1
Co-operativeLeadershipandHigherEducation:fourcasestudies
Lincoln,4thMay2017
2
Introduction
Theaimofthisresearchistoassessthepossibilityofestablishingco-operativeleadershipasaviable
organisationalformofgovernanceandmanagementforHigherEducation,withtheintentionto
createaco-operativeuniversity.Co-operativeleadershipisalreadywellestablishedinbusiness
enterprisesintheUKandaroundtheworld(Ridley-DuffandBull2015),andhasrecentlybeen
adoptedastheorganisingprinciplebyover800schoolsintheUnitedKingdom(Wilson2014).The
co-operativemovementisaglobalphenomenonwithonebillionmembers,supportedbynational
andinternationalorganisationsworkingtoestablishco-operativeenterprisesandthepromotionof
co-operativeeducation.
HighereducationintheUKischaracterisedbyamodeofgovernancebasedonVice-
ChancellorsoperatingasChiefExecutivessupportedbySeniorManagementTeams(Shattock
2006). RecentresearchfromtheLeadershipFoundationforHigherEducationonNeo-collegialityin
themanagerialuniversity(Bacon2014)showsthathierarchicalmodelsofgovernancealienateand
de-motivatestaff,failingtotakeadvantageofresearch-basedproblemsolvingskillsofstaff
operatingatalllevels,andnotaccountingfortheadvantagestoorganisationswhenself-managed
professionalsinteractwithpeersonmattersofcommonpurpose,particularlyinknowledge-based
industries.
Theco-operativeleadershipmodelforhighereducationsupportstheambitionformore
activeengagementindecision-makingtofacilitatethebestuseofacademics’professional
capacities,butframedaroundamoreradicalmodelforleadership,governanceandmanagement.
Membersoftheco-operativeuniversitywouldnotonlybeinvolveddirectlyindecision-makingand
peer-basedprocessesthatmakebestuseoftheircollectiveskills,buthaveequalvotingrightsas
wellascollectiveownershipoftheassetsandliabilitiesoftheco-operative(Cook2013).Thismore
radicalmodelbuildsonworkdonerecentlyaspartofaprojectfundedbytheIndependentSocial
ResearchFoundation(ISRF)toestablishsomegeneralparametersaroundwhichaframeworkforco-
operativehighereducationcouldbeestablished(NearyandWinn2017aand2017b).Thesegeneral
3
parametersaregroundedinasetofcatalyticprincipleswhich,weargue,arecentraltothe
developmentofaco-operativeuniversity.Thesecatalyticprinciplesare:knowledge,democracy,
bureaucracy,livelihoodandsolidarity.Knowledgereferstotheproductionofknowledgeand
meaningbytheorganisationasawhole;Democracyisconcernedwiththelevelsofinfluenceon
decisionmaking;Bureaucracymeansnotonlythetypeofadministrationbutasetofethicaland
moralprinciplesonwhichadministrationisbased;Livelihoodlooksbeyondwagestoincludeworking
practicesthatsupportthecapacitytoleadagoodlife,andSolidarityinvolvessharingacommitment
toacommonpurposeinsideandoutsideoftheinstitution.
Oneofthekeyissuesemergingfromthisresearchthatwewantedtoexplorefurtheristhe
significanceofco-operativeleadership-afocusofthispaper,andtheextenttowhichamodelofco-
operativeleadershipforhighereducationcanbesubstantiatedbythesecatalyticprinciples.
Thepaperdrawsoutlessonslearnedfromtheresearcharguingthatthetypeofco-operative
provisiondependsonlocalhistoryandcircumstances,emphasisingthatnewmodelsarenotonlythe
resultofrationalcalculationbutproducedbyworkingwithinandthroughdynamicandcontradictory
tensionsasawayofdevelopingalternativeformsofhighereducation.Thepaperdrawsona
theoreticalframeworkbasedoncriticalpoliticaleconomytosubstantiatethisassertion,focussingon
theconflictbetweenlabourandcapital.Whiletheresearchisframedwithinasetoftheoretical
assumptionsaswellasanalyticandstructuraldevices,theresearchhasrevealedwhatwealready
knew:institutionsarebuiltbypeoplebasedonloveandtrust,asenseofprideandcommitmentto
eachother,aswellasmanagingpersonaltensionsandantagonisms,morelikeafamilyorkinship
grouporcommunethanabusinesscorporation.
ResearchMethodology
Theresearchwascarriedoutborrowingfromtenetsestablishedbyanextendedcasestudymethod
(Burawoy1998).Thismethod“deploysparticipantobservationtolocateeverydaylifeinits
extralocalandhistoricalcontext.”(ibid,4)Itisareflexivemethodthataimsto“extractthegeneral
4
fromtheunique,tomovefromthe‘micro’tothe‘macro’,andtoconnectthepresenttothepastin
anticipationofthefuture,allbybuildingonpre-existingtheory.”(ibid,5)Thepre-existingtheoryis
groundedinthe“powerofabstraction”(Marx1976,90),withaspecificfocusontheconceptof
labourincapitalism,asaneglectedcategoryforcriticalanalysis(DinersteinandNeary2002).
Recoveringthelanguageofpoliticaleconomy,andparticularlythecategoriesoflabourandcapital,
canworkasastartingpointforthedevelopmentofrealalternativestocapitalism,nottodevelopa
politicaleconomyfromthestandpointofcapital,butascritiqueoflabourincapitalism(Postone
1993).
ThisapproachisderivedfromanapproachtoMarxismknownasvalue-formtheoryinwhat
amountstoareappraisalofMarx’ssocialtheoryand‘anewreadingofMarx’(Postone1993;
Bonefeld2014).Value-formtheorypresentstherelationshipbetweenlabourandcapitalasa
dynamiccontradictionoutofwhichformsofsociallifeincapitalemerge,includingstrugglesagainst
thedestructivenatureofthecontradiction.Thistheoreticalframeworksuggeststhatco-operatives,
withtheirfocusonthecommonownershipanddemocraticcontroloftheirresources,areareal
alternativetocapitalismtotheextentthattheyseektoextendthepurposeoftheiractivitiesbeyond
theproductionofcapitalistvaluetoincludenewformsofsocialvaluebasedonthevitalityof
humansinthenaturalworld.Findingsfromthecase-studiesdemonstratetheextenttowhichthe
languageoflabourandcapitalaremeaningfulconceptsinthelifeofco-operativeenterprisesand
waysinwhichthedynamiccontradictionisrecognisedasacreativeprocessinthestruggleagainst
thenegativeconsequencesofcapitalistproduction(Winn2015).
AsignificantoutcomeofthecurrentresearchwillbetodevelopadiagnostictoolforHigher
EducationInstitutions(HEIs)torevealtheextentofco-operativeprovisionwithinanHEIandassess
ifaco-operativeleadershipmodelisviablewithinaninstitutionaswellashowitmightbefurther
developed.Thetoolwillbebasedaroundthesetofcatalyticprinciplesestablishedfromprevious
researchthatdistinguishco-operativeenterprises:Knowledge,democracy,bureaucracy,livelihood,
andsolidarity,andthecapacityforfurtherdevelopmentwillbediscussedasasetofpractical,
5
pragmaticandpoliticalpossibilities.Thisapproachisclearlycountertothecurrentmanagement
strategiesbasedonperformanceandmetrics(Amsler2012;AmslerandBolsmann2012).
Thefourcase-studysitesfortheresearchwere:Lipson,aco-operativeacademyschoolin
England,fundedbytheDepartmentforEducation;Unicorn,aworkerco-operativegroceryin
Manchester,England;JohnLewis,anemployeeownedretailstoreinthenorthofEngland,partof
theJohnLewisPartnershipandMondragonUniversity,amemberoftheMondragonCo-operative
CorporationinSpain.Theresearchersspentbetweenfour-fivedaysateachsitedoingparticipant
observation,semi-structuredinterviews,participatoryworkshopsandgroupconversations,taking
fieldnotesandphotographs,recordinginterviews,aswellasdocumentaryanalysis.
Leadership:collegiateanddemocratic
Itisimportanttounderstandthenatureofuniversitymanagementandgovernancestructureswhen
consideringtheradicaltransformationofhighereducation.Theliteratureindicatesthatanumberof
incrementalpolicychangeshaveledtotheexistingcorporateformofuniversitygovernance,
including:theJarrattreview(1985),whichestablishedtheViceChancellorasChiefExecutive;the
Dearingreview(1997),whichreducedthenumberofmembersonthegoverningbody;andthe
Lambertreview(2003),whichstatedthatparticipatorygovernancebyacommunityofscholarswas
not‘fitformoderntimes’,andrecommendedavoluntarycodeofgovernancefortheHEsector
(Shattock2006;2008;2013).Eachofthesereviewsandsubsequentregulatorychangeshasbeen
conductedinresponsetothechanginghistoricalcontextofthecorporateformingeneral.Thus,a
historyofthedevelopmentofuniversitygovernanceandmanagementmustbeseeninthewider
contextofchangingcorporateformsandtheunderlyingdynamicofpolitical,economicandsocial
processes.Theseunderlyingdynamicshavebeenamovetowardsaneo-liberalmodelbasedonthe
financialisationoftheuniversitysector(McGettigan2013),andcriticismandresistancetothese
movesbysomeacademicsandstudents(Molesworthetal2011;BrownandCarasso2013;Hall
2015;Collini2017;BaileyandFreedman2011)
6
FramingCo-operativeLeadership
Inthisresearch,wehaveframedourapproachtoleadershipthroughworkthatseekstoestablish
leadershipanddecisionmakingwithinveryclearparameters:workplacedemocratisation(Bernstein
2012),neo-collegiateleadership(Bacon2014)anddemocraticleadership(HallandWinn2017).
Threedimensionsofparticipation
Bernsteindiscussesleadershipthroughananalysisoftheinternaldynamicsofworkplace
democratisationbasedonanumberofcasesstudiesofprivatefirmsthatoperatewithvaryinglevels
ofdemocracyintheirgovernanceandmanagement.Acrosstherangeofhiscasestudies,he
identifiedthree“dimensionsofparticipation”(2012,47):
1. Thedegreeofcontrolemployeesenjoyoverasingledecision
2. Theissuesoverwhichthatcontrolisexercised,and
3. Theorganisationallevelatwhichitisexercised.
Focusingoncontrol,anorganisationwithminimaldemocracyintheworkplacewilloperateonthe
basisof‘consultation’,throughtechniquessuchasan‘impersonalsuggestionboxscheme’or
workersgiven‘priornotice’ofmanagement’sdecisionssothattheycanvoicetheirviewsand
perhapsstimulatereconsideration.Incontrast,anorganisationwithgreaterorevenfullworkplace
democracywillfeatureaworkers’councilthatissuperiortothemanagementbody,jointpoweror
partnershipwithmanagers,electedmanagementrolesandthepowerforemployeestoremove
peoplefrompositionsofmanagement.Abasicthresholdofdemocraticparticipationisthatworkers
areableto‘initiatecriticismsandsuggestions’anddiscussthemface-to-facewithmanagers.
