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CANADIANJOURNALOFEDUCATION29,2(2006):1340
DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)?REPRESENTATIONSOF
SOCIALCONFLICTINCANADIANPUBLIC
SCHOOLCURRICULUM
KathyBickmore
Abstract:
Keywords:
Resume:
Motscls:
_________________
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14 KATHYBICKMORE
Public schoolingcontributes toyoungpeoplespreparation for roles in
societysinevitableconflicts,includingredressofinjustice. Inthisarticle,
Iexaminehowconflict, socialdiversity,violence/peace,and (in)justice
are expressed in official curriculum expectations in English Language
Arts,Health,andSocialSciencescurricula,grade110,inthreeCanadian
provinces: NovaScotia,Manitoba,andOntario. Curriculumdiscourse
reinforces certain ways of thinking and delegitimates othersfor
example, encouraging or inhibiting diverse students development of
agency fordemocraticengagement inhandling social conflict. Formal
guidelinesby no means determine classroom practice: teachers, too,
haveagency! However,officialcurriculadoreflectpublicunderstanding
and political will, and help to shape the resources available for
implementedcurriculum.Inthecomplexenvironmentsofpluralisticsocieties,socialconflictis
a constant, but it can be handled constructively and nonviolently
(Bickmore, 2004b). Citizensnegotiate, throughgovernments, the rules
bywhich rights anddifferences are regulated (Kymlicka, 2003). Thus
peace is built upon imperfectly democratic management of social
conflict. Susan Bickford (1996) describes political communication as
creating a path toward understanding anothers experience: not to
erasethedistance,buttobeabletospeak,listen,andacttogetheracross
it, in the interests of democracy (p. 171). Similarly, citizenship
educationcouldequipmembersofdiversesocialgroups tobuildpaths
towardunderstanding
and
democratic
decision
making
embracing
andhandlingconflict,rather thanerasingdifferences. Schooling isone
social institution that simultaneously facilitates, shapes, and impedes
suchconflictmanagement.
Public schooling, a project of the state, has abuiltin mandate to
legitimate the existing (inequitable) social order (Curle, Freire, &
Galtung, 1974). At the same time, social and political institutions are
made up of humanbeings,whose passive consent and active agency
continually ebb, flow, and reshape them. Competing discourses and
goalscoexist(oftenembedded inthesamecurriculumdocuments),and
arebroughttobearoneveryaspectofschooling(Carnoy&Levin,1985).
Dominantculturalnormsandnarrativesaboutjustice, identity,conflict,
violence, and enmity are both perpetuated and challenged, by
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 15
individualsandgroups, through schoolpolicyaswellas implemented
curriculumpractices.
Itisnaturalforthestatetoattempttofostersocialcohesionthrough
school curriculum. However, that cohesive impulse canbe primarily
democratic,basedondiversityandpluralism,orprimarilyassimilational
(BearNicholas,1996;Mtrai,2002;Tawil&Harley,2004). Democratic
social cohesion implies encouragement ofboth significant diversity of
identitiesandviewpoints,andsignificantcitizenagency.
Developing young peoples agency through schooling is more
problematic than it sounds. Citizens choices are somewhat
autonomous, but also constituted and constrained by what they
experienceandunderstandasknown. Forexample,teachingCanadian
identity as if equity and mutual tolerance have been alreadyaccomplished could silence students inevitably more checkered lived
experience and deemphasize their capacity to do something about
continuing injustice. In societies that see themselves as harmonious,
dissentersanddissentmaybeunjustlymarginalized (Merelman,1990).
Notions of agency also tend to embody individualism, rather than
highlightingcollective/cumulativecapacitytoinfluencesocialstructures.
Theundersideisanunfoundedassumptionofunconstrainedindividual
freedom and responsibility that can easily slip into blaming and
devaluingbothdissentersandthosewithlowstatus.
However, ignoring diverse students agency is as dangerous as
takingindividual
autonomy
for
granted.
Where
curriculum
reinforces
student passivity and disengagement by marginalizing conflicting
viewpoints, itdenies thosestudentsopportunities todevelopskillsand
understandings of themselves as social actors (citizens). This
marginalization is especially undemocratic for lowerstatus students,
whoseagency inrelation toschoolknowledge ismostrigidlycurtailed
(Anyon,1981). Agency fordemocraticsocialcohesionrequirescitizens
to understand how particular actionsmay contribute to, and impede,
social(in)justice.
Typically,Canadianpubliceducationalpracticehasnotemphasized
criticaldemocraticengagement(Sears,Clarke,&Hughes,1999). Yetthe
contradictionsanddynamicnegotiationofprioritieswithin the system
create cracks in the edifice that canbecome opportunities for critical
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16 KATHYBICKMORE
transformative work (Ellsworth, 1997; Freire, 1998). Public education
often reinforces structural/cultural violence,but it can also strengthen
teachers and students agency to promote democratic social cohesion
(Bush & Saltarelli, 2000; Davies, 2004). Thus I probe the citizenship
implicationsof the implicitandexpliciteducationaboutconflict that is
embeddedintheofficialcurriculum.
