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National Cohesion and Integration Commission
The Use of Coded Language and Stereotypes among KenyanEthnic Communities
Brief 1
BackgroundNational Cohesion and Integration Commission conducted a nationwide studyon the Use of Coded language and Stereotypes by various communities inKenya and how they are perceived by the users and target groups. This study
was prompted by the realization that individuals sometimes use stereotypesand coded language to invoke feelings of hate towards particular Kenyan ethniccommunities which, in turn, raises the possibility of recurrence of ethnicconflicts.A stereotype is defined in this study as an entrenched generalised belief
amongst a people about the typical behaviours, attributes, attitudes, abilities
and weaknesses of other people such as members of other ethnic communities.Coded language is defined as the use of language in a manner intended toconceal the normal meanings of expressions (words, phrases, sentences etc.).Such stereotypes and coded language are usually known to the users (in thiscase the ethnic communities that use them) while the target communities maynot be aware about them or their meanings
Objectives Identify the common ethnic stereotypes and coded language used by
Kenyan communities. Establish how the stereotypes and coded language are perceived by the
user communities. Establish how the stereotypes and coded language are perceived by the
target communities. Establish the common motivations for the use of the stereotypes and
coded language.
Justification for the Study
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The PEV of 2007/2008 in Kenya was partly blamed on incitements some based on stereotypes & use of coded language.
There is continued use of ST & CL to invoke hate and tension amongKenyan ethnic communities.
There is lack of full awareness about ST & CL among Kenyans and howthey are perceived by users and target communities.
Social Cohesion and integration among Kenyan communities cannot besuccessfully achieved without awareness about ST & CL.
There is not much empirical data/knowledge on the use of (upon whichpolicy and practice may be anchored)
Significance Timely as part of the process of reducing ethnic polarisation cause by the
use of stereotypes and coded language especially in the electioneering
year. Provide an empirical basis upon which relevant agencies may intervene
and anchor policy. In order to facilitate and promote good relations, harmony and peaceful
coexistence between persons of different ethnic and racial backgroundsin Kenya, the Commission needs to identify how Kenyan ethniccommunities perceive one another and how these perceptions areexpressed.
The overall purpose of such a study (especially as conceived by the NCIC)is to raise awareness about these stereotypes and coded language andinterrogate their implications on national cohesion and integration inKenya.
Stimulate discourse on CL and ST.Methodology
Research designQualitative survey Research site and sampling: purposive sampling - 39 counties spread all
over Kenya, an average of 30 participants in every county = 1233
participantsData generation:
Interviews, FGDs, Document analysis, open ended questionnaires,informal conversations (ethnographic interviews)Data analysed qualitatively
Data transcribed, coded (open, axial and selective) County used as basic unit of analysis Presented under various research questions stereotypes, coded
language, perceptions by users, and perceptions by target community.
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Brief 2Key Findings from the Study
i. Findings confirm that stereotypes and coded language have a more orless symbiotic relationship. Stereotypes especially negative ones about
other ethnic communities - are normally expressed in coded languagewhile some coded expressions reflect the stereotypes held by innercommunities about outer community.
ii. In all Kenyan ethnic communities, there are entrenched beliefs amongstthe people about the behaviour, attributes, attitudes, abilities andweaknesses of members of other ethnic communities.
iii. The study revealed that every linguistic community in Kenya hasstereotypes / use coded expressions about other Kenyan Communities.
Some of these are specific to particular communities while others aregeneral referring to all other Kenyan communities. Similarly,practically all ethnic communities studied have stereotypes and/or codedexpressions used to refer to them by other communities in Kenya.
iv. Almost every Kenyan ethnic community has bothpositiveand negativestereotypes about them (by other communities) and about other Kenyancommunities. The positive stereotypes reflect such beliefs as courage,generosity, business acumen, loyalty to deals, success in educationand recognition of some unique characteristics about the target
communities.
v. The negative stereotypes, on the other hand show contempt, insultandsometimes outright hateabout the target communities.
vi. Most of the stereotypes and even coded terms are historical and deep-rooted and have been passed on from generation to generation to theextent that it was not possible to identify exactly when the communitystarted holding/using them e.g. Emoit loa akwara, used by the Turkana
in reference to the Pokot, which means enemy with a spear.
vii. However, there are more recent stereotypes and coded expressionsassociated with significant historical events, especially of a politicalnature. For example some stereotypes and coded words are associatedwith the 2007/2008 post-election violence in Kenya or politicalrelationships and/or affiliations between different communities. For
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example, one Kenyan community is referred to by a few others as kabilachoma due to their perceived roles (burning of houses) during the post-
election violence.
viii.