Bernsteincallsthis‘co-operationorco-influence’.
Therangeofissuesthatemployeesmayhavedemocraticcontroloverstartfromtheir
physicalworkingconditionsandpersonalsafety,throughtosettingsalaries,promotingexecutives,
and(inthecontextofaprivatefirm)divisionoftheprofits.Bernsteingroupstheissuesintocontrol
7
overtheworker’sownwork,controlovertheorganisation’smeans,andcontroloverthe
organisation’sgoals.
Finally,thedomainorlevelofparticipationreferstonotonlythelevelatwhichemployees
mighthaverepresentation(e.g.ontheBoardofGovernors),butalsotheextenttowhichtheycan
exerciserealpoweratthatlevel.Employeerepresentationattheupperlevelsofanorganisationis
moreeffective(i.e.theywieldmoredemocraticpower),whenallotherlevelsoftheorganisationare
alsodemocratised(i.e.‘gaps’are‘filledin’withmethodsofdirectandrepresentativedemocracy),so
thattheupperlevelisbroughtintomorecontactwiththerealissuesandconcernsofworkersinthe
organisation.Achievingdemocracyatalllevelsoftheorganisationmeansthatemployeesareableto
“exertinfluenceattheverypointswheretheyhavemostexpertise”(2012,54).
Thequalitiesofleadershipindemocraticorganisationsare,accordingtoBernstein,basedona
consciousrecognitionofthepowerthatthepersoninapositionofinfluenceholdsandhowthey
choosetousethatpower,basedonasetofvalues,personalgoalsandbeliefs.Thetraitsthat
Bernsteinidentifies(2012,98)asfosteringorfacilitatingdemocratisationare:
• Apolicyofeducatingthemanagedi.e.openaccesstoinformation(asopposedtosecrecy)
• Confidenceinothers–hence:willingnesstolistenandtodelegateresponsibility(ratherthan
anattitudeofmistrustandintensesupervision)
• Governingbymerit,explanation,andconsentofgoverned(ratherthangoverningfroma
formalpositionofpower)
• Awarenessofone’sownfallibility;admitserrorstomanaged(ratherthanthebeliefthatthe
leadermustsetanexampletoothersbyappearinginfallibleandhidingtheirmistakes)
• Reciprocity(ratherthanpaternalism);and
• Egalitarianvalues(asopposedtoadesiretomaintainexclusiveprerogatives).
Bernsteinnotesthatwell-intentionedmanagersmightselectoneortwoofthesetraitsofleadership,
butfindtheyconflictwithtraditionalvaluesofmanagerialprivilege.Whatisneeded,argues
8
Bernstein,isrecognitionthateffectivedemocracyrequiresa“systemic”approachandthatthis
involvesachangeinthe“wholeconsciousness”ofleadersinpositionsofpower.
Collegiality
Bacondiscussesleadershipinhighereducationusingtheconceptof‘neo-collegiality’understoodas
‘astructuredformofcollaborativedecision-making.’Hearguesthat‘thevoiceofuniversities’
academicandprofessionalstaffoughttobeheardwithfargreaterdecision-makinganddecision-
influencingforcethaniscurrentlythecase’andconsequentlyfocuseson‘theformalizedstructuring
ofacollegialdecision-makingprocess’.(2014,3)Thisisdistinctfromadefinitionofcollegialityasa
formofbehavioursince,‘itistooeasyotherwiseforinstitutionsandindividualstocommittoorto
urgecollegialbehaviourwithoutanythingactuallychangingintermsofdecision-making.’Thefocus
therefore,isonestablishingstructuresandprocessesthatenableandprotectarenewedformof
democraticdecision-makingthattakesadvantageoftheresearch-basedproblemsolvingskillsof
staffoperatingatalllevels,accountingfortheadvantagestoorganisationswhenself-managed
professionalsinteractwithpeersonmattersofcommonpurpose,particularlyinknowledge-based
industries.
Baconoffersanumberofreasonswhysuchchangesareneeded(2014,24):toomanystaff
feelvoiceless;currentuniversitymanagementstructuresandpracticesareoftenoutdated;themost
recentmanagementliteratureemphasisesthedisadvantages,particularlyinknowledge-based
sectors,oftop-downhierarchicalstructuresandtheadvantagesoffrontlinestaffhavingincreased
autonomy.Hisresearchshowsthatthedesireformorecollegialdecision-makingiswidespread
acrosstheUK’suniversitysector.Notonlythat,collegialityimprovesdecision-making,bringingwith
itanawarenessofthefront-lineactivitiesandprioritieswhichmattermosttostudents.Thistypeof
decision-makingcantakemanydifferentforms,oftenenhancedbynewtechnology.
Baconconcludeshisresearchbydiscussingtwokeyprinciplesofneo-collegiality:
Institutionalinclusivity,wherethecontributionofallstaffandstudentsispromotedwithoutregard
9
forestablishedhierarchies;andPromotingcollegiality,outsideofestablishedstructuresand
representativecommittees.Tothisend,Baconoutlines‘amenuofthepotentialformsthatmovesto
neo-collegialitymighttake.’(20),proposinginitiativestowardsgreatercollegialitywithina
university.Theseare:aconcordatoncollegiality,revivingexistingstructures,transparencyand
collegiality,collegialityondemand,consensuscollegiality,temporalvariations,subsidiarity,collegial
appointments,vetocollegiality,andsharedgovernance.
DemocraticLeadership
HallandWinn(2017)focusonalternativeformsofleadershipthatcanbefoundbothinsideand
outsidetheuniversity,representingeffortstoreorganise,reconceptualise,anddemocratisethe
productionofknowledge.Theypointout,followingDopsonetal(2016),thatthescholarshipon
leadershipinhighereducationislimitedandargueforaformofdemocraticleadershipbasedonan
understandingoftheuniversityasaself-criticalcommunityofacademicandstudentscholarswith
highlevelsofautonomy(NearyandSaunders2011)atatimewhenthiscriticalcommunityis‘being
disciplinedbyadominantcorporateagendathatincentivisesspecific,impactfulbehaviours’
(AlvessonandSpicer2012),withdevastatinglynegativeconsequencesforhumanityintheworld.
Thismeanssomethingmorethanthecreationofdecentralisedtechnology-richgovernance
networksordistributedleadershiplinkedtoproblem-solvingstrategies.Whilesuchschemesare
presentedaschangemanagementstrategiesthereisnofundamentalchangesincetheyare
‘designedtomakethecapitalistprojectfunctionmoresmoothlythroughthereductionofriskand
thegenerationofvaluableconnections,ratherthanemergingasastrategydesignedtocritiquethe
power-relationsthatexistinsidecapitalism,inordertooverthrowthem’(HallandWinn2017);not
basedontrust,sharingpowerandautonomy,butwheremanagementandgovernanceoperatesas
‘consentthroughcoercion’linkedtoperformancemanagementandcurriculumdataaswellas
knowledgetransferbasedoninequalityanddistrust.
10
HallandWinnseehopeinleadershipasaformofcitizenship(Boldenetal2014)orcritical
performativity(AlvessonandSpicer2012).TheylinktheseapproachestoVirnoandotherwritersin
theautonomousMarxisttraditionandtheirconceptof‘massintellectuality’.Massintellectualityis
theappropriationofknowledgewhichhasbeenproducedasafactorincapitalistproduction,as
scienceandtechnology,forthebenefitofhumanityandnature.HallandWinnsuggestthat
academicsshouldfindwaystocreatetheseformsofradicalalternativessoastoreimaginetheidea
oftheUniversity‘inordertoproduceandcirculatenewformsofsocially-usefulknowledgeorways
ofknowingtheworld.’Allofthis‘impliesacritiqueoftheprevalentmodeof(knowledge)
production,theinstitutionswhereitissitedandtheoversight,managementandleadershipthat
arisesfromthesespaces.Theprocessofliberatingandreclaimingtheknowledge,skills,practices
andtechniquesthatareproducedinsidehighereducationalcontextsiscentraltomovingbeyond
exploitationandvalorisationinthemarket,andincreatingdemocratic,co-operativealternatives’.
(HallandWinn2017).Reflectingonexamplesofalternativeformsofintellectualleadership,Halland
Winnidentifysixthemesforacriticalanalysisofacademicleadership:Therelationshipbetween
leadershipandlabour;thelivedrealitiesofhegemonicformsofleadership;theexistenceof
alternativemodelsofleadershipasformsofcounter-hegemony;theattributesofcounter-
hegemonicleadership;theproblemswithalternativeformsofleadership;andthecontradictions
uncoveredwhendevelopingalternativeformsofleadership.
Inwhatfollowsareaseriesofextendedcase-studies(Burawoy1998)involvingaworkers’
co-operativegrocery,aco-operativeuniversity,astate-fundedco-operativeschoolandanemployee
ownedretailbusiness.Thesiteshavebeenpurposivelychosenasexemplarsofaparticulartypeof
co-operativeenterprise.
LipsonCo-operativeAcademySchool LipsonCo-operativeAcademyisasingleschoolfoundationtrustestablishedin2011,with1100
students,includingasixthformof230whichoperatesinpartnershipwithalocalconsortiumofnon-
11
co-operativeschools,thePartnershipforLearningandEducation.Theschoolwasalreadyoperating
inaco-operativeandcollaborativemannerbeforetakingonthestatusofaco-operativeschool,with
astrongsenseofconnectionwiththelocalcommunity.Thismeantthattakingonaformalco-
operativestructuredidnotinvolveafundamentalchangeinthenatureoftheschool.
TheschoolisgovernedbyaBoardofGovernorsandmanagedbyaSupportandLeadership
Team(SLT).TheSLTincludes,thePrincipal,2VicePrincipals,3AssistantPrincipals,2Associate
AssistantPrincipalsandaBusinessManager.AdistinctivefeatureoftheSLT,demonstratingits
commitmenttoco-operativevalues,isthattheSLTistheSupportandLeadershipTeamratherthan
theSeniorLeadershipTeam,themoreusualdesignationinschoolswithahierarchicalmanagement
structure.
Theresearchwascarriedoutoveroneweekcomprisinginterviewswith20staffand3
workshopswithstudentsfromlevel7,8andthesixthform.Wealsoconductedclassroom
observationswithlevel7,9andsixthformaswellasobservationsofateacherCPDsession.The
intervieweesandobservationswereselectedbyaseniorleaderwhoactedasfacilitatorforthe
researchproject.Fromtherangeofresponsesgatheredtherewasnosenseinwhichthe
intervieweeswerechosenbecauseofanyattempttopresentaparticularviewabouttheschool.The
viewsexpressedbroadlymatchedpreviousacademicresearchdoneinthisarea(Woodin2015;
Davidge2014).
Co-operativeLeadership
Co-operativeleadershipatLipsonisgroundedinthepracticesandprinciplesofco-operative
learning,derivedfromthepedagogicalmodelthatisusedintheclassroom.Eachmemberofthe
schoolcommunity,atwhateverlevelacrosstheinstitution,isawareoftherolethattheyaretaking
andhowitcontributestothegoalofco-operativeeducation.Thisapproachtoleadershipdiffers
fromBernstein’sfocusontraitsofleadershipthatareintrinsictothepersonwhoisdoingthe
12
leadership;theyare,rather,anexpressionofthenatureoftheorganisation,inthiscaseaco-
operativeschool.
