledge about a topic. While different patterns may be employed to create the essay, every essay contains the same features: the introduction, the thesis, the body paragraphs, and the conclusion. The introduction is the first paragraph in the essay. The introduction contains the thesis statement, one sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay. The body paragraphs follow the introduction and explain the main topics. Lastly, the conclusion is the final paragraph that restates the main topics and the thesis. Every expository essay contains these features, in this order.

Expository writing has distinct features that distinguish it from creative writing. The content of an expository essay is factual and straightforward while the content of a creative story is imaginative. Expository essays are written for a general audience but creative stories are more likely to be designed for a specific audience. The writing style of an expository essay is formal, standard and academic, while a creative story may use an informal and more personal style. The organization of an expository essay is systematic and deliberate; on the other hand, the organization of a creative story is more imaginative and artistic. Finally, the most important difference between the two types of writing is the purpose of the text. An expository essay is written to inform and instruct, while a creative story is written to entertain and captivate.

Typical features of expository writing

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Description The author describes a topic by listing characteristics, features, and examples. It provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or soundsSequence or ProcessThe author lists items or events in numerical or chronological order.Words and phrases: first, second, third, next, then, finallyComparisonThe author explains how two or more things are alike and/or how they are different. A comparison essay usually discusses the similarities between two things, while the contrast essay discusses the differences. Words and phrases: unlike, whereas, in contrast, on the other hand, alike, similarly, the same as Cause / EffectThe author focuses on the relationship between two or more events or experiences. The essay could discuss both causes and effects, or it could simply address one or the other. A cause essay usually discusses the reasons why something happened. An effect essay discusses what happens after a specific event or circumstance.Words and phrases: the reason why; if...then, as a result, therefore, thus, because since, as, for, consequentlyProblem / SolutionThe author states a problem and lists one or more solutions for the problem. A variation of this pattern is the question- and-answer format in which the author poses a question and then answers it.Words and phrases: the main / major problem is, an unsolved problem is ..., question (How?) ... answer, one solution might be to .....

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The Persuasive Essay

What is a persuasive essay? Put simply, a persuasive essay is a short commentary designed to persuade your audience. It is an article traditionally five paragraphs long that communicates your position in a persuasive manner.The persuasive essay is used to assess students’ writing skills and understanding of a topic. The persuasive essay features can also be applied to a sales promotion, a job application or even a presentation to a group of people.The persuasive essay is constructed using a title, thesis statement, supporting paragraphs and a conclusion. Let’s break these down a little further:

1. TitleThe title is straightforward. What topic are you writing about? You can be a little descriptive here to give your reader a brief overview of what you are discussing. For example, your title heading might be “Modern Eco Friendly Housing”. You haven’t taken a position yet but you are letting your reader know what is to come.

2. Thesis StatementThis is a statement about what you are trying to convince your readers of. For example, your thesis statement might be “Housing made from renewable resources have a low carbon footprint compared to traditional construction methods”. Make your thesis statement a little controversial to emotionally involve your audience. But only be a little controversial. If you take the extremist point of view, you risk alienating your readers.The thesis statement is a bait to hook your readers. If you need help with how to write your thesis statement, then walk through your local mall or turn on the TV. You are surrounded by them every day. Advertising headlines are great examples of thesis statements that capture attention.

3. Supporting ParagraphsA persuasive essay will normally have a minimum of three supporting paragraphs. Start each supporting paragraph with a statement that supports your main thesis. Back up their statement with facts or testimonials from well known sources. Facts form the foundation of your argument and allow you to act as an authority on the subject.The key to your supporting paragraph is to remember that a fact is not debatable. The statement you make in these paragraphs is an emotional interpretation of these facts to persuade readers. Marketers know the best way to sell something is to use the Feature-Benefit rule. First, identify a feature (or a fact) and then draw the reader in with the benefit they will receive by agreeing with you. Marketers sell the sizzle, not the sausage.For example, “Good orientation increases the energy efficiency of a home, making it more comfortable to live in and cheaper to run”. Good orientation and energy efficiency is the feature. But what does it mean to the house owner? The benefit to the owner is a house that is comfortable to live in and cheaper to run.