METHOD
Inthisarticle,Ihaveexaminedasampleofofficialprovincialcurriculum
documents from Manitoba (within the Western Canadian Protocol),
Nova Scotia (within the Atlantic Canada framework), and Ontario
(Canadas most populous province). Grades 1 to 10 encompass the
majorityof
compulsory
courses
offered
before
the
minimum
legal
schoolleavingage. IchosethreesubjectareasEnglishLanguageArts,
Health, and Social Studies because pilot study revealed that these
curriculahold themajority of explicit conflictrelated content. Clearly
othersubjects(andthecocurriculum)alsohave important implications
for citizenship in/for social conflict, but those implications are less
explicitlyvisible.
Data collectionbegan with an inclusive search for conflictrelated
words and phrases in the content and skill learning expectations and
teachingguidelinesintheselectedcurriculumdocuments. Withstudent
assistants, I extracted all identifiable expectations in these curricula
related
to
three
broad
approaches
to
conflict
derived
from
conflict
theory: peacekeeping (words such as violence, aggression, safety,
security), peacemaking (words such as communication, critical
reasoning,understandingandhandlingconflict,viewpoint,negotiation),
andpeacebuilding (wordssuchasequity,justice,bias,andattention to
socialdifferencessuchascultureandgender). Iaddedafourthcategory,
other citizenship concerns, to keep the analysis open to other explicit
citizenshiprelated content such as governance or rights and
responsibilities, not clearly captured by one of the preceding three
categories. Our goal was to investigate all identifiable elements of
citizenship education that were potentially relevant to understanding
and participating in social conflict. I examined these extracts in their
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 17
discursive contexts, coded, and recoded thematic categories to best
reflecttheactualthemesthatbecamevisible(seebelow).
Iarrangedthecodedcollectionsofcurriculumexcerptstoreflectthe
approximatefrequencyofattentiontoeachthemerelativetotheothers,
across subject areas and provinces. However, this analysis did not
carefullymeasurethequantityofeachprovincialcurriculumsemphasis
onparticularthemes. Instead,thegoalwastouncoverthequalitiesand
implicationsofparticularinclusionsandexclusionsinthesecurricula. I
analyze the themespresentedmore rarely in theseofficial curricula in
themostdetailhere,tofocusthisanalysisontherangeofmeaningsand
possibilitiesembedded in thesecurricula. Incontrast, themost typical
elementsofthesecurriculaarepresentedwiththeleastdetail,assuming
theywillbemost familiar toreaders. Last,Iselecteda fewcurriculumexcerpts from each province and each subject area to represent the
thematiccharacterof therangeofcurricularexpectations (seeTables1
5). Thegoalwastopresentsufficientdetailtoallowreaderstoquestion
my interpretations, while reducing to a manageable size the data
extractedfromseveralhundredpagesofcurriculumdocuments.
Muchoftherhetoricaboutactiveparticipation,citizenengagement,
socialjustice,and critical thinking is found in thegeneral introductory
sections of these documents, more than in the specific substantive
content expectations. Critical thinking goals in particular were often
found inseparate listsofskills,disconnectedfromthecontenttowhich
theymight
be
applied.
Because
teachers,
tests,
and
textbooks
generally
attendtospecificsubjectmattermorethantosuchgeneralandmarginal
guidelines, this analysis emphasizes the substantive content
expectations.
TheEnglishLanguageArtscurriculumtakesonspecialsignificance
for citizenship educationbecause inmany school systems, pushedby
highstakesliteracytests,substantialtimeisallocatedtoit. Forexample,
NovaScotiasTime toLearnStrategyrecommends that ingrades46
teachersspendover30percentofclassroom timeonEnglish language
artsandover20percentonmathematics. Inconsequence,onlyabout4
percentoftimeremainsforhealtheducation,anothernearly9percent
forphysicaleducation,and less than8percent(110minutesperweek)
for each of science and social studies (Nova Scotia Department of
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18 KATHYBICKMORE
EducationandHumanServices,,2005). Classroomtimeisoftenlimited
for social studies, the traditionalhome for explicitpolitical citizenship
education and nationalism, and for the life skills strands of health
curricula,wheremostconflictresolutionlearningexpectationsarefound.
Withinaswellasamongsubjects,officiallymandated testsoftendirect
attention away from themost citizenshiprelevant aspects of curricula
(Harber, 2002). This time scarcity clearly limits teachers capacity to
implementcriticaldemocraticcitizenshipcurriculum.