Thisversionofco-operativeleadershipistakingplaceinahierarchicalgovernanceand
managementstructure,wheretheTrustisledbyaChairandVice-ChairandtheSchoolisledbya
PrincipalandtheSLT.Thehierarchicalcharacterofco-operativeschoolmanagementandits
consequenceshasbeenidentifiedintheacademicliterature(Davidge2014;Woodin2015).There
wasoneparticipantwhoexpressedtheviewthattheschoolwasnotasco-operativeasitcouldbe
andthatco-operativeschoolsdidnotfitwiththeacademymodel,butthisviewwasnotwidespread.
TheSLTjustifiesthishierarchicalapproachintermsoftheneedtoprotectstafffromstresses
createdbypressureofgovernmentpolicy.Oneimportantcontributiontothisdebateaboutthe
contradictorypositionofco-operativeschoolsinanacademypolicystructurehasbeenmadebya
formerVicePrincipaloftheschool.Shearguesnottobeafraidoftensionandcontradictionwithin
aninstitutionbuttorecognisethat‘itisactuallyatthispointofheightenedtensionandconflictthat
theobjectivecanbeco-constructedandsubstantialtransformationtakeplace.Thisisimportantasit
informsusthatweshouldaccepttheconflictandtensionratherthanseeingitasadysfunctional
measureofthedemocraticworkweareundertaking’(Jones2015,82).
Knowledge
KnowledgeatLipsonisnotsomethingthatissimplytransmittedbyteacherstothestudents,butis
producedinwaysthatsustainthepedagogicalandpastoralpracticesoftheSchool.Therehasbeena
prolongedcommitmenttoenablingteacherstoundertakeacademicresearchonpostgraduate
programmes.Thereisawell-developedContinuingProfessionalDevelopmentprocesswhere
teacherslearnfromtheprofessionalexperienceoftheircolleagues.Whilethisdoesnotequatetoa
processof‘massintellectuality’,certainlyasenseof‘intellectualleadership’beingpromotedamong
teachersaspartofa‘processofliberatingandreclaimingtheknowledge,skills,practicesand
techniquesthatareproduced…[for]...creatingdemocratic,co-operativealternatives’.(Halland
Winn2017).
13
Democracy
Thereisawell-establisheddemocraticstructurewhichinvolvesallmembersoftheschool
community.Thisischaracterisedbyforumsforteachers,studentsandparentstoexpresstheirviews
andopinionsaboutawiderangeofissues,andbywhichseniorleaderscanbeheldtoaccount,and
so,followingBernstein’smodelexpress‘co-influence’overthegoalsoftheschoolTheseformal
eventsaresupplementedbyaninstitutionalschoolculturethatpromotesteachersandstudents
speakingupaboutmattersofconcern.Thelevelofawarenessaboutthesedemocraticstructuresis
highasistheunderstandingoftheirimportancefortheethosoftheschool.Thehighlevelof
democraticparticipationdoesnotmeanthatallmembersoftheschoolareinvolvedindecision
makingaboutallaspectsofthelifeoftheschool.Thereisaverycleardemarcationaboutwhatthe
typesofdecisionsthatareappropriatefordifferentlevelsofthemanagementandorganisational
structureoftheschool.Forexample,decisionsabouttheschooluniforminvolvethewholeschool;
whilebudgetsandfinancesaretheresponsibilityoftheGovernorsandSLT,middlemanagers:Heads
ofGuildandFacultyareconsultedaboutstrategiesthathavealreadybeenputinplace.Participants
feltthattheydidnothavetheexpertisetobeabletodecideoncertainmattersandsowerecontent
forthatresponsibilitytobetakenonbythosewithsufficientprofessionalexpertise.Inthatsense
participantsfelttheywereableto“exertinfluenceattheverypointswheretheyhavemost
expertise”(Bernstein2012,54),satisfyingBernstein’slevelofdemocraticparticipation.
Nevertheless,thisdoesnotmeanthatallparticipantsareabletodemonstrate,inBernstein’sterms
‘real’poweratthehighestlevelofgovernance,e.g.schoolgovernors.
Bureaucracy
TheschoolhasastrongethicalandmoralframeworkbasedontheprinciplesoftheInternationalCo-
operativeMovementandanassociatedsetofvalues,whichare:self-help,self-responsibility,
democracy,equality,equity,solidarity,honesty,openness,socialresponsibilityandcaringforothers.
Therewaswidespreadunderstandingbystudentsandteachersabouttheseprinciplesandwhatthey
meanandtheirimportancefortheworkingoftheschool.
14
Livelihood
AstrongfeatureoftheschoolistheGuildsystem,wherebystudentschoosetobecomepartofa
Guild,whichareorganisedaroundsubjectareas.TheGuildsenablestudentstoengagewithother
studentsnotfromtheiryeargroup,andtoworkwithteachersoutsideoftheclassroom.TheGuilds
operateduringthewholeschooldayoutoflessontimes,beforeandafterthetimetabled
curriculum.TheGuildsalsoprovideagoodopportunityforpastoralsupport.TheGuildscontribute
totheidea,expressedbymanyoftheparticipants,thattheschoolwaslikeafamilyandinthisway
enhancedthequalityoftheirstudentlifeinwaysbeyondtheacademic.Thisenhancedsenseof
studentlifebeyondtheacademicisfurtherdevelopedbyanumberofco-operativesranbystudents
thatincludesaBigBandmusicco-operative,acateringco-operativeandaco-operativethat
advocateshumanrights.
Solidarity
Therewasastrongsenseofsolidarityfortheco-operativeethosoftheschool,andtoeachother:
students,teachersandprofessionalstaff.Thiscontributedtogenuinecollegialityacrosstheschool,
withnosenseof‘contrivedcollegiality’(Jones2015,74);ratherwhatBaconwouldrecogniseas
formsof‘neo-collegiality’(Bacon2014).Theschoolworkshardtogenerateasenseof,inBacon’s
terms,‘institutionalinclusivity’.However,therewasverylittlesenseofsolidaritywiththe
InternationalCo-operativeAlliance(ICA),eventhoughtheschoolprinciplesandethicsaretaken
fromthisorganisation.Thestudentswereveryknowledgeableaboutthemeaningandimportance
oftheICAprinciplesfortheschool,butknewlittleabouttheco-operativemovement.Studentslearn
aboutindividualswhopersonifytheprinciplesandpracticesofco-operativismratherthantheidea
ofco-operativismasaglobalsocialmovement.Therewasasenseofcommitmentandsolidarityto
otherco-operativeschoolsnationallyandintheregion.Theschoolisapartofanetworkof
supportingco-operativeschools.
Therewasaview,althoughnotcommon,thattheschoolcoulddomoretodevelopthis
relationshipofsolidaritywiththeglobalco-operativemovement.TheviewofamemberoftheSLT
15
wasthatsuchashowofsolidaritywouldcompromisetheschool’spoliticalneutralityand,therefore,
putitscharitablestatusatrisk,i.e,theschoolshouldnottobeseentobeseekingtoinfluencethe
politicalviewsofthestudents.Therewasastrongsenseofsolidarityamongtheteacherparticipants
totheirtradeunion,reflectingthecultureoftradeunionismintheteachingprofession.Anyconflict
betweenthelabourmovementastradeunionism:collectiveandstatecentric,andthelabour
movementasco-operativism:autonomousbasedonworkerdemocracy,wasnotrecognised.The
conflictiswidelydiscussedintheliteratureandisseenashavingbeenabarriertotheprogressive
developmentofthelabourmovement(Yeo1988),withcallstocreateastrongersenseofsolidarity
betweentradeunionismandco-operativeworkers(http://1worker1vote.org).
Aco-operativeuniversity?
Therewassupportbyallparticipants,students,professionalstaff,teachers,seniorleaders,parents
andgovernorsfortheideaofaco-operativeuniversity.
JohnLewisEmployee-ownedcompany TheJohnLewisPartnershipwasestablishedasaretailbusinessin1929throughanactofirrevocable
settlementintrust,signedbyJohnSpedanLewis,thesonofJohnLewiswhofoundedtheoriginal
companyin1864.Thislegalframeworkextendedanalreadyestablishedprofitsharingscheme
implementedin1919sothatthebusinesswouldbegiventotheworkers‘presentandprospective’.
ThePartnershipwasbasedonaConstitutionwhichincorporatedanarrangementofdemocratic
structuresandprotocolsinwhatamountedtonothinglessthan“anexperimentinindustrial
democracy”(Cathcart2009).Thedemocraticstructureisbasedaroundthreegoverningauthorities:
thePartnershipCouncil,thePartnershipBoardandtheroleoftheChairman,sothatpowerisshared
amongitsmembers.
‘ThePartnershipCouncil,astherepresentativebodyofthemembersofthePartnership,
entrustsmanagementofthePartnershipbusinesstothePartnershipBoard,whichdelegates
itsmanagementauthoritytotheChairman’(rules3Constitutionp.9)
16
Therearethreeotherlevelsthroughwhichdemocraticparticipationisorganised:DivisionalCouncil,
ForumandPartnerVoice.PartnerVoiceismadeupfromselectedandelectedpartnerscommitted
tofulfillingtheirrolewith‘thebestinterestsofthePartnershipinmind’(14). Allofthesefunctions
havetheresponsibilityofcarryingoutthePartnership’sconstitution.TheConstitutionremainsthe
centraldocumentaroundwhichtheworkingofthepartnershipisorganised,basedonthefirst
principlewhichencompassesthepurposesandthespiritofthebusiness:
Principle1‘ThePartnership’sultimatepurposeisthehappinessofallitsmembers,through
theirworthwhileandsatisfyingemploymentinasuccessfulbusiness.Becausethe
Partnershipisownedintrustforitsmembers,theysharetheresponsibilitiesofownershipas
wellasitsrewards–profit,knowledgeandpower.’
Atthecoreoftheconstitutionlietheprinciplesof‘power,gainandknowledge’andtheconceptof
‘criticalvoice’.AnimportantprincipleestablishedbySpedanLewisandstillmaintainedaskey
marketingmessageisthatthePartnershipis‘NeverKnowinglyUndersold’(Lewis1954).
TheJohnLewisPartnershipisnotapartnershipinthelegalsenseoftheterm(Snaith2014),
norisitaco-operativeassociation,althoughitscultureandpracticeisbasedonproducerco-
operatives(Lewis1954).Itis,rather,anemployee-ownedcompanywhereemployee‘partners’own
sharesinthebusiness(Ridley-DuffandBull2011).Thesearedeferredordinarysharesheldfor
partnersintrustbyJohnLewisPartnershipTrustaspartofthecapitalofthecompany.The
PartnershipTrust’smainroleistoprotecttheConstitutionanddemocraticnatureofthe
partnership.TheTrustismadeupoftheChairmanandDeputyChairmanandthreeelecteddirectors
whomeetasrequired.Thisarrangementmeanstheemployeepartnersreallyareownersinthe
companywheretheywork.Animportantpartofthisarrangementisthatpartnersnotonlyreceivea
salarybutthataportionofprofitsaredistributedannuallyamongthepartnermembers,alongwith
otherbenefits(BodenandWrightandCiancanelli2012).