4. Conclusion

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The last part of the persuasive essay is the conclusion. Make a mistake here and all your effort is down the drain. The conclusion is the call to action. If you are selling something, then this is a real physical action such as clicking on the buy button. In your essay, the call to action is having your reader agree with you.Use your conclusion to remind the reader of what your thesis statement is together with your supporting facts. Next, tell your reader what to do or think. If you’re selling a product, tell them to buy. Get the reader to share your point of view.What happens if your reader does not take action or agree? It does not mean you have failed, it just means you have not taken into account the objections your readers have. These are the “Nos” that you must overcome before you can get to a “Yes”. Persuasive essays use passive argument to overcome objection. When you first sit down to write, ask yourself what objections your readers may have to your ideas? Now, what features and benefits can you discuss to overcome these objections? For example –Objection: Eco-friendly housing is expensive when compared to other designs.Feature/Benefit: Savings in heating and cooling will quickly offset the price over just a few years.In the paragraph above I stated that a persuasive essay uses passive argument. This is where you focus on the features and benefits of your point of view. You do not actively discuss the opposing view. If you are in a job interview, you don’t talk about how good the other candidates are for the job, you focus on how you can fill their needs. If you use an active argument discussing both sides of the topic, then you are writing an argumentative essay.

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Writing an Introduction for an Essay

The quality of an essay introduction often determines whether the essay gets read in the first place. Even if it has to be read, as in the case of essay writing assignments in a university setting, a fine introduction gives the reader a good initial impression, which entices the him/her to read on. Hence, an essay introduction serves to attract the reader’s interest, introduce the topic, and explain what the essay will be about. Correspondingly, an essay introduction contains three features that usually appear in the following order: an attention-getter, some background information and the central idea.

Getting the reader’s attentionSome common strategies used to attract the reader’s interest to an essay are:

Relate a dramatic anecdote.

Expose a commonly held belief.

Present surprising facts and statistics.

Use a fitting quotation.

Ask a provocative question.

Tell a vivid personal story.

Define a key term.

Present an interesting observation.

Create a unique scenario.

Providing background informationProviding background information in an essay introduction serves to link the reader to the topic of an essay. But exactly how long this bridge should be is largely dependent on how much information the writer thinks the reader will need in order to understand the issue being discussed in the essay and appreciate the importance of the issue. For much university writing (for which the readership may not be restricted to lecturers alone), one good rule of thumb for students to determine whether enough background information has been provided is to show the draft introduction to someone who is not familiar with the topic and see whether they understand what is being talked about.

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Stating the central ideaThe central idea or thesis statement in an essay introduction is the most important part of the essay and is thus indispensable. The thesis statement is usually one or two sentences long and tells the reader what the whole essay is going to be about.

A thesis statement can be direct or indirect. A direct thesis statement gives a specific outline of the essay. For example, one of my students (in his essay entitled ‘The Qualities of a Successful Technopreneur’*) wrote the following thesis statement: “The three core qualities that a technopreneur must possess to be successful are vision, a never-say-quit attitude and an innovative mind.” This sentence tells the reader what the essay is going to be about (i.e. the qualities a technopreneur must possess in order to succeed) and provides a structural outline (i.e. that the essay will comprise three main parts, each portion respectively covering one of the three qualities mentioned).

In an indirect thesis statement, no such outline is provided; however, the reader will still know what aspect of the topic the essay is going to discuss. For example, on the same topic, another of my students wrote this thesis statement: “In today’s rapidly changing technology market, only technopreneurs who possess certain qualities will succeed while those who do not will falter and fall in the battlefield.” From this sentence, the reader can still expect the essay to talk about some qualities of a successful technopreneur; but he/she will neither know exactly which and how many qualities the essay will cover, nor predict how many parts the writer will discuss in the main body paragraphs. The suspense given by an indirect thesis statement sometimes gives the reader a good reason to read on.

Once aware of the three features of an essay introduction and some of the options for the presentation of each feature, students can experiment with different options to see which one(s) creates the best effect for each essay.

*a technopreneur is an entrepreneur involved in high technology

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A descriptive essay about a personWriting a simple and descriptive biographical essay is a common assignment for students who are developing their writing and research skills. When writing a simple essay on a person, it is important for students to address these most basic questions: who, what, how, where and when . The answers to these five questions will provide the backbone to all biographical essays, regardless of who the essay is about.

A descriptive essay about a person is an interesting topic because almost everyone has several characteristics that are worth writing about. For example you could start by writing about the person’s achievements, why this person is famous or interesting. You could write an anecdote or story about an event in which the person was involved and the role he or she had to play in the event.