The study reveals that several stereotypes and coded expressions reflectthe cultures of the target communities. For example, the communitiesthat practice male circumcision and those that do not, attractstereotypes and coded terms that reflect such identities. Manycommunities identify the Luo with expressions that identify them as non-circumcising.
ix. It is also common to find stereotypes and coded terms associated withthe economic activities of the communities referred to such as; farming,fishing, pastoralism or business people. For example, most communitiesstudied identify people from the Kikuyu community as being business
men and women while some identify the Maasai as pastoralists.
x. Still some stereotypes capture peaceful and close social relationshipsbetween communities such as, extent of intermarriage and /or whether
the referent communities produce good wives or not. A relevantexample is the reference to the Luhya by the Luo as kayuochwa,translated literally as our in-laws, which is interpreted to mean thosefrom whom the user community have married and/or those who havemarried from the user community.
xi. The opposite of the kind of stereotype and coded expressions highlightedabove are those stereotypes and coded expressions that are intended to
refer to communities that are regarded as enemies in one way or theother or those communities whose members should never be trusted. Forexample, these kinds of stereotypes and coded expressions are held/usedby the Turkana and Pokot with regard to one another and a number ofother communities.
xii. The study also shows that the stereotypes and coded expressions arepredominantly about neighbouring communities. However, some of themrefer to communities that live quite far apart. For example, the Kambahave stereotypes about the Luhya, while the Kisii have stereotypes andcoded expressions about the Meru.
xiii. Furthermore, the study reveals that in the urban areas where there aredifferent Kenyan communities living and/or working together the
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stereotypes held and coded expressions used reflect those of thecounties of origin. For example, Kenyans who speakLuo, Kisii, Kamba
or Bukusu languages generally hold stereotypes and used codedexpressions similar to those held in the counties predominantly
inhabited by these people. This is similar in counties that are
cosmopolitan in nature (where many different ethnic communities havesettled) such as Trans Nzoia, Uasin Gishu and Nakuru.
xiv. The study further reveals that in many cases, the stereotypes held bymany Kenyan communities and the coded expressions used are known
to or understood by many people among the target communities. This iscommon among neighbouring ethnic communities, in urban areas, in
cosmopolitan counties or amongst people who have lived extensivelyamongst other ethnic communities.
xv. The study revealed that the stereotypes in particular have beenperpetuated by the local media (especially Radio and Television) throughthe many entertainment programmes where presenters or actors imitatethe speeches or act out the perceived attitudes, behaviours and othercharacteristics associated with particular ethnic communities in Kenya.
xvi. Generally, it has emerged from this study that stereotypes and codedexpressions per se (even when they are negative) would not necessarilycause hate or cause people from particular ethnic communities to beviolent against the other. Indeed, it emerged that ethnic hate and/orviolence is largely associated with malicious individuals who would want
to emphasise the negative stereotypes and possibly use codedexpressions to incite particular ethnic communities against others for
very selfish reasons, usually couched as community concerns orinterests. Indeed it featured from the data that the use of stereotypesand coded expressions in this manner can be traced to specificcontexts associated with crime, competition for resources orperhaps more commonly political contests.
xvii. Some of the stereotypes have been passed on from generation togenerationand have become an integral part of the identity of the target
Kenyan communities in the view of the inner communities.
xviii. It also emerged that sometimes language is coded in such a manner thateven members of the same linguistic community who do not sharespecific codes would not understand the underlying meanings and
intentions.