Teachers, curriculum leaders, and resourcedevelopers have
substantial agency to reinterpret and shape official expectations in
implemented curriculum. Yet thediscourse in curriculumdocuments
generally reflects considerable assumed consensus among educators
who have had input in their design, and may also reflect ways ofthinkingcommonamongmanyteachers.
CONFLICTRELATED CITIZENSHIP DISCOURSE IN OFFICIAL
CURRICULA
Below, I introduce the conflict and citizenshiprelated themes that
emerged as prominent in the selected Canadian provincial curricula
(listed frommostcommonlyemphasized to leastprominent). Idiscuss
excerpts according to these thematic categories: harmonybuilding
elements, individual skillbuilding elements, and explicitly political,
international, and/or conflictualissueelements. Because theharmony
building
elements
are
prominent
among
all
three
sets
of
curricula,
I
presentthemtogether. Next,Icomparethethreeprovincesapproaches
to the latter set of themes (individual skill building and political/
international/conflictualissues).
Harmonybuilding:
1. Self: Individual contribution, responsibility, communication
andcooperation
2. Others: Appreciation of diverse heritages and viewpoints,
multiculturalism,nationalunity
Individualskillbuilding:
3.Conflict
resolution:
managing
disputes
and
avoiding
violence
4. Criticalreasoningandproblemsolvingprocesses
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 19
Political,international,andsocialconflict:
5. Citizenparticipation,governanceandCanadianideals
6. Globalinterdependence:peace,humanrights,andecology
7. Social conflict issues: past or present conflicts and public
controversies
The most prominent themes in these curricula were individual
communicationandcooperation,appreciationfordiversity,andconflict
management/avoidance (themes 13). Althoughpure assimilationwas
not explicitly advocated, the overall message was often about not
makingwavesandgettingalong. Theconflictresolutioncontent(theme
3) nearly always focused on interpersonal disputes, and emphasized
dominantculturewaysof avoidingdisruption and restoringharmony.Therelativelyinfrequentattentiontointernationalinterdependenceand
global diversity (theme 6) also emphasized nonconfrontation and
harmony. Thus many elements of these curricula could marginalize
conflictanddissenters. This containmentofdisruptionwould tend to
protect the status quo, and thusbe antidemocratic in its citizenship
implications.
Citizen participation and governance, critical reasoning, global
interdependence, and social conflict issues (themes 47) were
considerably less visible in these curricula than the harmony themes.
Such conflictavoidantcurricula tend tobegenerallyuninterestingand
ineffectivefor
most
students.
Attention
in
classrooms
to
investigation
andopendiscussionof controversial social issues, in contrast,engages
teachersandstudents inapplyingdemocratic idealstothecomplexities
of real conflicts, thereby generating more knowledge and interests
(Hahn,1998;TorneyPurta,Lehmann,Oswald,&Schultz,2001). Allthe
curricula reviewed,primarily in social studies,didcreate some limited
andcautiousspaceforsuchconflictualcontenttherebyofferingsome
encouragementandprotectionforteacherswhodoaddressconflictsand
controversies in their implemented curricula (Bickmore, 2002). Thus
teachers are not prohibitedby these curricular requirements,but not
pervasively encouraged, to confront the kinds of social and political
conflictsthatwouldengagedemocraticcitizens.
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20 KATHYBICKMORE
CurriculumforHarmonyBuilding
Thecurricula reviewed inall three subjectareasplaced clearemphasis
onstudentsdevelopmentofskillsandinclinationsforcivilinterpersonal
communication and cooperation (seeTable 1). Pedagogicalguidelines
continually exhorted teachers to use studentcentred and experiential
teachingmethodssuchasdiscussionandgroupwork,perhapsbecause
such pedagogies remain anything but pervasive in practice (Sears,
Clarke, & Hughes, 1999). These themes were emphasized in similar
waysinalltheprovincescurriculainthethreesubjectareas.
Table1: CurriculumforHarmonyBuilding:AppreciatingSelfandOthers
MANITOBA
NOVA
SCOTIA
ONTARIO
ENGLISHLANGUAGE
ARTSgrade8(1996):
engageindialogueto
understandthefeelings
andviewpointsofothers
andcontributetogroup
harmony. Grade4:
identifysimilaritiesand
differencesbetween
personalexperiencesand
theexperiencesofpeople
fromvariouscultures
portrayedin
oral,
literary,
andmediatexts. Grade3:
showconsiderationfor
thosewhoseideas,
abilities,andlanguageuse
differfromourown.
PHYSICAL&HEALTH
EdnFrameworkgrade112
(2000)strandsincludeself
awareness/self
esteem/respectforothers
andsocialdevelopment/
appreciationofdiversity.
Grade9:examinethe
effectsofstereotyping
PHYSICAL&HEALTH
Edngrade79(1999):
practicefairplay,
includingwillingly
choosingavarietyof
partnersusingavarietyof
criteriaandvaluingthe
participationofbothmale
andfemalestudents.