In a biographical essay, you should also talk about the character of a person. You will need to know a bit about the person. Be observant and note down all the positive as well as negative traits you notice. If you are writing about a person out of a book, you can research about the character in the book itself. Ensure that you have reference from other sources over the internet. Gather as much information as you can and list it down.

Since you have to write about one person, choosing what to pinpoint is not so difficult. For example, a person could have several positive traits that you could identify but you may prefer to concentrate on negative traits. However, to choose just one particular characteristic and to elaborate on it would be limiting. It is much easier to write generally about a person. If it is relevant you could write about the way this person dresses, his/her mannerisms, habits, tastes and peculiarities, his / her relationships with other people, his / her family and friends, the people who most influenced his / her life. Though these may seem general, if you are selective and discerning, it could help you write a unique description about the person.

An important purpose of biographical essay is to provide the reader with useful information about the person which perhaps they didn’t know before and it is also an opportunity to provide interesting visual information

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relating to the person’s general appearance and apparel. Be imaginative and think of ways to describe the person in a why which will hold the reader’s attention.

If your assignment is to write a simple and descriptive essay on, for example, a famous author or world leader, it is important that you choose a person who is well suited for your own knowledge, interest and linguistic capabilities.

You may have to go to the library or conduct a web search for information on the subject of your biographical essay. Make sure the information you use comes from well-regarded educational resources such as books, encyclopaedias and research journals. For information available on the Internet, look for websites that end in .edu or .gov for the most relevant and factual information.

Read the information on your essay subject to get a feel for the person's life story and accomplishments. Once you have a basic understanding of the person you are researching, create the focus for your essay - whether it be the person's largest accomplishment, notoriety or a certain period of his/her life.

Create a rough outline that will provide the structure for your essay. This outline will help you to organize your thoughts and determine the order in which you will discuss the information. Decide on a topic sentence for each paragraph. When writing the outline, think about what the thesis statement of your paper will be. This statement should encapsulate the message so readers know immediately what the essay is about.

Write the essay using the outline as a guide. In your initial draft, include as much relevant information as possible. During the editing stage, you can pare down the information so that it is concise, simple and descriptive. As the writer, your goal is to include answers to all of the most basic questions while providing a well-constructed essay that corresponds to the thesis statement you presented.

Proofread the essay carefully to ensure that there are no spelling, punctuation or grammar errors. Giving the essay to someone else to edit is a good way to catch errors that you may miss.

The basis of writing a descriptive essay is simple. Extend your thoughts to writing about the person elaborately. Present facts about achievements, characteristics, positive and negative traits. Write with confidence as if you were narrating a story and you would have no problem writing a descriptive essay about a person

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Writing ArgumentsMost writing is argumentative in some way. In business and professional writing, proposals, problem-solving and analyses, political and ethical debate, advertising - argumentation and persuasion are essential elements of discourse in all walks of life. We write to persuade the reader that what we have to say is correct, intelligent, and rational and that our explanation or position makes sense and is appropriate. We present arguments in any kind of persuasive writing. We may argue that one position is superior to another, or we may present both sides of an argument fairly, leaving readers to come to their own conclusions.Writing to argue does not mean winning at any cost or simply taking sides. To argue means to present issues and ideas in a fair-minded and rational way - to appeal to the reader's open mind and judgment. Your readers may be receptive to your point of view, but they expect you to present your argument in a logical, rational way that links evidence with your claims. Whether your argument supports one position or presents the issues on both sides even-handedly, you need to support what you say with evidence.

Purposes of ArgumentPrimarily, argument has two purposes: argument is used to change people's points of view or persuade them to accept new points of view; and argument is used to persuade people to a particular action or new behaviour.Since people don't always agree on what's right or reasonable, appropriately constructed argument helps us arrive at what's fair or true. It is used to settle disputes and discover truth. Teachers assign argumentative writing so students can learn to examine their own and other's ideas in a careful, methodical way. Argument teaches us how to evaluate conflicting claims and judge evidence and methods of investigation. Argument helps us learn to clarify our thoughts and articulate them honestly and accurately and to consider the ideas of others in a respectful and critical manner.

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Introduce your argument by setting the context. Your introduction should draw your reader into your subject and build common ground for your argument. Establish your context for writing the argument and the context for your topic. In your introduction, establish your tone and style. Clarify the issues; explain why the topic is important.