ThePartnershipnowemploys88,000staff,orPartnersastheyareallreferredto,reflecting
theco-ownednatureofthebusiness.ThepremisesaremainlyintheUK,with46generalbranches
17
andbranchesthatfocusonsellingspecificitems,aswellasmorethan300Waitrosesupermarkets,
andnewinternationaloutletsinDubaiandAustralia.ThePartnershipisexpandingintootherareas
ofbusiness:insurance,currencyexchangeandopticiansinwhatisahighlycompetitiveretail
environment,exacerbatedbytheexponentialgrowthofonlineshopping.ThePartnershiphasdone
muchworktomaketherelationshipbetweeninBranchandonlineshoppingoperateeffectively
togethersoastocreateaconnectedconsumerexperience.Newshopshavebeenopenedrecently
butwiththegrowthofonlineshoppingthereisareluctancetoinvestheavilyinthebuilt
environment.
TheresearchwascarriedoutoveroneweekspentinageneralJohnLewisstoreinthenorth
ofEngland,comprising14interviewsand2workshopswithPartnersfromarangeofrolesacrossthe
business.Theintervieweeswereselectedbyamiddlemanagerwhoactedasfacilitatorforthe
researchproject.Fromtherangeofresponsesgatheredtherewasnosenseinwhichthe
intervieweeswerechosenbecauseofanyattemptpresentaparticularviewaboutthePartnership.
Theviewsexpressedbroadlymatchedin-housepartnershipsurveys,otheracademicresearchaswell
asviewsexpressedinin-housepublications(Cathcart2009).
Co-operativeLeadership
ThePartnershipexpectsPartnerstoputthemselvesforwardasleadersacrossalllevelsofbusiness
activity.Thereisastrongcommitmenttotheprincipleandpracticeofleadership,basedona
numberofprescribedbehaviourcharacteristics,whichextendbeyondthebehaviourexpectedby
Partners.AtJohnLewisbeingaleaderandtakingresponsibilityisaninherentaspectofbeinga
partner.TheresearchrevealedthataPartner’spotentialisrecognisedandfasttrackedthrough
professionaldevelopmentprogrammes.Theextenttowhichthesecharacteristicsaredemonstrated
isassessedannuallyaspartofindividualpartnerperformanceappraisals.TheJohnLewis
managementliteratureexplainsthatleadersatJohnLewisareexpectedtosetthedirectionofthe
businesswithcourageandconfidence,whileenablingandencouragingandmotivatingPartnersto
18
embraceandliveuptotheresponsibilitythatco-ownershipbrings.Thismeanshowingstrategic
insightaboutcustomersandthebusiness,basedonbalancedreflection,communicationandsharing
knowledgeinawaythatimprovesperformanceandgeneratesintegratedsolutions;whileallthe
timeadaptingtochangechallengingthestatusquoandkeepinganeyeonthewiderretail
environment.Partnersareexpectedtosupportandtakeprideinco-ownershipthroughproactive
collectiveworking,inanhonestandrespectfulmanner,deliveringexcellentservicetocustomers
andsupportingotherPartnerswhileadaptingtoandembracingchange.
Thereisnothingunusualabouttheseprinciplesintermsofbusinesspractice,andmirror
whatBernsteinadvocatesaskeyprinciplesforco-operativeleadership.Whatisunusualisthesetof
principlesandvalueswhichunderpinthemsetoutinthePartnershipsConstitution.Following
Bernstein’sunderstandingofeffectivewaystodevelopculturesofleadership,therewasastrong
sensethatco-operativeleadershipbeachievedthrougha‘systemic’approachbasedonthe‘whole
consciousness’notonlyofseniorstaffbutstaffatalllevels.Thiswasmanifestthroughthe
continuingsignificanceandemphasisgiventothePartnership’sconstitutionanditsfounding
principles.
Knowledge
ThepowerofknowledgeiswellunderstoodandenshrinedinthePartnershipprinciples.Thereisa
transparentsystematicprocessofsharingbusinessinformationwithPartnersatalllevelsofthe
business.Forexample,weeklystaffmeetingswithallstaffbasedondepartmentsandfunctions,
wherefinancialdataandotherkeybusinessinformationisshared.Thesignificanceofknowledgeis
maintainedthroughthecompanypublicationswhichactivelyencouragestafftoraiseconcernsand
issuesaboutthebusinessintheformofwrittenletters,whichmustberespondedtobythemanager
withresponsibilityforthematterthatisbeingraised.Theseletterscanbesignedbytheauthorsor
writtenanonymously.Therewassomecriticismofthe‘corporate’wayinwhichmanagers
respondedtothesecomplaints,butnevertheless,theprocessdoessuggestthatthebusiness
encouragesacriticalvoice,asapracticeenshrinedintheconstitution.Intermsoftheframeworkset
19
outbyHallandWinn(2017),whilethisrighttoexerciseacriticalvoicedoesnotamounttoacounter
hegemonicformofmassintellectualityitdoesprovidemorethanasemblanceofdemocratic
leadershipbasedonanunderstandingofthebusinessas‘aself-criticalcommunity’.
Democracy
DemocracyisenshrinedthroughtheconceptofPartnerVoicewhichallowsPartnerstorepresent
theirissuesandconcernsatalllevelsofthemanagementstructure.ThePartnersdohavethe
ultimatesanctionofbeingabletoremovetheChairmanattheAGMandso,followingBernstein’s
dimensionsofparticipation,dohaverealpoweratthehighestlevelofcompanycontrol.Moreover,
partnersareableto‘initiatecriticismsandsuggestions’anddiscussthemface-to-facewith
managers.Bernsteincallsthis‘co-operationorco-influence’.ThePartnervoiceframeworkmeans
that‘gaps’are‘filledin’withmethodsofdirectandrepresentativedemocracy,sothattheupper
levelisbroughtintomorecontactwiththerealissuesandconcernsofworkersintheorganisation.
Achievingdemocracyatalllevelsoftheorganisationmeansthatemployeesareableto“exert
influenceattheverypointswheretheyhavemostexpertise.”(2012,54)
Thereisastrictdemarcationaboutwhatdecisionsaremadeaboutwhatkindofissues.The
ChairmanandBoardhavecontroloverstrategy,financialmattersincludingthelevelofbonus.The
Chairmanrecommendstheirsuccessoronretirement.Therehasbeenatrendforstafftobe
consultedratherthanforformalvotingonissues,e.g,pensionsandworkingtimes.Intermsof
Bernstein’smodelof‘dimensionsofparticipation’themoveistowardsmoremanagementcontrol.
BernsteindidincludeJohnLewisasoneofhiscase-studiesinhisbookWorkplaceDemocratisation.
HereferstotheconcentrationofpowerinthepostoftheChairman,alongwiththeself-selecting
natureoftheseniormanagementgroup,aswellastherestrictionofcouncilpowerstoadviceor
recommendationsas‘seriousobstacles’todemocraticparticipation(36)Thereisan
acknowledgementbyPartnersthatbusinessdecisionsneedtobetakenbypeoplewithappropriate
levelsofexpertise,althoughthisdoesnotextendtothelevelofbonus,whichhasbeendecliningin
recentyears,orthediscrepancybetweenamountsofbonuspaidbetweendifferentlevelsof
20
partnershipstaff.Thebonusesareworkedoutasapercentagesothehighestearningstaffreceive
considerablymoreinthebonuspayment.
IntermsofBacon’smodelofneo-collegiality,thereiscertainlyanattemptbythe
Partnershiptopromoteinstitutionalinclusivity,wherethecontributionofallstaffandstudentsis
promotedwithoutregardforestablishedhierarchies;andpromotingcollegiality,outsideof
establishedstructuresandrepresentativecommittees.WhattakesthePartnershipbusinessmodel
beyondCollegialityisthatitisnotjustaprincipleorpreferredpracticebutiswrittenintothevery
constitutionofthebusiness.
Thisisahighlycompetitivecommercialenvironment,withmajorchallenges,notleastthe
relationshipbetweenonlineshoppingforretailerswithasignificanthighstreetpresence.Thereisa
constanttensionbetweentheimperativeofcompetitiveforcesanddemocraticnatureofthe
company.Thiswasexpressedbythemanagementdiscourseoftheneedforconstantchange,along
withthepresentationofthecompanyfounderbyoneoftheparticipantsasa‘ruthlessbusiness
man’.
Bureaucracy
Theworkinglifeofthebusinessisunderpinnedbyamoralandethicalframeworksetoutinthe
businessconstitution,notleasttheconceptofPartnerhappinesswithinacompetitivecommercial
environment.ThereisacommitmentbythePartnersatalllevelstothisframework,aswellasthe
principleofpartnershipandco-ownershiponwhichitisbased.Theprinciplesarenotonlyfoundin
businesspublications,butdisplayedonthewallsinstaffareasandaroundthestore.Partnersfelt
thatenshriningthesevaluesasaformofbusinesspracticegavethePartnershipasawholea
competitiveadvantage.
Livelihood
AcoreprincipleofthePartnershipisthehappinessofPartnerswithinacompetitiveenvironment.
Thisprincipleismaderealbythesystemofbenefitsthataccruetostaffasaresultoftheiremployee
ownershipstatus.Thisincludesanannualbonus,holidaysinapartnershipownedlocation,in-store
21
diningfacilitiesatreducedpricesaswellasdiscountsatstoresandrestaurantsandentertainment
venues.
Solidarity
Therewasaclearsenseofsolidarityandcommitmenttocolleaguesinthestoreandtothe
Partnershipasawhole.ThiswasunderpinnedbyacommitmenttotheconceptofPartnership.
TherewassomeconcernthattheconceptofPartnershipisbeingunderminedbycontractingaspects
oftheworktooutsideagencies,particularlythecleaners.Thiswasnotjustintermsofthe
underminingofthePartnershipprinciplebutthelackofsanctionsbystorestaffifthecleanerswere
notperformingtheirworkeffectively.Thissenseofsolidaritywasunderminedbythecutsto
staffing,atthebackroomandshopfloorlevel,aswellasnumbersofpart-timestaffbeing
employed.Thismeansstressduetohighworkloads,andareductioninthesupportservicesforstaff.
TherewasaconcernbysomepartnersthattheawarenessofthePartnerships’cultureandhistory
wasbeingdiminishedamongnewstaffduetothelimitedtimenowspentonstaffinduction.There
wasnosenseofsolidaritytoworkerselsewhereintheretailtrade.Thegeneralviewwasthat
Partnerswereinafavourablesituationcomparedtootherworkersinretail,withmanyofthem
drawingonpreviousexperienceinotherretailers.TherewasgeneralagreementthatUnionswere
notrequiredatJohnLewisbecauseasPartnerstheyhaveconsiderableinfluenceonthedecision
makingprocess,basedontheirstatusasemployeeowners.