Demonstrateacceptance
ofandappreciationfor
theirownandothers
sexualorientation,
and
awarenessofsocial
influencesthatcontribute
togenderstereotyping.
SOCIALSTUDIESgrade9
course,AtlanticCanadain
theGlobalCommunity
(1998):demonstratean
understandingofthe
natureofculture,ethnic,
andlinguisticgroupsin
AtlanticCanada,
mentioningespecially
francophones,aboriginals,
andAfroCanadians.
SOCIALSTUDIESgrade5:
demonstratean
understandingthatfor
everyrightthereisa
responsibility. Grade2:
demonstratean
understandingthat
Canadaisacountryof
manycultures[and]
identifythesignificant
featuresofvariousfamily
cultures(e.g.food,dress,
celebrations).In
grade
6:
identifythecontributions
ofAboriginalpeoplesto
thepoliticalandsociallife
ofCanada(e.g.inmusic,
art,politics,literatureand
science).
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 21
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
basedonavarietyof
factors(e.g.gender,age,
race,roles,media
influences,bodytype,
sexualorientation,source
ofincome)andways
topromoteacceptanceof
selfandothers.
Respect for self and others and avoiding stereotypes were
emphasizedinallthreesetsofcurriculaacrossallreviewedsubjectareas.
In Social Studies, this rhetorical affirmation of diverse identities also
includedinvocations
of
national
unity,
recognition
of
the
contributions
of (essentialized) ethnocultural groups to Canada, and the Canadian
nessofourrightsandfreedoms. Exceptindirectlyinthediscourseabout
avoidingstereotypes,mostofthecurricularattentiontosocialdifference,
especially in Ontario and Nova Scotia, did not mention (in)equity.
Ethnocultural differences were far more consistently mentioned than
any other social difference, although especially in Manitoba, a few
curricular passages included additional kinds of diversity such as
gender, ability, and economic status, but without much concerted
attentiontoanyparticularaxisof(in)equity.
All three provinces emphasizedCanadian identity, represented as
ethnoculturally plural. Manitoba and especially Nova Scotia also
emphasizedregional identity. Ontariosrelative inattention toregional
identitypresumably reflects itsassumeddominance incentralCanada.
Ethnocultural diversity is represented somewhat differently in each
province. For example, Nova Scotia emphasized AfroCanadian
identities,ManitobaattendedmoretoAboriginalconcerns,andOntario
emphasized the polyglot community of immigrants. Manitobas
curriculumattendedtodiscriminationandsocialexclusioninrelationto
a wider range of social differences, including sexual orientation and
socialclass. Thuswithnotableexceptions,thisprevailingcontributions
approach tosocialdiversityappears tobeaimedmoreatharmonyand
conflictavoidancethanatrestructuringconflictualsocialrelationships.
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22 KATHYBICKMORE
Althoughsocialconflictistheassumedthreatthatseemstomotivate
this curricular attention to diversity, it rarelybreaks the surface into
explicit text. This kind of indirect, conflictavoidant, awarenesslevel
attention to diversity is unlikely to facilitate any movement toward
equity (Banks,1988;McCauley,2002). Tobeeffective,suchcurriculum
would require open dialogue and sustained, equitable, cooperative,
intergroupinteraction(TalOr,Boninger,&Gleicher,2002).
CurriculumforIndividualSkillBuilding
Ihavegrouped theremaining two thematicsetsofcurriculumexcerpts
bysubjectareaaswellasbyprovincetohighlightemergingdifferences
amongjurisdictions(HealthandEnglishLanguageArtsappearinTable
2,Social
Studies
in
Table
3).
For
example,
compared
to
Nova
Scotia,
ManitobaandOntariogavemoreexplicitattentiontoconflictresolution
inmultiplesubjectareas.Manitobasmainattentiontoconflictresolution
was inHealthandSocialStudiescurricula. Incomparison to theother
provinces curricula, the Manitoba curricula more explicitly linked
criticalreasoningtospecificlearningoutcomesinallthreesubjectareas.
AsinManitoba,Ontariocurriculumcalledforspecificconflictresolution
and critical reasoning outcomes, notably including social and political
conflicts inaddition tothe interpersonal. Atthesame time,similarities
among the three provinces curricula (especially in English Language
Arts) outweighed differences. What distinguishes these curricular
themes
is
an
individualistic,
skill
building
approach.