State Your Thesis or PropositionIn argument, the thesis is called a proposition. Your proposition should define your argument's scope by stating its situation or context and make clear what assertion you are going to debate. Although you may be presenting both sides of the argument to let your reader decide, you may "hook" your readers by stating your argument as a question. Because many questions lack a point of view, however, be sure a question you use as a hook leads to a proposition and that your proposition makes a claim that is open to debate. Your proposition should state something that your readers feel uncertain about and about which you find arguments for both sides of the issue.To help you get started at this stage, brainstorm and freewrite about what you already know about the topic.

Asking - and answering - the following questions can give you a start to your assignment: What do I already know about this topic? What do need to learn about this topic?

Why is this issue important to me? Why do I want to write about it?

Where can I find more information on this subject?

Am I concerned more with the causes of this issue, the effects of this issue, or both?

What other related issues need to be examined for me to address the topic thoroughly?

Your list of strengths and weaknesses can help you develop your argument. Prioritize the strengths and weaknesses for each position; decide on the top three to five strengths and weaknesses. Then, using a technique for developing content ideas, e.g., clustering, association, answering questions, begin to expand your understanding of each of the items on your list. Evaluate each item as to how you can support it - by reasoning, providing details, adding an example, by using evidence, quoting a reliable source. Again, prioritize your list of strengths and weaknesses, this time noting what supporting comments need more work, more evidence, or may be irrelevant to your argument. At this stage, it's better to overlook nothing and keep extensive notes for later reference.

As you develop your ideas, remember that you are presenting them in a fair-minded and rational way, counting on your reader's intelligence, experience, and insight to evaluate your argument and see your point of view.

Find out more at http://www.umuc.edu/ewc/onlineguide/chapter8/print8.shtml

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What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement is a statement in an essay that you plan to support, discuss or prove. A thesis statement should also stand out as an indicator of the clear direction in which you will take your essay. It should be strongly worded, impossible to miss, and in shorter essays (e.g. the five paragraph essay), it should show up in the introduction.

A thesis statement:

tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.

is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper. directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject

itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand selected aspects of the war or the novel.

may make a claim that others might dispute. This applies especially to argumentative or persuasive essays.

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is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument / subject matter to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

The thesis statement can be the first sentence of an essay, but that often feels like a simplistic, unexciting beginning. It more frequently appears at or near the end of the first paragraph. The first paragraph serves as kind of a funnel opening to the essay which draws and invites readers into the discussion, which is then focused by the thesis statement before the work of the essay actually begins.

Avoid announcing the thesis statement as if it were a thesis statement. In other words, avoid using phrases such as "The purpose of this essay is . . . . " or "In this essay, I will attempt to . . . ." Such phrases betray this paper to be the work of an amateur. If necessary, write the thesis statement that way the first time; it might help you determine, in fact, that this is your thesis statement. But when you rewrite your paper, eliminate the bald assertion that this is your thesis statement and write the statement itself without that annoying, unnecessary preface.

Most essays live or die by the strength of their thesis statements, and by their ability to keep focused on their thesis . If you haven’t clearly indicated your focus or your argument, it’s difficult to stay focused on the issue you plan to discuss, argue or explain. To create a good thesis statement, you can ask yourself a single question: What is the main focus of my essay? When you conclude your essay, you may want to briefly restate your thesis statement, and refer to how you’ve supported it. It should be clear by the end of your essay that you’ve stayed focused on your topic, and done all you could to write a clear composition.

When you write speeches, the thesis statement is just as valuable, perhaps even more so. Most speech teachers will mention the three key elements to a speech are to tell the audience what you’re going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you told them. A short essay should work much in the same manner. Thesis equals telling the audience. The body of your essay is the exploration of your thesis, and the conclusion restates what you told your audience. With these ideas in mind, you can focus on writing a terrific thesis for each work that will help you clearly organize and present your thoughts for both written and spoken material.

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Topic Sentences in paragraphs

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence ) encapsulates or organises an entire paragraph , and you should be careful to include one in most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph, in academic essays they most often appear at the beginning.

It might be helpful to think of a topic sentence as working in two directions simultaneously. It relates the paragraph to the essay'st hesis, and thereby acts as a signpost for the argument of the paper as a whole, but it also defines the scope of the paragraph itself. For example, consider the following topic sentence:

Many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

If this sentence controls the paragraph that follows, then all sentences in the paragraph must relate in some way to fast food, profit, and "forget sauce":

Made largely from edible oil products, this condiment is never listed on the menu.This sentence fits in with the topic sentence because it is a description of the composition of "forget sauce."