Aco-operativeuniversity?
Therewasconsiderableinterestandsupportfortheideaofaco-operativeuniversity,withthe
caveatfromaSeniorManager,thatemployeeownedbusinessesarenotboundtoworkinevery
commercialsituation.
MondragonUniversity MondragonUniversity(MU)wasestablishedin1997asa‘co-operativeofco-operatives’,madeupof
alreadyexistingco-operativesforhighereducationinEngineering,establishedin1943,Businessand
22
ManagementStudies,setup1970,andaHumanitiesandEducationco-operativeopenedin1976.
Wherepreviouslythequalificationsofthesehighereducationco-operativeswerevalidatedby
externaluniversitiestheywereconstitutedin1997asseparateFacultiesofMU,thevalidating
authority.MUwascreatedfollowingchangesinthelegislativeframeworkwhichallowedHigher
EducationinstitutionsinSpaintoawardtheirowndegreesandbytakingadvantageofregulatory
changesassociatedwiththeBolognaDeclarationandthecreationofEuropeanHigherEducation
Area(Wrightetal2011,47).ThedistinctivefeatureofMUisthattheFacultiesretaintheirautonomy
andindependenceasco-operatives,withMUactingasasecondaryco-operativetoawarddegrees,
supportandharmonisetheactivitiesofalloftheFacultyco-operatives,establishinggeneral
universitypoliciesandstrategicalignments.ThismeansthattheFacultiescannotbedictatedtoby
MUoritsmembers,noteventheUniversityRector.Thearrangementisentirelyvoluntarywith
Facultiesabletowithdrawatanytime,althoughtheverysuccessfulnatureoftheconsolidationof
theco-operatives,asalocaluniversitywithglobalrecognition,meansthisisnotlikelytohappen.
MUisamemberofMondragonCo-operativeCorporation(MCC),oneofthelargestmost
profitableco-operativesintheworld.ThesloganofthecorporationisHumanityatWork,which
emphasisesakeyprinciplefortheorganisationthatcapitalissubordinatetolabour.Mondragon
Corporationwassetupin1956initiallyasUlgor,manufacturingstoves,butquicklyexpandedalong
withtheestablishmentofotherco-operativesintheregion,includingFagorwhichmadedomestic
andcommercialappliances.TheCorporationisnowmadeupof257co-operativecompaniesand
organisations.Theseincludeabank,socialsecurityandachainofretailshops:EROSKI.Mondragon
employs75,000staff,witharevenueofover11billioneurosin2015.Mondragonprovidesarange
ofservicesaswellasproducingwhitegoods,bikes,machinetools,industrialcomponentsand
elevators;partofitsconstructionwingbuilttheFrankGehrydesignedGuggenheimmuseumin
Bilbao.TheCorporationisdividedinto3divisions:Industry,madeupoftwelveindustrial
departmentsmanufacturinggoodsandequipment;Finance,banking,insuranceandsocialwelfare;
Retailfoodandagriculture,includingEROSKI.Mondragonisintheprocessofdevelopinganew
23
divisionofKnowledge,comprisingschools,researchcentresandMondragonUniversity.Mondragon
hasaninterestin94productionplantsoutsideofSpain,withplanstoextenditsinternational
activities,inresponsetoglobalisation.Anaspectoftheirinternationalprofileisthatworkersarenot
co-operativemembers(Errastietal2003)Thisinternationalreachinvolvesinstitutesofhigher
educationinColombiaandMexico.
EachFacultyofMUco-operativeisanautonomousandindependententerprise,sharingthe
samegovernancestructure.MUisasecondaryco-operativeestablishedtosupportthememberco-
operatives,toharmoniseprovisionandencouragecollaborativeworkingandco-operativismandto
facilitatetheoverallstructureandtoenhancestrategicandorganisationalcapacities.Thereare
threecategoriesofmembersofMondragonUniversity:academicandadministrativestaff;
collaboratingexternalmembersincludinglocalcompaniesandstudents.Theorganisational
structureismadeupofaFacultyGeneralAssembly,theFacultyGoverningBoardandtheFaculty
ExecutiveBoard.MUisaworker-co-operativeintermsofownershipandreward,butitsgovernance
isbasedonamulti-stakeholderstructure.
Theresearchwascarriedoutoveroneweekcomprisingofinterviewswith17members
acrossarangeofroles,includingtheFounderofMUand2workshopswithstudentsandacademics
fromtheEducationandEngineeringFaculty.Theinterviewsandworkshopswerearrangedbythe
ViceRectorwhoactedasfacilitatorfortheresearchproject.Fromtherangeofresponsesgathered
therewasnosenseinwhichtheintervieweeswerechosenbecauseofanyattemptpresenta
particularviewaboutMU.Theviewsexpressedbroadlymatchedfindingsfromotheracademic
literatureonMUandco-operativeeducation(Wrightetal2011).
Co-operativeleadership
MUpromotestheconceptofco-operativeleadershipwhichitcharacterisesastakingtheleadin
termsofco-operationandinter-co-operation,innovation,participation,socialresponsibility,
personaldevelopmentandsocialtransformation.Atthecoreoftheseprinciplesofleadershipare
24
socialvaluesforthesocialdistributionofwealthoftheco-operativeasahumanisticpracticeandfor
aunitedandequitablesociety.Thisco-operativemodelisnotsimplyhumanisticbutisregardedas
providingacompetitiveadvantage.
Thereisastrongsenseofcommitmenttothismodelofco-operativeleadershipamong
memberswithseniormanagementroles,andarecognitionthatthesehorizontalrelationships
requirehumility.Themodelofco-operativeleadershipchampionedbyMondragongoesbeyondthe
supportforasetofpersonalvaluesofmembersbut,asdefinedbyBernsteinarecognitionthat
effectivedemocracyrequiresa“systemic”approachandthatthisinvolvesachangeinthe“whole
consciousness”ofleadersinpositionsofpower.ThisismuchmorethanBacon’sfostering
institutionalinclusivity,orevenpromotingcollegiality;andclosertoHallandWinn’sunderstanding
ofleadershipastheneedtochallengeand‘critiquethepowerrelationsthatexistinside
capitalism…movingbeyondexploitationandvalorisationinthemarket,andincreatingdemocratic,
co-operativealternatives’.
Knowledge
KnowledgeisrecognisedasacoreactivitynotonlyofMUbutMCC,totheextentthatitisthebasis
foranewdivisionwithafocusonknowledgetogoalongsidethealreadyexistingdivisionsfor
industry,financeandfood.Thereisastrongsensethatknowledgeshouldbelinkedtotheneedsof
industryandthelocalregion.IntermsofHallandWinn’snotionofdemocraticleadershipbasedon
‘sociallyusefulknowledge’,thisincludesresearchdoneinsideMUbutalsotheresearchdonebythe
partnerco-operativesandexternalmembers.Thesignificanceofknowledgeproductionisextended
tothecurriculummodel:Mendiberri,whichisbasedonstudentstakingresponsibilityfortheir
learning,aswellasproblem-solvingthroughextendedprojectbasedlearning.MUhasitsownco-
operativeresearchandtrainingcentre,Lanki,basedintheFacultyofEducationandHumanities
whichpromotesandsupportsthedevelopmentofco-operativesacrossMU,theBasqueregionand
withcollaboratinggroupsintheGlobalSouth.LankiprovidesMUwithastrongsenseofcritical
reflexivity,anessentialfeaturefororganisationsbasedondemocraticleadership(HallandWinn
25
2017).ThiscriticalreflexivityisbasedonLanki’sattitudetowardsMUwhichamemberoftheLanki
instituteexplainedasbeingaffirmative,becauseinspiteoftheimperfections,Mondragonshouldbe
acknowledgedasavaluableexperienceinmanyways;itiscritical,becausetherearemanyaspects
thatcouldbeimprovedandidentifyingthemisthefirststep;anditisconstructive,becausethe
destructivecritiquelacksthecapacitytounderstandthecomplexityandambivalencesofrealworld.
Democracy
MUisaworker-owneddemocraticorganisationbasedononememberonevoteeveninthe
situationwheremembersarenottheowners,asinthecaseofstudentsandcollaboratingpartners.
MUispartofMCC,anorganisationbuiltonacomplexdemocraticstructurethathasbeendesigned
sothatateachstageoftheprocessmanagersandthosewhoaretakingexecutiveandoperational
decisionscanbeheldtoaccount.Incaseswherethedemocraticaccountabilityisrestrictedthereare
checksandbalancestoprovidesafeguardsagainstauthoritarianmanagerialism.Inallcasesthe
GeneralAssemblyisthesovereignbodywherealldecisionsareagreed.IntermsofBernstein’s
modelMondragonachievesthestatusoffullworkplacedemocracy,withaworkers’council,or
GeneralAssembly,thatsitsaboutthemanagementbody.
Foracademicstaff,therearevaryingdegreesofcommitmenttotheco-operativeethosof
MU.TheethosmeansthatMUislesshierarchicalthanotheruniversities,withcloseworking
relationshipswiththestudents,whichcanleadtoapressureofstudentdemandandexpectation.
TheacademicstaffsaythereisalessindividualisticcompetitiveenvironmentthaninotherSpanish
universities,eventhoughtheyworkundersamerequirementstoteachandtoresearch.Whilemany
highereducationinstitutionsmakeuseofpedagogicalparticipatoryprocessesMUisdistinguishedby
itspoliticalcommitmenttoco-operativismandtosocialjusticeandsocialtransformationandtothe
Basqueregionasapoliticalentity.
ThetitleofProfessorisnotusedinMUtodistinguishbetweenacademics.Itiscustomaryfor
administrativeworkerstoholdelectedpositionsontheGoverningBoard.TheRectorandVice-
RectorofMU,asmembersofthesecondaryco-operative,donothavethepowertomakedecisions
26
onbehalfoftheFacultyco-operatives.Therewasgeneralagreementthatthedemocraticdecision
makingsystemworks,althoughwithsomequalifications,mainlyintermsoftimetakentodecide
issuesaswellasdemocraticengagement,particularlybystudents.
Thedemocraticstructureappliestorelationsbetweenstudents,workers,academicand
administrativestaff,whichareveryhorizontal.Thedemocraticstructuresdonotresolvethetension
wheremembersatMUarebothownersandworkers.Thereisatensionbetweenroleofstudentsas
studentsandstudentsasmembersoftheco-operativeaswellasatensionbetweenMUstaffas
workersandMUstaffasownersoftheco-operativethatisnotresolvedbythemanagementand
governancestructures.Thedemocraticstructuresdonotapplytonon-memberworkersandto
contractworkersintheBasquecountryandthoseworkingininternationalcompanies(Bakaikoaet
al2004).