Table2: CurriculumforIndividualSkillbuilding:Physical&HealthEducationandEnglish
LanguageArts
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
PHYSICAL/HEALTHEDUCATION
Conflictresolution/
avoidingviolenceMB
FrameworkKS4(2000)
GeneralLearning
Outcomesincludesafety
(includingviolence/abuse
prevention)andpersonal/
socialmanagement
Conflictresolution/avoiding
violenceGrades79(1999):a
studentlistensattentively,
encouragesothers,disagrees
inanagreeableway,criticizes
ideasinsteadofthe
person Grade6:identify
andpracticeconflict
Conflictresolution/
avoidingviolenceThe
grade18(1998)strand
onPersonalSafetyand
InjuryPrevention
attendstovarioustypes
ofverbalandphysical
violence,forexample
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 23
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
(includingconflictresolution). Grade3:
identifystrategies(e.g.say
noassertively,seekadult
helpconflictresolution
skills)toavoidbeing
bulliedindifferentcase
scenarios.Senior1(grade
9):applyconflict
resolutionstrategies(i.e.
mediationandnegotiation)
indifferentcasescenarios
forunderstandingdifferent
perspectivesandpointsof
view.
CriticalreasoningThis
frameworkincludesa
decisionmaking/problem
solvingstrand,e.g.grade
3:explorethestepsinthe
decisionmaking/problem
solvingprocess(e.g.define
topicorissue,explore
alternatives,checkand
considerhealthknowledge
andvalues,identify
possiblesolutions,decide,
evaluate).
resolutionstrategies
CriticalreasoningGrade79
guidelines:studentsshould
haveopportunitiesto
examinecriticallywaysin
whichlanguageandimages
areabletocreate,reinforce
andperpetuategender,
ability,culture,andother
formsofbiases,andapply
critical,analyticaland
creativethinkingtoidentify
andsolveproblems,making
decisionscollaboratively.Thefoundationforallgrades
(1998)frames
communication,problem
solving,andthecapacityto
criticallyinterpret
informationanddifferent
pointsofviewasessential
graduationlearnings.
grade7:identifypeopleandresourcesthatcan
supportsomeone
experiencing
harassment.HEALTH
grade910includesa
mainsectiononconflict
resolution,suchas
understandingthe
triggersofconflict.
ENGLISHLANGUAGEARTS
CriticalreasoningSenior
13curriculumoverview
(1996):Textsprovide
opportunitiesforthinking
andtalkingaboutawide
rangeoftopicsandideas,
includingthoserelatingto
society,ethics,andthe
meaningandsignificance
ofexperiences[Students
should]becomemore
conscious,discerning,
critical,and
appreciative
CriticalreasoningGrade46
curriculumoverview
(1998)emphasizescritical
literacy,includinghelping
studentstorecognizehow
textconstructsones
understandingandworldviewof
race,gender,socialclass,age,
ethnicity,andabilityand
givingstudentsthemeansto
bringaboutthekindofsocial
justicethatademocracyseeksto
create.
Criticalreasoning
Grade18guidelines
(1997)advocate
brainstorming,
discussingstrategiesfor
problemsolving,
debatingissuesand
identifyingvaluesand
issues,detectingbias,
detectingimpliedas
wellasexplicit
meanings.Grade9
includesunitsonMedia
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24 KATHYBICKMORE
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
readersof
visual
mediaand
moreeffectivecreatorsof
visualproducts. Students
needtorecognizethatwhata
cameracapturesisa
constructionofreality,not
realityitself.
StudiesandLiteratureStudiesandReading:
explainhowreaders
differentbackgrounds
mightinfluencetheway
theyunderstandand
interpretatext.
Table3: CurriculumforIndividualSkillbuilding:SocialStudies/SocialSciences
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
Conflictresolution/
avoidingviolenceA
FrameworkGeneral
LearningOutcome,Powerandauthority,
includesjustice,rules
andlaws,conflictand
conflictresolution,and
warandpeace. Skillsfor
activedemocratic
citizenshiparetopervade
thecurriculum,including
cooperation,conflict
resolution,accepting
differences,taking
responsibility,negotiation,
buildingconsensus,
collaborativedecision
making,andlearningto
dealwithdissentand
disagreement. Grade58:
useavarietyofstrategies
toresolveconflicts
peacefullyandfairly[such
as]clarification,
negotiation,
compromiseGrade1:
giveexamplesofcauses
ofinterpersonalconflict
andsolutionsto
interpersonalconflictin
theschool
and
community.
Conflictresolution/
avoidingviolence
Foundation(1997)
identifiescommunication(includingdebating,
negotiating,establishing
consensus,clarifyingand
mediatingconflict)as
essentialskilloutcomes,
andsuggeststhatstudents
berequiredtotake
positionsonpastand
currentissues.
Criticalreasoning
Foundationguidelines:
teachersshould
encourageand
enable
studentstoquestiontheir
ownassumptionsandto
imagine,understand,and
appreciaterealitiesother
thantheirown. Oneof
sixconceptualstrands,
TimeandContinuity,
advocatescriticalanalysis
oftheeventsofthepast,
theireffectsontodayand
theirtieswiththefuture
valuesclarification,andan
examinationof
perspective
Conflictresolution/
avoidingviolenceGrade
16(1998)Canadaand
WorldConnectionsstrandidentifiesexamples
ofdivergentviewpoints
andconflictresolution.