In addition, this well-kept industry secret is the reason why ingredients are never listed on the packaging of victuals sold by these restaurants.

The transitional phrase "In addition" relates the composition of "forget sauce" to secret fast-food industry practices."Forget sauce" has a chemical property which causes temporary amnesia in consumers.

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Now the paragraph moves on to the short-term effect on consumers:After spending too much money on barely edible food bereft of any nutritional value, most consumers swear they will never repeat such a disagreeable experience.

This sentence describes its longer-term effects:Within a short period, however, the chemical in "forget sauce" takes effect, and they can be depended upon to return and spend, older but no wiser.

Finally, I finish the paragraph by "proving" the claim contained in the topic sentence, that many fast-food chains make their profits from adding a special ingredient called "forget sauce" to their foods.

Analysing a Topic SentenceTopic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements . Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph. Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way. Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.Consider the above paragraph about topic sentences, beginning with the topic sentence itself:

Topic sentences often act like tiny thesis statements.This is my claim, or the point I will prove in the following paragraph. All the sentences that follow this topic sentence must relate to it in some way.

Like a thesis statement, a topic sentence makes a claim of some sort. As the thesis statement is the unifying force in the essay, so the topic sentence must be the unifying force in the paragraph.

These two sentences show how the reader can compare thesis statements and topic sentences: they both make a claim and they both provide a focus for the writing which follows.

Further, as is the case with the thesis statement, when the topic sentence makes a claim, the paragraph which follows must expand, describe, or prove it in some way.

Using the transitional word "further" to relate this sentence to those preceding it, I expand on my topic sentence by suggesting ways a topic sentence is related to the sentences that follow it.

Topic sentences make a point and give reasons or examples to support it.Finally, I wrap up the paragraph by stating exactly how topic sentences act rather like tiny thesis statements.

WRITING TIPS (13)

An overview of how to write effectively

Here are some of the principal points to consider in academic writing: Think of the major points or aspects that you want to cover. Ask yourself: ‘What do I want to say here?’ Keep

it simple. Clarity of expression is essential in good academic writing. Some people approach writing sequentially, usually in logical or historical sequence. Others approach writing holistically and use the brainstorming technique. This is up to you and your inclination. After brainstorming, it will help if you try to sort out your ideas and find links to group them together in some way.

Organise your topics into an acceptable structure but remember that it is a work in progress. One of the big traps is thinking that everything has to be perfect from the beginning. A result of this is that some people waste valuable time because they cannot write perfectly the first time. Remember too that “practice makes perfect”. We get better at writing the more we do it; patience and practice will help to improve your writing.

One way to begin is by tackling the easiest parts first, which helps you get in the practice of writing, and ensures that you put pen to paper.

Some Principles of Good Composition Some academics firmly believe that we should choose a design and stick to it, and it is indeed true that all

good prose follows some sort of pattern and structure. Think about what you want to say and put it in order. Organisation is critical in academic writing.

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Paragraphs are the effective units of composition and they provide writing with definition and measure. Usually, each paragraph deals with one topic and contains a topic sentence. Some topic sentences give a good preview of what is coming next, while others simply make an opening generalisation to begin the journey.

Express similar ideas in a similar form.

Further Tips on Good Writing All sentences should be clear and worded accurately. Try to use a combination of simple and complex

sentences.

Make sure you use paragraphs. It may sound obvious, but paragraphing is not just for looks. Paragraphs give structure and definition to ideas and enable you to develop your ideas in logical sequence. It quickly becomes obvious that structure and content are very closely linked. Try to develop one idea per paragraph; move to the next paragraph with the next idea.

Remember, if you say you are going to show or do something in your opening sentence you should deliver. Always check that you've done what you set out to do.

The length of a paragraph is usually between 50 and 200 words . Several medium-length paragraphs (or sentences) are often followed effectively by a shorter, snappier paragraph (or sentence).

Use a linking sentence to join paragraphs together . This helps maintain the flow of thought, and leads the reader naturally to the next point.

Remember that precision, clarity and economy of style are the critical foundations to good writing.

PrecisionPrecision is a key to good style. An extensive vocabulary and elegant style cannot overcome a lack of precision. Whenever you have to ask yourself, 'What do I mean by this?' you know you have not been precise. Precision rests on using the right words, so when you are writing try to ensure that the words you are using do actually convey what you want to say. One trap people can fall into is assuming that a Thesaurus solves all problems. Although a word may be given as a synonym in a Thesaurus, it may not carry the exact meaning that you want to convey in this particular context; and some terms also conflict with traditional usage.