Thereissomeconcernexpressedintheacademicliteraturethatmanagerialauthorityis
becomingincreasinglycentralisedwithinMCC(Bakaikoa,ErrastiandBergiristain2004).Thisconcern
wasnotexpressedbyanyofthestudentsorstaffwhoformedpartofthisresearch.Thisdeclinein
democracyisnotsimplyastructuralissueortheresultofincreasingmanagerialismbutismanifest
asalackofattendanceatmeetingsandothertypesofdemocraticengagement.Therewasareal
concernaboutthelackofstudentengagement.Thiswasattributedtotheindividualismof
contemporarysociety,lackofcommitmenttoworkoreventheneedtoworkforstudentswhoare
supportedfinanciallybytheirfamilies.Wherestudentsdidengage,theyfeltcommittedtotheco-
operativeproject.Studentsfelttheycouldbeencouragedtoorganiseeventsandactivitiesinamore
autonomousway,withmoreinfluenceindecidingwhatissuesweretobediscussedinmeetingsand
otherforums.
IntermsofBernstein’smodelofdimensionsofparticipation,workermembershaveahigh
levelofpowerandcontrol,withthepowertoinfluencedecisionsatalllevelsofMUandMCC.
27
Bureaucracy
Therewasastrongcommitmenttothewaysinwhichthebureaucraticstructuresoperateacross
MU,enablingautonomyandindependencewhile,atthesametime,harnessingthesupportingand
harmonisingpowersofMUassecondaryco-operative.However,theautonomousnatureofthe
facultyco-operativesmeantthatitwasdifficultfortheFacultiestoworktogetheron
interdisciplinaryprojects,forexample,establishingjointdegreeprogrammes.IntermsofBacon’s
notionofneo-collegiality:ThereisasenseofcollegialityatthelevelofFaculties,withformal
structurestopromotethisactivity,butthiscanworkagainstcrosscollegiatewaysofworking,for
example,whenarranginginterdisciplinarydegreeprogrammes.Thesebureaucraticstructuresare
underpinnedbyaclearpolitical,ethicalandmoralbaseexpressedinMondragon’sownco-
operativesprinciples.Theseprinciplesaremoreradicalthantheprinciplesestablishedbythe
InternationalCo-operativeAssociation,groundedinthesovereigntyoflabourovercapital.
Livelihood
TheworkersatMondragonUniversitydonotreceiveasalary,rathertheygetmonthlypayments,
anticipos,basedontheanticipatedearningsoftheirFacultyforthecalendaryear.Theseanticipated
revenuesareagreedattheannualGeneralAssemblyandvotedonbyworkers,studentsand
externalmembers.Aswellasbeingworkers,thestaffatMondragonowntheco-operative,eachof
theminvesting15,000euroswhentheirmembershipisconfirmed,usuallyafterhavingworkedin
theco-operativeforatwoyearprobationaryperiod.Acloseaccountiskeptoftheearnings
throughouttheyear,withinformationsharedwithallmembers,sothatinasituationwhere
revenuesarebelowwhathasbeenpredictedthemonthlypaymentscanbereducedafterageneral
agreement.Aswellasreceivingamonthlypaymentworkersreceiveanannualbonusbasedona
percentageoftherevenuesthataregenerated,calculatedintermsofemploymentgradesand
lengthofservice.Theworkersareeligibleforotherbenefitsincludingaccesstoprivatehealthcare,
chargedat20%oftheusualcost.
28
Unlikestaff,studentsdonotowntheuniversitybutareregardedasworkers,withstudies
organisedalongsideemploymentplacements,instillingtheideaof‘humanityatwork’,andthe
sovereigntyoflabourassetoutintheirco-operativeprinciples.MUinsiststhatstudentsarepaid
whileonworkplacementastheyarecontributingtothewealthofthecompany.Thestudentsdo
notmakeanyfinancialinvestment,orgainanyshareinsurplusesthatareproduced.
Theadvancedpaymentsarescaledsothatthehighestpaidworkergetsnomorethan1-4.5
ofthelowestpaid.Whilethelevelsofpayaresimilarandevenhigherfornewacademicsthanin
otheruniversitiesthestaffthatoccupyexecutivepositionsarelesswellremuneratedthanstaffwith
similarresponsibilitiesinotherhighereducationinstitutions.
TheUniversityisfederatedwithotherco-operativeorganisationsintheregion,likeAlecop,an
industrialco-operativeestablishedin1966toprovidestudentswithemploymentandtheexperience
ofworkinginaco-operativecompany.Alecopexemplifiesthespiritofco-operativismatMU,where
studentsareownersofthisco-operativealongwithtechnicalandadministrativestaff.Students
makeacapitalinvestmentof670euros,andearnanincomeof500amonth.Inthiscase,‘Students
areprotagonists:apowerfulforceineducationandsociety,atthecentreofasharedendeavour
basedonactivity,labourandeducation:‘a’,‘l’,‘e’asthe‘ale’inAlecop’(FoundingRector).Akey
featureoflivelihoodatMUisthatitexiststocreateemploymentmorethantomaximiseprofit.
Solidarity
Theextensivenatureofco-operativismatMU,MCCandacrosstheBasquecountrymeansthatthe
wholeregioncanberegardedasa‘solidarityeconomy’(Fernando2011).Allco-operativesin
MondragonCorporationpayapercentageoftheirannualrevenueintofundsthataredistributedfor
thebenefitoftheCorporationasawhole.ThereisanEducationFundtopayforinfrastructure
developmentsandnewtechnologies.WithinMUeachoftheFacultiescansupporteachother
throughthetransferofrevenuesifoneoftheFacultyco-opsisnotachievingitsanticipatedearnings.
Solidarityismuchmorethananeconomicrelation,itisasocialrelationandawayoflife,deeply
rootedinthelocalregionanditspoliticsaswellasfamilylife.
29
‘Wewereco-operatorsbeforewewereborn.Mymotherandfatherwereco-operators.Itis
somethinglikeaformofpredestination’(MemberofEducationandHumanitiesFaculty2)
Onereasonforthiswaningoftheco-operativespiritisafeelingamongsomemembersthatMU
doesnotpayenoughattentiontopromotingitsownco-operativeprincipleswithintheorganisation.
Aco-operativeuniversity?
Therewassupportforthedevelopmentofanotherco-operativeuniversitybutmembersofLanki
statedthatthereisnotasinglemodelforco-operativehighereducationtobetransferred.It
dependsalotonthepeople,onthecontext,theculture,thecommunity.MondragonUniversity
sharesalotoftheirideasandexperiencesofco-operativehighereducation,butthemodelcannot
simplybecopied.Nevertheless,thereareuniversalvaluesthatcouldbereplicated:a)workingwith
peoplewhostronglybelieveintheco-operativemodel;b)thattheco-operativeuniversityshouldbe
rootedintheterritoryanditsworkshouldbealignedwiththekeyneedsandstrengthsoftheregion.
UnicornWorkerCo-operative
UnicornGroceryisaworkerco-operativelocatedinSouthManchester.Itwasfoundedin1996bya
workinggroupoffourmembersplusvolunteersbasedonacommercialblueprintofaddingvalueto
wholesalefoodsalesbybulkpackagingcommodities(Sawtell1985/2006)Withanannualturnover
of£7.5millionin2016,70membersandoccupyingasiteof10,000squarefeet,Unicornisoneofthe
largestwholesalegroceriesintheUK.Unicornsellsregionallyproducedseasonalfruitand
vegetablesaswellasfairlypricedorganic-produce,includingalcohol,environmentallyfriendlybaby
products,cosmeticsandhouseholdgoods.Unicornsupportslocalproducersbybalancing‘affordable
pricesforcustomerswithagoodreturnforgrowers’.Aswellastheshopthelocationincludesan
on-sitecar-park,warehouse,officespace,children’splayareaandroofgarden.
TherearethreecategoriesofworkersatUnicorn:full-timestaff,probationarystaffand
casualstaff.Individualswhoapplyforanadvertisedpositiongothroughaformalselectionprocess
andservea7monthprobationaryperiod,whichincludespeerreview.70%ofthecurrentmembers
30
werecasualstaffwhoareemployedfor12months,duringwhichtimetheygettoknowhowthe
businessworks.
KeyworkfunctionsatUnicornaredividedintoteamunits.Thecurrentworkteamsat
Unicornare,Deli,Veg,Alcohol,Fresh,Shop,Store,Secretariat,IT/Communications,Production,
Personnel,Training,HealthandSafety,OperationsPlanning,Maintenance,Cleaning,Educationand
Marketing,FinanceandAmbientBuying.EachTeamhastheirownfortnightlymeetingtodiscuss
mattersrelatingtotheirresponsibilityforday-to-dayfunctioningofaspecificareaofthebusiness
andcontributingtostrategyatMembershipMeetingsandAwayDay.Therearethreefull
MembershipMeetingsayear,oneAwayDayandoneVisioningDay.TheMembershipMeetingsare
responsibleforstrategyplanning,policy,buildingconsensus.ArepresentativefromeachTeam
attendsaForummeeting,heldeverytwoweekswhichimplementsstrategyandpolicyfrom
MembershipMeetingsandAwayDaysandtosupportTeamFunctions.
Animportantpartofthisstructureisthatteamunitsare‘family’or‘human’sized.Another
featureofthewayinwhichworkisorganisedatUnicornismultitaskingwiththepossibilityforall
memberstotakeonamixtureofmanualandoffice-basedtasks,aswellascreatingnewrolesfor
olderandnewmemberstotakeon.AtUnicornmanagingtheco-operativeisakeyaspectofthe
organisationofthebusiness,butformembersofUnicorn‘Managementshouldbeviewedasa
functionandnotasastatus’(StructureReview2015,5):
TheresearchwascarriedoutduringNovember2016,wheretheresearchermade4day-long
researchvisitstotheco-operative.Heconducted8semi-structuredinterviewsandobservedarange
ofmeetingsandtrainingevents.Thevisitwasfacilitatedbyamemberoftheco-operative.Fromthe
rangeofresponsesgatheredtherewasnosenseinwhichtheintervieweeswerechosenbecauseof
anyattempttopresentaparticularviewaboutUnicorn.
31
Co-operativeleadership
Leadershipisconsideredanimportantaspectoftheworkoftheco-operative,provideddynamism
andexpertise.Onememberspokeof‘organicleadership’,whenindividualswithaninterestor
talentemergeswhenaparticularfunctionneedstobefilled,whothenwithdrawoncethetaskhas
beenfulfilled;ratherthanapre-ordainedmanagementfunctiontowhichmembersaspire.There
wasaviewthattheconceptofco-operativeleadershipdidnotfitwithaworker-co-operativemodel
basedondemocraticdecisionmaking.Anotheropinionwasthatthosewhoshouttheloudestget
listenedto.UsingBernstein’sframeworkfordemocraticleadership,thismodelofleadershipisnot
basedonaconsciousrecognitionofthepowerthatthepersoninapositionofinfluenceholdsand
howtheychoosetousethatpower,basedonasetofvalues,personalgoalsandbeliefs;but,rather,
thesystemicnatureoftheco-operativeorganisationsothatitaffectsthewholeconsciousnessof
individuals.Onemightsaythattheworkersaredemonstratingorarebearersofaco-operative
consciousnessthatismanifestastheUnicorngrocery.