HISTORYgrade7(1998)
unit,Conflictand
Change:demonstratean
understandingoftherivalries
betweentheFrenchand
EnglishinNorthAmerica
andEurope(e.g.between
theHudsonsBay
CompanyandtheNorth
WestCompany,[and]
betweenAboriginal
allies)and
demonstratean
understandingofthe
natureofchangeand
conflict,identifytypesof
conflict(e.g.war,rebellion,
strike,protest)andpresent
strategiesforconflict
resolution. CIVICS
grade10(1998):
demonstrateanabilityto
anticipateconflictingcivic
purposes,overcomepersonal
bias,
and
suspend
judgment
indealingwithissuesofcivic
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 25
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
CriticalreasoningSkills
formanagingideasand
informationandCritical
andcreativethinking
skillsalsoaretopervade
thiscurriculum. Grade5
6:comparediverse
perspectivesinavarietyof
informationsources.
Grade7,compare
differingviewpoints
regardingglobalissues
[and]analyzeprejudice,
racism,stereotyping,
or
other
formsofbiasinthemediaand
otherinformationsources.
concernandanalyzeapproachestodecision
makingandconflict
resolutionthataffecttheir
ownlives.
CriticalreasoningGrade9
GeographyofCanada
course:analysethefactors
thatcausechange,and
forecasttheeffectsof
changeintherelationships
betweentheearthsnatural
andhumansystems[to
carryout]problemsolvingandplanning.
All the curricula reviewed presented reasoning skills as essential
such as informationprocessing,decisionmaking, interpretingmultiple
sources, and recognizingbias. Interpersonal conflict resolution skill
building was nearly as common. However, these expectations were
usuallylistedseparatelyfromwhatmanyteachersunderstandasthereal
curriculum: subjectmatter content. The curriculamentioned abstract
conceptsofsocialjusticeandbias,butusuallynotattachedtoparticular
instances, causes, or ramifications. These curricula presented both
critical thinkingandconflictresolutionprimarilyas technicalskillsandeven as attitudes, disconnected from any particular substantive topic,
and from dissent, diverse approaches to conflict, or engagement in
probingthecausesoreffectsofsocialconflict. Yetconflictandcritique
are not generic: each instance acquires distinctmeanings in cultural,
historical, and social context (Lederach, 1995; Ross, 1993). Although
individual skills andwillingness to confront conflict constructively are
necessary for the dialogic and decisionmaking aspects of democratic
citizenship in pluralistic contexts, they are likely not sufficient until
applied to practice in relation to specific instances (Avery, Sullivan,
&Wood,1997;Case&Wright,1997). Clearlyteacherswiththecapacity
andinclination
to
do
so
could
plan
lessons
to
achieve
the
above
curricular expectations by delving into multiple perspectives on
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26 KATHYBICKMORE
contestedquestions and issues,butmost of these curriculawouldnot
requirethemtodoso.
None of the English Language Arts curricula explicitly taught
peacemaking, although they emphasized critical reasoning skills that
underlie conflictmanagement. This lack ofdirect attention to conflict
and resolution in language arts curricula represents a missed
opportunity, because both nonfiction and fiction often present
characters points of view about conflicts. Reading and writing
curriculum could provide examples for thoughtful discussion,
perspective taking, and other conflict learning. Nothing in these
curricular expectations would prevent teachers from facilitating such
learningopportunities,butthereislittletodirectlyencouragethemtodo
so.The reviewedHealthandSocialStudiescurriculadirected teachers
to teach interpersonalskillsandprocesses forhandlingconflictsuchas
listening, negotiation, and peer mediation. Especially in Health, the
curricula emphasized avoidance, settlement, and individual
responsibility for preventing violence. All three life skills curricula
emphasized individualstrategies foravoidanceanddisputesettlement,
rather than comprehension or critique of the sources of destructive
conflict and violence in schools, communities, and the world. The
implication,especiallyvisibleintheManitobacurriculum,thatstudents
shoulduseinterpersonalskillstoavoidbullyingandabusivesituations,
placesheavy
responsibility
on
the
individual
victim.
This
diverts
attention from the sources of social power forbullying, such as inter
group and genderbased prejudice, and the factors exacerbating
destructivestatuscompetition inschools,suchascompetitivetestingor
privilegingstudentingroupssuchassportselites(Aronson,2000).