ClarityClarity involves saying something in plain English. Avoid ambiguity, which can occur when words are used loosely or carelessly. Avoid circumlocution; get to the point simply and directly. And avoid mixed constructions; make sure that your grammatical construction is correct. It's also important to use correct punctuation―poorly applied punctuation can change the entire meaning of a sentence.

WRITING TIPS (14)ConclusionsIntroductions and conclusions can be the most difficult parts of papers to write. While the body is often easier to write, it needs a frame around it. An introduction and conclusion frame your thoughts and bridge your ideas for the reader.Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the "place" of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives. Such a conclusion will help them see why all your analysis and information should matter to them after they put the paper down.Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to summarize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject. It is also your opportunity to make a good final impression and to end on a positive note.Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

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Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader's life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

Strategies for writing an effective conclusionOne or more of the following strategies may help you write an effective conclusion.

Play the "So What" Game . If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's how it might go:

You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.Friend: So what?You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.Friend: Why should anybody care?You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.

You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your draft.

Return to the theme or themes in the introduction . This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding. You may also refer to the introductory paragraph by using key words or parallel concepts and images that you also used in the introduction.

Synthesize . Include a brief summary of the paper's main points, but don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.

Include a provocative insight or quotation from the research or reading you did for your paper.

Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study . This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.

Point to broader implications . For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies to avoid Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing."

Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.

Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.

Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.

Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.

Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.

Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

WRITING TIPS (15)

POINTS ABOUT PRONOUNS

Using the pronouns 'he' and 'she'

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It is better, when possible, to avoid `he', `his' or `him' when you intend to include both men and women.Instead of:“Solvent abuse is not a crime but if a police officer finds a young person under 17 sniffing solvents, he should take him to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.”you could repeat the short titles of both people:“Solvent abuse is not a crime but if a police officer finds a young person under 17 sniffing solvents, the officer should take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.”Using `he or she' and `him or her' is also feasible here - preferably, in just one of the cases:“Solvent abuse is not a crime but if a police officer finds a person under 17 sniffing solvents, he or she should take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.”Repeated use of `he or she' and similar terms becomes clumsy and obtrusive. The alternatives, `s/he' or `he/she', look ugly and cannot be spoken easily.If the text is addressed specifically to police officers, it would be feasible to use `you':“Solvent abuse is not a crime but if you find a person under 17 sniffing solvents, you should take him or her to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.”

Using the pluralA further alternative, and often the best, is to use the plural:“Solvent abuse is not a crime but if police officers find a person under 17 sniffing solvents, they should take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.”Using plurals as singularsIt is becoming more acceptable to flout the grammatical conventions set in the eighteenth century by male grammarians and to do what Shakespeare did when he wrote:“God send everyone their heart's desire”.In other words, to revive the old use of `they', `them' and `their' as singulars:“Give details of your partner's income. If they have been unemployed for more than 12 months ...”“You may find that an individual has levels of competence in several skills beyond those required in their current role. This will occur when someone has developed their skills and potential in readiness for other opportunities.Alternatively use the plural:“You may find that individuals have levels of competence in several skills beyond those required in their current roles. This will occur when they have developed their skills and potential in readiness for other opportunities.”

Using one, one’s, oneselfRepeated use of one is best avoided. Use you, we, they, people instead where possible. All of the following sentences would sound better avoiding the use of one..Duty is what one expects from others; it is not what one does oneself.One is morally responsible for what one does, not for what one does not do.If one takes what one does with one's life seriously, one cannot simply muddle along without thinking of one’s future.Wherever one goes, one finds heaps of foul-smelling rubbish lining the streets.

WRITING TIPS (16)

POINTS ABOUT HYPHENS

IntroductionHyphenation became increasingly popular during the 20th century because of the need to create new words to meet the requirements of new technologies, science, medicine, new disciplines and new socio-economic realities (electro-magnetic, anti-aircraft, computer-based, non-invasive, psycho-therapy, etc.). The modern tendency is to combine these words into one, as their use becomes more and more frequent, or to express them as two words. In other words, the use

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of the hyphen is constantly changing. Examples of words which used to be written with a hyphen but generally no longer are: to-night, to-day, to-morrow, on-line, e-mail, soft-ware, co-operation, life-time. On the other hand, some noun + noun compounds such as tree-trunk, computer-programmer, house-wine now tend to be written as separate words. A further complication is that different publishing houses follow different conventions with regard to hyphens, for example, Oxford tends to stick with tradition, retaining the hyphen whereas other publishers such as Collins and Longman tend to dispense with it where possible.There are some cases, however, where the hyphen is still compulsory or commonly used. These are listed below.