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xix. It was confirmed that the use of coded language and stereotypes werewidespread during the 2007 electioneering period in Kenya and partly
contributing to heightening of inter-ethnic tensions which culminated ininter-ethnic violence.
xx. Some of the perceptions towards these stereotypes and coded languagehave the potential to advance hate, which could possibly precipitateviolence in Kenya. Politicians tend to use stereotypes and coded languageduring political campaigns to rally support of members of innercommunities (and sometimes other communities) against target
communities.
xxi. The implication here is that either very few Kenyans truly interact freelyenough to enable them correct the stereotypes held or the possibilitythat these interactions are primarily on the surface - and have very
minimal effects. Perhaps a more analytical way of putting it is that yes,Kenyans interact physically and socially in the urban areas andcosmopolitan counties but, in terms of general deep emotionalengagement, they still retreat or feel safer to their ethnic boundaries. Theimport of this is that, it should not be assumed that Kenyans in thecosmopolitan counties and/or urban areas are free from the stereotypes
they would also benefit from the educational interventions.
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Brief 3Positive stereotypes
i. From the findings stated above, it is clear that, generally, the positivestereotypes and coded expressions promote harmoniousrelationships/co-existence between the users and the target
communities, for example the Luos and the Luhyas who regard eachother as in-laws. Some of them invoke a sense of pride e.g. when the
Kikuyus are recognised as astute business people and the Kambas arecredited as great craftsmen or the Kalenjins are praised as giftedathletes. There are many more positive stereotypes and codedexpressions as reported in the findings and generally the study showsthat they elicit equally positive reactions. This is because the positive
stereotypes reflect such beliefs as courage, generosity, businessacumen, loyalty to deals, support of friendly communities successin education and recognition of some unique characteristics aboutthe target communities.
Phrase User Community Targetcommunity
Meaning
Wanabiashara CoastalCommunities
Kikuyu Businessmen
Warriahs Somalis and Non-Somalis
Somalis Somali Male
Ghubr Somalis and Non-Somalis
A Somali Girl A Daughter
Walalo Non- Somalis Somalis A slang term for
Warriah as describedabove
Aviasala Kamba Kikuyu Entrepreneurs
Tiga kuviuka tamuruthia
Embu Anyone whowalks in a hurry
Doing things fast/in ahurry like acircumciser
Wararu Meru andTharaka
Ladies fromSomali andBorana
communities
Ladies
Mbuna Kuura Meru and
Tharaka
Any person who
goes across riverkuuru
Across river kuuru
IIoobua Maasai Luo This is a referencename for the Luocommunity becausethey are known toremove their teeth as a
way of cultural rite of
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passage
Kap kulusia Kalenjin Luhyas From the mountain
Kap mama Kalenjin Abagusii In- Laws
Chitab Kipsongik Kalenjin Abagusii People of Millet
Chitab Ndisiot Kalenjin Abagusii People of the Banana
Pik ap Ngokyet Kalenjin Luhyas People of chickenChitab Ainet Kalenjin Luos People of the lake
Chitab Kongoek Kalenjin Luhyas People of Termites
Mogonik Kalenjin Kisii People of the banana
Toot Kalenjin Non-Kalenjin Visitor
Mumera Kikuyu Kikuyu Gentleman
Kamau Luhya Kikuyu Name from kikuyutribe
Bababere Luhya Kalenjin Milk lover
Vechai Luhya Maragoli Love tea
Panandi Luhya Kalenjin The Nandi community
Va mabwoni Luhya Kikuyu The people of potato
Vu khumatsi Luhya Luos Water
Chebo araraita Kalenjin Luo Of the lake side
Ngetik Kalenjin Luo Boys
Rubwa Kikuyu Kipsigis Highlands
Kamama Kalenjins Kikuyu Uncle
Basuta Muka Bukusu Kalenjins The ones that carrythe milk guard
Baruka Njoya Bukusu Other Luhyacommunities that
neighbour theBukusu
The ones that crossedRiver Nzoia
Bamasaba Bukusu Abagishu ofUganda andKenya
The people from theshores of Mt. Elgon
Bekhunyanja Bukusu Luos From the lakeside
Basatumka Bukusu Kalenjins Kalenjins are cattlekeepers and keep milkin guards. Belittling
when they sayKhasutamka
Onjelo Luo Kalenjin An athleteJarabuon Luo Kikuyu From the land of sweet
potatoes
Kaoche/koyuoro Luo Luhya In-laws
Abanyikwe Kuria Kalenjin Athlete
Mwa Mijikenda Kamba Brother
Murume Meru Gentleman
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Akavi Kamba Maasai Wood artists