Knowledge
Allmattersrelatingtothebusinessoftheco-operative,otherthanconfidentialHRmattersincluding
businessinformationareshared.Thereisacommitmenttomemberssharingknowledgeoftheco-
operativethroughformaltrainingdays,whenmembersmakepresentationsaboutthehistory,
scienceandculturethatliesbehindtheproductstheysell.Unicornrunstrainingevents,toshare
practicalinformationandknowledgeinawaythatcanenhancetheoperationoftheco-operative,
forexample,withregardtowebbasedpoliciesandpracticesandsafetyandsecurity.Theyare
followingapracticeofdemocraticleadershipbysharing‘newformsofsocially-usefulknowledge’
(HallandWinn2017).Theseactivitiesarepresentedtotheco-opmembersasawholegroup,apart
fromthosewithimmediateshopfloorresponsibilities.Duringtheresearchanewpracticeof
decisionmakingbasedonproposalswasintroduced.Theseproposalwouldbewrittenuppriorto
meetingsonpro-formadocumentssettingoutrelevantinformationandrationalethatlaybehindthe
proposal.Majordecisionsareinformedbyknowledgeproducedbygroupsdelegatedtoresearcha
32
particularissue,e.g.,totestwhetherthecurrentUnicorndemocraticstructurewasstillfitfor
purposeafterarecentriseinmembernumbers,andbasedonresearchvisitstootherco-operatives.
Democracy
Thisisaco-operativemodelinwhichallmembersarefullyparticipatinginallaspectsofthe
business,satisfyingBernstein’sthreedimensionsofparticipation.Theideaofinstitutionalinclusivity
wentbeyondanysenseofpromotingindividualinclusivityorcollegialitybutiswrittenintothe
constitutionalfabricoftheorganisation.Thewaysinwhichdemocracyisexercisedthrough
consensualdecision-makingmeansthatUnicorniscriticallyreflexive(HallandWinn2017)making
foraneffectiveformofdemocraticleadership.Duringthevisit,Iwitnesseddemocracyatworkina
rangeofdifferentmeetingsforspecificareasofworkwithinthegrocerystoreaswellasgeneral
meetingsknownasForums,wheredecisionsweremadefortheco-operativeasawhole.Members
feltthatwhiletheprocessofdecisionmakingmighttakelongerduetotheconsensualnatureofthe
discussions,thequalityofthedecisionswasofahigherorderaswasthecommitmentofmembers
tothedecisionsthatwereagreed.However,democracycanbeexhausting,demandinghighlevelsof
engagementbymembersinaffairsofthebusiness.Allofthisismuchmorethanpromoting
institutionalinclusivity(Bacon2014).ThefunctionoftheGeneralAssemblyandForumsmean
operatinginplaceofanymanagementbodymeansthereisfullworkplacedemocracyinBernstein’s
terms.
Bureaucracy
Theco-operativeisgroundedinadistinctivesetofpolitical,moralandethicalvaluesandprinciples,
ratherthanthegenericframeworksestablishedbytheICA.Theprinciplesare:secureemployment,
equalopportunity,fairandsustainabletradeandSolidarityinCo-operation.Therewasastrong
senseamongmembersthatitisimportanttoestablishasetofcommonsharedvaluesandprinciples
formaintainingasenseofcommonpurpose.Aswellasarecognitionthatthebusinessdoesnotjust
runonprinciplesandvaluesbutisgroundedinhardworkandtrustofeachother.
33
Livelihood
Allworker-membersarepaidthesamewages,£22kperannumbasedonanhourlyrate,including
probationarystaff.Casualsreceive80%ofthehourlyrate(orNationalLivingwage,whateveris
greater).Membersreceivequarterlybonusesbasedonhoursworkedandlengthofservicecapped
at10years.BeyondthisUnicornseekstoenhancethelifeofthelocalareabyfundingprojectsand
organisationswhichsharetheirvisionofcommunityandsocietyintheUK,andaninternationalfund
concernedwiththeimpactsofunfairworldtraderegulations,poverty,andunsustainableagriculture
intheGlobalSouth.Unicorndonates1%ofitswagesbilltoafundforlocalprojectsand4%for
internationalprojects.Aswellasthis,Unicornsupportsthedevelopmentofothergroceryco-
operativesthroughthe‘GrowyourownGrocery’guide,alongwithothercommunityactivitiesto
supportthedevelopmentofco-operativism.ThisworkisorganisedbytheEducationandMarketing
team.
Solidarity
TherewasastrongsenseofcommitmenttoothermembersofUnicornandtotheco-operative
movement,particularlyworker-co-operatives.Therewasarecognitionthatthestrengthoftheco-
operativeisitsindividualmembers.Therewasalsoarecognitionthatrelationshipsbetween
memberscouldbestrained,notonlyintermsofpersonaldisagreements,butalsowithregardto
contributionsmadetotheworkingoftheco-operative.Therewasasenseofloyaltyand
commitmenttocustomersandtoexternalsuppliers,butnodesiretoreconstituteasamulti-
stakeholderorsocialco-operativewheredecisionmakingwouldbesharedwithpeopleandgroups
whowerenotdirectlyemployedbytheworkerco-operative.Itwasfeltthatdecisionsmadeby
thesegroupsmightnotbebasedonthebestinterestoftheco-operativeasawhole.Forworkersat
Unicornthebusinessistheirlivelihoodandsothereistoomuchatstake.
Aco-operativeuniversity?
Therewaswidespreadsupportfortheideatoestablishaco-operativeuniversitywhenitwas
describedtomembersofUnicornduringtheresearchvisit.Theywerekeentohearabouthow
34
MondragonUniversityworksandthenatureofitsco-operativism.Oneofthememberssaidthat
settingupaco-operativeuniversitywouldnotonlyrequiredecidingonwhattolearn,butalsoabout
developinga‘mind-set’of’howtooperateinaco-operativeculturethatworksonanadult
transactionallevel’.
Generaldiscussionandconclusion
Thereisnosenseinwhichtheseorganisationsarebeingevaluatedintermsoftheirownvaluesand
principlesoragainsteachother.Thepurposeoftheresearchistodevelopadiagnostictoolthrough
whichtheco-operativecharacteroftheseinitiativescanbedevelopedfurtherasanintrinsicaspect
ofhighereducation.Nevertheless,itisinterestingtoframetheseinitiativeswithintheterms
establishedbythemodelsofdimensionsofparticipation(Bernstein2012),neo-collegiality(Bacon
2014)anddemocraticleadership(HallandWinn2017).Andtoconsidertheseinitiativesintermsof
therelationshipbetweenlabourandcapital,theorganisingframeworkthroughwhichweare
conceptualisingthepracticeofco-operationandco-operativeleadership.
Unicornasaworkerco-operativefullymeetsthehighestlevelofparticipationsetoutby
Bernstein’sthreedimensionsofparticipation,inawaythatgoesbeyondcollegialitytoestablisha
verysolidstructurefordemocraticleadership.Unicornregardthemselvesasaworkerco-operative
committedtoeachotherasworkers,withnoplanstoextendmembershiptoconsumersorother
externalorganisations.Whilethisprotectstheirstatusasradicallabourorganisationcommittedto
thedemocraticcontroloftheirownlabourprocessestheydonotseektodissolvethecapital
relation.WorkersatUnicorndocreatealternativeformsofhumansociabilitybasedonsharingand
community,buttheirformalarrangementasaworker’sco-operativedoesnotstretchthesocial
relationsofcapitalistproductionandreproduction.
MondragonUniversityprovidesanotherexampleofcommitmenttodemocraticdecision
makingbyownersandmembersinwaysthatfullyillustrateBernstein’sthreedimensionsof
participation,beyondtheideaofcollegiality,providingasolidstructurefordemocraticleadershipin
35
waysthatarecriticallyreflexive.UnlikeUnicorn,Mondragonisaquasi-multi-stakeholderco-
operativewherenon-owners(i.e.studentsandlocalstakeholders)dohavetherighttovote.Thereis
averystrongcommitmenttolabourandworkasthebasisforhumandignityinwaysthatmake
capitalsubordinatetolaboursoastoinwaysthatbringprosperityandemploymenttotheBasque
region.ThereareconcernsthatthehighlycompetitiveenvironmentwithinwhichMUandMCCare
operatingmeansthatthemembershipmodelisbeingunderminedbyamoremanagerialistagenda.
ThelackofstudentengagementindemocraticinitiativesatMUareacauseforconcernforsome
whoseektorecoverthemoreradicalnatureofstudentpoliticsinpreviousperiods.Theinterviews
revealedadesiretoreinventtheco-operativemodelestablishedatMUalongthelinesofasocialco-
operativetorespondeffectivelytocurrentglobalemergencies.
TheJohnLewisPartnership,althoughnotaco-operative,wassetupwiththeprinciplesand
valuesofco-operativeproductioninmind.Itprovidesamodelofemployeeownershipthatmeans
partnerscanholdseniormanagerstoaccount,andthatstaffatalllevelshavetheopportunityto
engageinagendasettinganddemocraticdecisionmaking.Theseprocessesaregroundedinthe
company’sconstitution,whichprovidesthebasisforthecollectiveconsciousnessofthewhole
organisation.ThismodeldoesnotfullysatisfyBernstein’sthreedimensionsofparticipation:power
isconcentratedatthelevelofseniormanagement,withaconstantstruggleovertheprinciples
enshrinedintheconstitutionandthepressuresofcommercialcompetitionasexpressedthrough
seniormanagement.Nevertheless,thereisthespaceforcriticalengagementbystaffthrough
instrumentssetoutintheconstitution.Andthepartnersdoretainthepowertodismissthe
ChairmanthroughademocraticvoteatthePartnershipCouncil.Thereissomeconcernbypartners
ofthatthepartnershipprincipleisbeingunderminedthroughoutsourcingactivitiesandthe
increasedhiringoftemporarystaff.
Intermsoftherelationshipbetweenlabourandcapital,theframeworkforourapproachto
co-operativeorganisations,whilethecontemporarydiscoursedoesnotusethelanguageofpolitical
economy,thehistoryofthepartnershipanditsobjectiveistocontainlabourwithintheframework
36
ofcapitalismandestablishedthepartnershipmodelasabulwarkagainstcommunism.Thisisclear
fromthetitleofSpedanLewis’book,publishedin1954,FairerShares:apossibleadvancein
civilisationandperhapstheonlyalternativetocapitalism.
TheCo-operativeschoolisbasedontheco-operativeprinciplesoftheICA,andisgoverned
andmanagedthroughhierarchicalstructures.Thereareopportunitiesfordemocraticparticipation
butthisislimitedtocertainissuesrelatingtoperceivedlevelsofexpertise.Thehierarchicalnatureof
decisionmakingisjustifiedbytheSLTintermsoftheneedtoprotectstafffromthestressful
responsibilitiesofimplementinggovernmentpolicy.Thereisgeneralsupportamongstaffforthis
approachalthoughconcernwasexpressedbyonememberofstaffabouthavingsuchahierarchical
structureinaco-operativeorganisation.Thereareforumsforstaffandstudentstoraiseissuesand
tobeconsultedbutwithoutthepowertomakedecisions.Thislackofpowerintermsofdecision
makingwasinalimitedwayamelioratedbytherealsenseofcommunityandcollegiality,which
followingBacon’sframework,promotedinstitutionalinclusivitythrougharangeofwellorganised
formalandinformalprocesses.