The Social Studies curricula called for amix of individual conflict
management skills similar to those in Health, and offered variable
attention to concepts for understanding sociallevel conflicts including
injustice. Themain implication seems tobe that conflict isanegative:
This confuses the underlying causeswith the symptoms of aggressive
behaviour. NovaScotiasSocialStudies curriculumemphasized safely
abstractconstructsofworldviewandmultipleperspectives, incontrast
to Ontarios and Manitobas more explicit attention to intentional,
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 27
constructive confrontation of conflict (such as strikes, rebellions,
protests)thatcouldresultinpositivesocialchange. AtleastinOntario,
theexpectationtoteachconflictresolutionskillsandprocessesinHealth
is a relatively recent change in the official curriculum. The Health
curricula reviewed, more than Social Studies, emphasized quick
settlementoravoidanceofdisruptionanddisconnectedconflictfromits
cultural and social meanings, social structural causes, and potential
positiveoutcomes. Atworst,theyseemedimplicitlytolegitimateuseof
force by the powerful, while delegitimating disruption by the less
powerful.
Interpersonal conflict resolution and critical thinking learning
expectationshavebeenadoptedrapidlyandwidelyinmanymainstream
academic curricula, including those reviewedhere. However, someofthesegoalsandmaterials,ascurrentlyarticulated,seemtobuildonand
reinforce much older, dominant cultural assumptions that implicitly
locate problems in certain uncivilized individuals rather than in the
strugglesfordemocraticsocialrelations. Thismaycontributetoakind
ofsocialcohesion,butnottodemocraticcohesion. Clearlythesolutionis
nottoremovetheimportantopportunitytodevelopcriticalthinkingand
conflictresolutioncapacities inschool,buttoreattachtheseskillstothe
concepts, instances, and social challenges that give them meaning in
pluralisticdemocraticlife.
CurriculumforUnderstandingPolitical,International,andSocialConflict
Thecurriculumexcerptsreviewedbelow(HealthandEnglishLanguage
Arts in Table 4, Social Studies in Table 5) did address directly some
political, international, and socialproblems such asbias, stereotyping,
war, and human rights violations. At the same time, even these few
expectations rarely required teachers or students to address either
specific instances or the underlying foundations of such problems.
Becausemost citizens (includingmost teachers) explicit intercultural,
international, and political knowledge is minimal, a lack of specific
contentexamplesinthecurriculumcouldvirtuallyguaranteethatthese
specificinstancesofsocialconflict,andtheircauses,oftenwouldnotbe
addressed.
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28 KATHYBICKMORE
In the curricula reviewed, only Social Studies taught explicit
citizenship,andespecially civics (how thegovernmentworks). Where
the curricula did interrogate and problematize intersections among
governanceornationalidentityandsocialdiversity,injustice,andsocial
conflict, this interrogation created opportunities for teachers and
studentstopractiseconstructiveconfrontationoftheconflictsinherentto
democracy. Classrooms,comparedtotheadultpoliticalworldreflected
in thenews,areusuallyrelativelysafecontexts inwhichguidanceand
feedbackcouldfacilitateeffectivelearningfromsuchpractice.
These curricula seemed to advocate social cohesionmore through
grand intentions than through close encounters with uncomfortable
knowledge. Tobefair,someofthisabstractionresultsfromthisstudys
levelofanalysis. Broadprovinciallevelcurriculumguidelines,designedto remain in place for a number of years, cannot feasibly address too
manyspecifics(however,onewondersfromwhatsourcessuchspecifics
would ever emerge in practice). There is no reason to assume that
exhorting students to respect abstract human and environmental
diversityandinterdependencewouldhaveappreciableeffect,inrelation
to the specific identities, uncertainties, and traumas inherent in deep
socialconflict. Thusitisahopefulsignthatthesecurriculadidincludea
few potentially interesting opportunities to actually engage in
discomfortingdialogueaboutdifficultdemocraticquestions.
Table4: CurriculumforPolitical,International,andSocialConflict:Physical&HealthEducation
andEnglishLanguageArts
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
PHYSICAL/HEALTHEDUCATION
Globalinterdependence
Foundationgrade112(1998)
overviewincludesaskey
principlescitizenshipandself
reflectionandconsciousness
thatpreservehumanrightsand
thedevelopmentofsupportive
andsustainableenvironments
forallcitizens. Curriculum
expectations
(1999):
to
assess
cultural,economic,and
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 29
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
environmentalinterdependenceinlocalandglobalcontexts.
Grade6:identifywaysin
whichcommunitiesand
countriescooperatetoprotect
andmaintainenvironmental
health.
SocialconflictIntroduction
encouragesuseofpotentially
controversialresources,and
providesstrategiesforteachers
todefendtheiruseofsuch
resourcesifcommunity
membersraiseobjections:giventhediversenatureand
maturityofstudents,itis
importanttoconfrontimportant
issuesandbringthemintothe
openfordiscussion.
ENGLISHLANGUAGEARTS
Globalinterdependence
Grade18(1997)guiding
principle: toequip
studentswiththe
knowledgeandskillthat
willhelpthemcompeteina
globaleconomyandallow
themtoleadlivesof
integrityandsatisfaction,
bothascitizensand
individuals.