Ero Kamba Maasai Maasai greetings
Mumbele Kamba Mbeere Mbeere tribe
Uju ni muruguru Tharaka, Nithiand Meru
Those living nearthe mountain
This one is from theuphill
Pik ap Nyanja Kalenjin Luos People from the lakeKap Chelit Kalenjin Kamba Sharpening of teeth
Lemeek Kalenjin, (Keiyo) Luhya/Luo Tribe Luhya/Luo People
Cheptukenyot Kalenjin (Keiyo-Marakwet)
Tugen A Tugen lady
Kokoiyot Kalenjin (Keiyo-Marakwet)
Kikuyu A Kikuyu
Sambur Turkana Samburu Samburu tribe
Basuta Muka Bukusu Kalenjin Guard carriers
Basomeki Bukusu Nandi Nomads
Bikaap beko Bukusu Luo People from the lake
Bandu bengaaki Bukusu Sabaot People from the hills
Jagot Luo Kalenjins People who live in themountains
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Brief 4
The negative stereotypes,i. The negative stereotypes show contempt, insultand sometimes outright
hate about the target communities. Most of them stereotypes and
even coded terms are historical and deep-rooted in the sense thatthey have been passed on from generation to generation to the extentthat it was not possible to identify exactly when the community
started holding/using them.ii. In relevance to the stereotypes and coded expressions that could be
considered negative,four possible scenarios are identifiable from thefindings:1. Identificationof a community with a bad practice,2. expression of contempt due to a trait considered immoral or
childish,3. Instilling of a sense of suspicion and /or mistrust about the
target community4. Expression of deepseated hate of the target community.
Negative and emotive stereotypes
Although the study revealed that the use of coded language andstereotypes can stir ethnic animosity depends a lot on the context, therespondents identified some stereotypes and coded language seemed toevoke emotive and negative feelings among the target communities andshould be discouraged all the times. Data relevant to this issue wasgenerated from elders, opinion leaders, professionals, businessmen and
even politicians. The general finding is that, granted, some of thestereotypes and coded expressions amounted to insult; show of contempt
and sometimes even hate. The participants acknowledged that naturallysome of these would cause annoyance, invoke ill feelings, discouragecombined ventures such as in business or entrench mistrust andcould discourage other forms of social interactions. Some of theseinclude:
1.ThiefWhile the word thief a normal term in day today life, it emerged from the
study that many communities have terms that connote negative emotivefeelings where referring to the members of the Kikuyu community. This termtends to stir ethnic animosity anytime it is used to refer to members of the
Kikuyu community.
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Phrase/Word inLocal Language
User Community TargetCommunity
Meaning.
Tugo Somali Kikuyu These are
words/phasesused to refer tothe members ofthe Kikuyucommunity and
are always usedin a negativeintensions.
Sokomokabul Somali Kikuyu Thief
Imeet Maasai Kikuyu Thief
Chorik Kalenjin Kikuyu They are always
seen as thosewho love moneyand alwaysready to steal oruse any meansto obtain it.
Jokuoye Luo Kikuyu Thieves,
Osuuji Maasai Kikuyu Someone whocannot betrusted
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2.UncircumcisedThis term has been used repeatedly to refer to the members of the Luo ethniccommunity who culturally did not use circumcision to initiate the youth intoadulthood. The term is therefore used negatively by various communities to
portray all the members of the Luo community as children, premature, notfully developed etc. It is also used to refer to some other communities such asthe Turkana.
Phrase/Word inLocal Language
User Community TargetCommunity
Meaning.
Mwiji Embu Luo An uncircumcisedman often
demeaning
Jathi Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman
Kabisi Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman
Serikal Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman
Kavirondo Embu Luo Uncircumcisedman
Lememurata Samburu Turkana Used to refer to theTurkana since
some they areuncircumcised.
Kihii Kikuyu Luo Uncircumcisedman
Ngetik Kalenjin Luo Uncircumcisedman
Abachabu/abaisia
/abagima
Kisii Luo Uncircumcised
man
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3. Animals, Smelly, Foolish, Dogs, Bushmen, MonkeyThe following table shows various stereotypes on coded language used byvarious communities to refer to others which the target community identify asoffensive and cause tension.