Allofthecasestudiesagreedontheimportanceofco-operativeleadershipalthoughwith
differentapproachestowhatitactuallymeant.ItwasthemostproblematicforUnicorn,themost
strikingatMondragonintermsofthelimitsoftheRectorandViceRector’spower,themost
hierarchicalatJohnLewis,asonemightexpect,althoughunderpinnedbytheconstitution,andat
Lipsonacademywasenshrinedinapedagogicmodelthatcouldbeextendedtootherco-operative
organisations,andinparticular,thenewco-operativeuniversity.
Therewasgeneralsupportfortheideaofaco-operativeuniversity,asaprogressionfor
studentsattheco-operativeschool,andaspartofMU’scommitmenttosupportingco-operative
highereducationelsewhereintheworld.Therewasalsotherealitythatco-operativevaluesand
principlesmightnotbeappropriateforallformsofemployee-ownedbusiness,anditwoulddepend
verymuchonthelocalandpoliticalcircumstances.Thecatalyticprinciplesbasedonprevious
researchprovedtoberobustwaysinwhichtoframetheresearch.
37
KeylearningpointsarethewayinwhichJones,formerVicePrincipalattheschool,
expressedtheimportanceofworkingwiththecontradictionsthatconfrontthoseinvolvedwith
capitalistinstitutions.Althoughthisviewwasnotconceptualisedintermofthevaluerelation,as
advancedbythestrugglebetweenlabourandcapital,itverymuchfitsourwayofcriticallyand
practicallyworkinginsidehighereducationinstitutions(NearyandWinn2017b).Alecopenterprises
canbeusedtoillustratethepowerofstudentsasprotagonists,owingandrunningtheirown
enterprises,aswellastheviewexpressedbyamemberofAlecopfortheneedtodevelopnewforms
ofco-operativeenterpriseswhicharemoreabletodealwiththeveryrealemergenciesofthe
contemporaryworldnotonlyintermsofownEuropeancontextsbuttobesetalongsidelessonsthat
havebeenlearnedintheGlobalSouth.
Basedonourtheoreticalframingthatprioritisestherelationshipbetweencapitaland
labour,itispossibletoreconceptualisetheconceptofco-operativeleadership.Thedistinctive
featureofco-operativeleadershipthatemergesfromthisstudyisthatitisnotbasedonthe
charismaticcharacteristicsofcertainindividuals,norisittheoutcomeofdistributedleadership
throughoutanorganisation,noracomplexmatrixofhybridmanagerialforms,butisderivedfrom
thenatureoftheorganisationitself.Incapitalistenterprises,whicharebasedontheco-operationof
labouraswellasaspecificdivisionoflabour,leadersofallkindsemerge,empatheticandconsensual
aswellasauthoritariananddespotic,inresponsetobarriersthatneedtobeovercomeforthe
continuationofproductivegrowth;but,contratotheimperativesofcapitalistproduction,co-
operativeleadershipinacapitalistcontextwillemergeinresponsetothesocialisationoflabourthat
co-operationincapitalismimplies(solidarity),andforpurposesthatgobeyondthelimitsand
barriersofcapitalistproduction(livelihood)inwaysthatinvolvetheagreementofthewhole
organisation(democracy)basedonitscollectiveintelligenceandcapacity(knowledge)andina
mannerthatmembersoftheenterprisesupportandadhereto,asasetofmoral,ethicaland
politicalprinciples(bureaucracy).And,aswellasallofthat,theresearchhasrevealedwhatwe
alreadyknew:co-operativeenterprisesarebuiltbypeoplebasedonloveandtrust,asenseofpride
38
andcommitmenttoeachother,aswellasmanagingpersonaltensionsandantagonisms,morelikea
familyorakinshipgroupthanabusinesscorporation.
References
Alvesson,M.andSpicer,A.(2012),‘Criticalleadershipstudies:Thecaseforcritical
performativity’,HumanRelations,65(3):367–390.
Amsler,Sarah(2013)‘Universityranking:adialogueonturningtowardsalternatives’.Ethicsin
ScienceandEnvironmentalPolitics,13(2).pp.1-12.
Amsler,SarahandBolsmann,Chris(2012)‘Universityrankingassocialexclusion’.BritishJournalof
SociologyofEducation,33(2).pp.283-301.
Bacon,Ed.(2014),Neo-Collegiality:RestoringAcademicEngagementintheManagerial
University.TheLeadershipFoundationforHigherEducation,London.Availableat:
http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/11493/
Bailey,MichaelandFreedman,Des(2011)TheAssaultonUniversities:AManifestoforResistance.
London:PlutoPress.
Bakaikoa,Baleren.,ErrastiAnjelandBergiristain,Agurtzane(2004)‘InGovernanceofthe
MondragonCorporacionCo-operativa’.InAnnalsofPublicandCo-operativeEconomics.75161-87.
Benjamin,Walter(1934/1998)TheAuthorasProducer:UnderstandingBrecht,London:
Verso.
39
Bernstein,Paul(2012)WorkplaceDemocratization:ItsInternalDynamics.Massachusetts:
EducationalServicesPublishing.
Boden,RebeccaCiancanelli,PenelopeandWright,Susan(2012),‘Trustuniversities?Governancefor
postcapitalistfutures’.JournalofCo-operativeStudies,45(2):16–24.
Bolden,Rebecca,Gosling,JonathanandO’Brien,Anne.(2014),‘Citizensoftheacademic
community?A societalperspectiveonleadershipinUKhighereducation’,StudiesinHigher
Education,39(5),pp.754–770.
Bonefeld,Werner(2014)CriticalTheoryandtheCritiqueofPoliticalEconomy:onSubversionand
NegativeReason.LondonandNewYork:Bloomsbury.
Burawoy,Michael(1998)‘TheExtendedCaseMethod’.SociologicalTheory.161:
http://burawoy.berkeley.edu/Methodology/ECM.ST.pdf
Cathcart,Abigail(2009)DirectingDemocracy:theCaseoftheJohnLewisPartnership.PhDThesis.
UniversityofLeicester:https://lra.le.ac.uk/bitstream/2381/7811/1/2009CathcartAphd.pdf
Collini,Stefan(2012)WhatareUniversitiesFor?London:Penguin.
Cook,Dan(2013)RealisingtheCo-operativeUniversity,aconsultancyreportfortheCo-operative
College.https://coopuni.files.wordpress.com/2013/12/realising-the-co-operative-university-for-
disemmination.pdf
40
Davidge,Gail(2014)For‘gettingit’:andEthnographicStudyofCo-operativeSchools.PhDThesis.
ManchesterMetropolitanUniversity.
Dinerstein,AnaandNeary,Mike(2002)TheLabourDebate:theTheoryandRealityofCapitalist
Work.London:Ashgate.
Dopson,Sue,Ferlie,Ewan,McGivern,Gerry,Fischer,MichaelD.,Ledger,Jean,Behrens,
SonjaandWilson,Sarah(2016),TheImpactofLeadershipandLeadershipDevelopment
inHigherEducation:AReviewoftheLiteratureandEvidence,London:Leadership
FoundationforHigherEducation.(Researchanddevelopmentseries).
Hall,Richard(2015).‘TheUniversityandtheSecularCrisis’.OpenLibraryoftheHumanities,1(1).
Hall,RichardandWinn,Joss(eds.)(2017)MassIntellectualityandDemocraticLeadershipinHigher
Education.LondonandNewYork:BloomsburyAcademic.
Jones,Sarah(2015)ContrivedCollegiality?InvestigatingtheEfficacyofTeacherDevelopment.In
TomWoodin(ed),pp.74–87.
Kashmir,Sharyn(1996)TheMythofMondragon:Co-operatives,PoliticsandWorkingClassLifeina
BasqueTown.NewYork:NewYorkStateUniversityPress.
Lewis,Spedan(1954)FairerShares:APossibleAdvanceinCivilisationandPerhapstheOnly
AlternativetoCommunism.Rochester:StaplesPrintersLimited.
41
McGettigan,A.(2013),TheGreatUniversityGamble:Money,MarketsandtheFutureofHigher
Education,London:PlutoPress.
Molesworth,Michael,Scullion,RichardandNixon,Elisabeth(2010),TheMarketisationofHigher
EducationandtheStudentasConsumer,London:Routledge.
Molina,Fernando(2011)‘TheSpiritualityofEconomics:HistoricalRootsofMondragon’.InBasque
Co-operativism.EdsBalerenBakaikoaandEnekaAlbizu.CentreforBasqueStudies:Universityof
Reno,NevadaandtheUniversityoftheBasqueCountry.
Neary,MikeandWinn,Joss(2017b)‘BeyondPublicandPrivate:AFrameworkforCo-operative
HigherEducation’toOpenLibraryofHumanities.
Neary,MikeandWinn,Joss(2017a)‘Thereisanalternative:areportonanactionresearchproject
todevelopaframeworkforco-operativehighereducation’.LearningandTeaching:The
InternationalJournalofHigherEducationintheSocialSciences,10(1).
Postone,Moishe(1993)Time,LabourandSocialDomination:AreappraisalofMarx’ssocialtheory.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress
Ridley-DuffRoryandBull,Mike(2016)UnderstandingSocialEnterprise,LondonSage
Sawtell,Roger(1985/2006)'Blueprintfor50Co-ops'.Availableathttp://www.unicorn-
grocery.co.uk/pdfs/Blueprint%20for%2050%20Co-ops%20(2006).pdf
42
Shattock,Mike(2006),ManagingGoodGovernanceinHigherEducation,Maidenhead:Open
UniversityPress.
Shattock,M.(2008),‘ThechangefromprivatetopublicgovernanceofBritishhigher
education:ItsconsequencesforHigherEducationpolicymaking1980–2006’,Higher
EducationQuarterly,62(3),pp.181–203.
Snaith,Ian(2014)IstheJohnLewisModelPerfectfortheCo-operativeGroup?
http://www.thenews.coop/85112/news/general/john-lewis-model-perfect-co-operative-group/
Wilson,Mervyn(2014)‘LearningTogether:perspectivesinco-operativehighereducation’(keynote
address),Co-operativeCollegeManchester
Winn,Joss(2015)TheCo-operativeUniversity:Labour,PropertyandPedagogy,Powerand
Education,7(1)39-55.
Woodin,Tom(2015)(ed)Co-operation,LearningandCo-operativeValues,London:Routledge.
Wright,Susan,Greenwood,DavyddandBoden,Rebecca(2011)‘ReportonafieldvisittoMondragon
University:Aco-operativeexperience/experiment’.LearningandTeaching,4(3):38–56.
Yeo,Stephen(1988),NewViewsofCo-operation,London:Routledge.
Yeo,Stephen(2014),‘TheCo-operativeUniversity:TransformingHigherEducation,’inTomWoodin
(ed)Co-operation,LearningandCo-operativeValues,London:Routledge.