1. to avoid doubling a letter: re-elect, co-opt, pre-existing, pre-eminent, co-owner, re-express, animal-like

2. to avoid ambiguity when words have the same spelling: re-cover vs. recover, re-count vs. recount, re-sign vs. resign

3. to avoid ambiguity in phrases containing two adjectives: a light-green dress vs. a light, green dress a rusty-nail cutter vs. a rusty nail-cutter a first-class discussion vs. a first class discussion

4. in compound adjectives formed with adjective + noun + -ed fair-haired, right-handed, old-fashioned

5. often in compound adjectives formed with adverb/noun + past participle or + noun + -ed a well-known fact, a partially-sighted child / a hand-made sweater N.B. the hyphen is not normally used when these adjectives follow a verb this fact is well known, he is partially sighted, this sweater is hand made

6. in most three-, four- and five-word compounds (both adjectives and nouns) a well-to-do family, state-of-the-art technology, up-to-date, mother-in-law, forget-me-not, middle-of-the-road politician, made-to-measure, a heart-to-heart talk, mother-to-be

7. in many compound nouns and adjectives where one of the components is a preposition or adverbial particle the longed-for result, a prison break-out N.B. The more common these words become, especially if the components are monosyllables, the more likely they are to become one word: downpour, outbreak, setback

8. in compounds where the second element is written with a capital letter: un-Italian, anti-American, pre-Cambrian

9. in compounds where the prefix is not itself a word: mega-store, mini-skirt, post-war, mid-air, multi-storey, non-stop N.B. Most of these words can also be written as one word.

10. In many expressions containing numbers and fractions or relating to times and distances: fifty-five, fifty-fifth (but one hundred and fifty-five), three-quarters of the population, one-and-a-half miles, a 3-percent increase, a ten-mile walk, a five-star hotel, a four-door car, the twelve-o’clock train, a four-year-old (boy), in the mid-eighties, nineteen-twenties fashions, in the eighteen-thirties, Stanford, CA 94305-9045 USA

11. in many compounds containing –ing forms long-lasting, life-saving, well-meaning, free-thinking

12. in compounds where the first element is a letter: T-shirt, X-ray, V-sign, gamma-ray, beta-blocker, U-turn

13. in newly-coined or original compounds (used especially by journalists): fashion-fatigued, romantically-crumbling walls, genteelly-fading yellow ochre, saint-topped spires

More examples of words that are usually hyphenated: she-bear, accident-prone, lead-free, sugar-free, risk-free, duty-free, pre-paid, self-centred, self-made, self-employed, all-male, all-inclusive, London-based, double-glazing, ill-fated, great-grandmother, vice-president, side-effects, Franco-Prussian, socio-linguistics, user-friendly, neo-classical, low-calorie, low-cost, bird-watching, mountain-climbing, air-conditioning

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WRITING TIPS (17)

Developing Coherent Paragraphs Paragraph structures provide a map for your ideas, guiding readers through your reasoning. Keep this simple set of principles in mind while you write, and use it as a checklist when you're revising.

Use Topic Sentences State the central idea of each paragraph explicitly in a topic sentence. That's one way to show that you have thought through your material.In academic writing, the topic sentence nearly always works best at the beginning of a paragraph so that the reader knows what to expect. Don't count on your readers to guess what your paragraph is going to be about. NOTE: The first and last paragraphs of an essay are exceptions to this rule. In both instances, readers already know you're leading up to something, and you can save the topic sentence to make a strong paragraph ending.

Expand on the Topic Sentences The body of a paragraph develops and demonstrates what your topic sentences state. Here are some common patterns:• Explain more fully what you mean, giving definitions or indicating distinctions. • Offer details, examples, or relevant quotations (with your comments). • Follow through a logical sequence, showing the connections among your ideas in a recognizable pattern such as cause and effect or comparison and contrast.