Phrase/Word inLocal Language
User Community TargetCommunity
Meaning.
Macengi Akamba Mbeere Dangerous smallanimal that destroys
crops.
Nyamu cia ruguru Kikuyu People from
upcountry
Animals from
upcountryAjayee Kamba Maasai Smelly
Longuulkitkit Maasai Kamba Smelly armpits
Longuu Samburu Turkana Smelly and unclean
people.
Uriti ja mutiganiawa wa kunati
Tharaka People fromTigania
Foolish like Tiganiafrom Kunati
Rubwa Kikuyu Kalenjin People who eat dogs
Pik ap kongoek Kalenjin Luhya People who eattermites
Soqi Samburu Pokot The inhuman,
beasts and cattlerustlers
Emoit Turkana Pokot A cattle thief
Bosyanju Luhya Sabaot Arsonist.
Avalivavandu/Avaseeve.
Luhya Kikuyu/Embu/Meru
The Kikuyu will eatpeople the way a
hyena does. Thismeans that they cancon someone until
the person isfinancially or
materially drained.
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Brief 5Main Causes/MotivationsMost participants attributed the use of stereotypes and coded expressions to;
i. Ignoranceabout the referent communities. Some stereotypes and codedexpressions seem to be associated also with lack of reasonable
awareness about other ethnic communities in terms of culturalorientations, economic activities and religious practices, among otherissues. Apparently, it has emerged that there is the presumption thatthe cultures of the inner communities and other socio economicissues raised above, are more superior to that of the outercommunities. There are also stereotypes and coded expressions thatseem to capture the sheer suspicion of one ethnic community by
another due to lack of adequate information or interaction.
ii. Lack of reasonably long interactions,
iii.Unfair generalisation of isolated incidents.
iv.Most of these participants attributed the use of stereotypes and codedexpressions to propagate hate and to incite people to violent conflict
or conflict of various forms by a section of ill-motivatedpoliticians orother influential members of the communities with personal motivessuch as to win support against political opponents, instil fear in somesections (e.g. to stop them from supporting someone) or to rallysupport when threatened with certain consequences e.g. by being
sacked from positions held in the government.
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Brief 6
Recommendations The study illustrates that there are plenty of good perceptions about
Kenyan ethnic communities other than bad ones. The task for allKenyans is to promote equal opportunities for Kenyans so as to create
the chance to bring out the different strengths for recognition by others.Perhaps in this way, the seemingly entrenched notion (through) the
stereotypes that some ethnic communities are more endowed, gifted,favoured, suited or preferable in particular professions, occupations,activities or situations would be demystified. Thus, highlight the positive
stereotypes that unite us than focus on the negative ones that divide us.
There is need to strongly discourage the use of negative emotivestereotypes and coded language that have the intrinsic potential of
causing tension and conflict between different ethnic groups.
There is need to embark on massive education of Kenyan ethniccommunities about others. This kind of education would target thestereotypes and coded expressions that particularly seem to stem fromthe lack of appreciation of different social-cultural- economic orientationsof Kenyan ethnic communities. Such educational endeavours couldtarget particularly young people, preferably those of the primary school
going age who face the immediate danger of imbibing the stereotypesand coded expressions before they are able to fully comprehend their
meanings.
The education could build on the findings from various groups that theyare aware of these stereotypes but, in normal circumstances, would notbother about the stereotypes or stop them from relating with members ofother ethnic communities as they had done before. For example,practically all the Kikuyu participants interviewed said they wouldcontinue running their businesses even amongst some communities that
they know stereotypically brand some Kikuyu as thieves; many Kisii andKamba participants declared they would continue to interact freely evenwith people from other ethnic communities that they were aware branded
them as witches; The Luo participants reiterated that they would notnormally feel inferior even when working amongst ethnic communitiesthat branded them as bigchildren, because they come from a communitythat traditionally does not circumcise males, and the list goes on,
practically with regard to all Kenyan communities in the study.
The civic education alongside the more formalised educationalprogrammes would probably enhance the achievement. It should be
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