Show Connections Be sure your intended logic is clear. Often the simplest words do the most to pull together ideas. • Pronouns such as it and they and this keep the focus on the ideas announced at the beginning of the paragraph—as long as they are clearly linked to specific nouns • Deliberate repetition of key words also helps. The paragraph below shows the interweaving of key nouns and pronouns to emphasize the point that Canadians share an interest in communication:

It's perhaps not surprising that Marshall McLuhan, the most influential communications expert of the twentieth century, was a Canadian. As a nation, we have been preoccupied with forging communication links among a sparse, widespread population. The old Canadian one-dollar bill, with its line of telephone poles receding to the distant horizon, illustrates this preoccupation. Year after year we strive to maintain a national radio and television broadcasting system in the face of foreign competition. We have been aggressive in entering the international high technology market with our telecommunications equipment.

Certain specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for pulling ideas together. But don't just sprinkle them into your sentences—use them to support your logic. Here are some examples: To signal a reinforcement of ideas: also / in other words / in addition / for example / moreover / more importantly To signal a change in ideas: but / on the other hand / however instead / yet / in contrast / although / nevertheless / in spite of [something] To signal a conclusion: thus / therefore / accordingly / in conclusion / finally / so [informal]

Choose Appropriate Paragraph Length A series of long paragraphs can make prose dense and unpleasant to read. Check any paragraph that is longer than a page to see if it would work better as two or more paragraphs. Break it at a logical place (e.g., where your focus shifts), and see whether you need to create new topic sentences to make the shift clearAlso look for paragraphs only two or three sentences long. They make academic writing seem disjointed or skimpy. Try combining a few short paragraphs into one, using a single topic sentence to hold them together.

Find out more: http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/images/stories/Documents/paragraphs.pdf

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WRITING TIPS (18)

USING THE COLON In its simplest form the colon announces what is to come afterwards; what follows the colon is an explanation or elaboration of what went before. So having introduced a topic in general terms, we can insert a colon and go on to explain that same topic in more specific terms.

Here are some examples: Africa is facing a terrifying problem: perpetual drought. [States what the problem is.] The situation is clear: if you have unprotected sex with a stranger, you risk catching AIDS. [States what the

clear situation is.] Shu-Ching was sure of one thing: she was not going to be a housewife all her life. [States the one thing she

was sure of.] Steve has one golden rule for dealing with money: "Neither a borrower nor a lender be." [States what the

golden rule is.] Several friends have provided me with inspiration: Lynne, Paula and, above all, Susan. [Identifies the friends in

question.] We found the campsite without any trouble: your directions were excellent. [Explains why we found it easily.] I suggest we create a new post: Departmental Administrative Assistant. [Identifies the post in question.]

The colon focuses the reader's attention on what is to follow, and as shown above it is used to introduce a list, answer an unwritten question, or explain an idea that somehow completes the introductory idea. However we use the colon in this way only after an independent clause, i.e. one that can stand alone as a sentence in its own right.

There are only four remaining Japanese motorcycle producers: Suzuki, Honda, Yamaha and Kawasaki. The group’s efforts at lobbying were ultimately useless: the proposal was soundly defeated. My mother gave me one good piece of advice: to avoid wasting time and energy worrying about things I cannot

change.

What follows the colon may or may not be a complete sentence (generally it is not); it may be a simple list, or even a single word. A colon may be used to surprise the reader:

There are only three things wrong with your essay, Andrew: the beginning, the middle and the end.

Colons are used to separate book and film subtitles from the main title: Star Wars III: the Empire Strikes Back Dr. Jones recommended we read the book Film Noir: From Berlin to Sin City

Colons are used to separate dramatic characters from the dialogue: Hamlet: Nymph, in thy orisons / Be all my sins remembered

Colons are also used to introduce quotations: As Shakespeare wrote: “Faithful friends are hard to find.”

You should not place a colon between a verb and its object or subject complement, or between a preposition and its object:

His father gave him: fifty dollars, a tent and a capacious rucksack. (Incorrect: colon between verb and objects) His father lent him fifty dollars, a tent and a capacious rucksack. (Correct) Her three goals are: to improve her public speaking skills, to increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her

selling technique. (Incorrect: colon between verb and subject complement) Her three goals are to improve her public speaking skills, to increase her self-confidence and to sharpen her

selling technique. (Correct) We travelled to: Bath, Stratford and York. (Incorrect: colon between preposition and objects) We travelled to Bath, Stratford and York. (Correct)

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GOLDEN RULE: USE COLONS SPARINGLY

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