Table5: CurriculumforPolitical,International,andSocialConflict:SocialStudies/SocialSciences
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
Canadian
citizenship/idealsThe
FrameworkofOutcomes
gradeK8(2003)describes
citizenshipasacore
concept,includingways
individualsandgroups
Canadian
citizenship/ideals
Foundations(1998)grade
112emphasizes
democraticvaluessuchas
equality,dignity,justice,
freedom,civilrightsand
Canadian
citizenship/ideals
CanadaandWorld
Connections(1998),grade
5:howfederalandprovincial
governmentsensureunity
throughgovernance
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30 KATHYBICKMORE
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
influencethemakingoflaws,redresspastand
presentinjustices(e.g.
resourceextractionfrom
Aboriginalcommunities),
andhandleconflicts(e.g.
globaldisparitiesinwealth
&humanrights). This
activedemocratic
citizenshipinCanada
approachrecognizes
Canadasbilingualand
multiculturalnature
respectforhumanrights
anddemocraticidealsandprinciples,abilitytowork
throughconflictsand
contradictionsthatcan
ariseamongcitizens,
commitmenttofreedom,
equality,andsocial
justice ForthePower
andauthoritygeneral
learningoutcome,grade5:
examinetheauthorization
ofsomeindividualor
groupwithinasocietyto
makebindingdecisions
[whichmay]
vary
from
one
societytoanother. Grade
9CANADIANSTUDIES:
conflictbetween
increasingneedsand
wantsandlimited
resourcesisafundamental
economicproblemwhich
necessitatesadecision
makingsystem. In
Canada,thepolitical
systemismarkedby
federalprovincial
tensions.
Globalinterdependence
responsibilities,anduniversalhumanrights.
Curriculumoutcomes
emphasizethatstudents
shouldtakeage
appropriateactionsto
demonstratetheir
responsibilitiesas
citizens. Twoof6key
stagecurriculum
outcomesarecitizenship
andpowerand
governance:identify,
analyze,andcompare
relationsofpowerandauthority,understandhow
theCanadianlegalsystem
establishesorderand
managesconflict,and
howgroups,institutions,
andmediainfluence
peopleandsociety.Grade
9course,AtlanticCanada
intheGlobalCommunity:
explainhowAtlantic
Canadiansshapepolitical
culturebyexercising
powerandinfluencing
politicaldecisions.
Globalinterdependence
Introductionencourages
studentcentredteaching:
stimulatingideas,social
issues,andthemesto
examineissues,respond
criticallyandcreatively,
andmakeinformed
decisionsasindividuals
andascitizensofCanada
andofanincreasingly
interdependentworld.
Keystage
outcomes
includecultureand
mechanisms. CIVICSgrade10(1998):demonstratean
understandingofthe
reasonsfordemocratic
decisionmaking[and]
comparecontrastingviewsof
whatitmeanstobea
citizen. Amaincourse
strandisActive
Citizenship:show
understandingofa
citizensroleinrespondingto
nondemocraticorganizations
(e.g.supremacistandracist
organizations)[and
to]
compareandevaluatethe
impactofvariousnonviolent
citizenparticipation.
Globalinterdependence
HeritageandCitizenship
(1998)grade6:identify
someoftheconsequencesof
AboriginalandEuropean
interactions(e.g.economic
impactofthefurtradeon
Aboriginalpeoples,
transmissionofEuropean
diseasesto
Aboriginal
peoples). GEOGRAPHY7
8(1998):interdependent
relationshipsoftrade,and
protectingtheenvironment
asaresponsibilityof
citizenship.
CANADIAN/WORLD
STUDIESgrade10has
studentsexplainthe
significanceofCanadas
contributiontotheforcesof
globalizationandtheUnited
Nations(e.g.Universal
Declaration
of
Human
Rights,treatyonlandmines,
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 31
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
FrameworkGeneralLearningOutcomes
includeIdentity,culture,
andcommunityand
Globalinterdependence.
Grade7SpaceshipEarth
coursespecificoutcomes:
giveexamplesofglobal
cooperationtosolveconflicts
ordisasters,identifyvarious
internationalorganizations
anddescribetheirrolein
protectingorenhancing
globalqualityoflife,and
identifyuniversalhumanrightsandexplaintheir
importance.Grade8,
Peoplethroughthe
Ages: howtheFirst
World,SecondWorld,and
ThirdWorlddeveloped
andhowlifecomparesand
contrastsintheseworlds
andhowmaytheThird
WorldbeaffectedbytheFirst
World. Grade6,Lifein
CanadasPast:what
impactdidthearrivalof
[variouswaves
of
British]
settlershaveonthelivesof
FrenchandNativepeople
alreadylivinginthearea.
Grade9CANADIAN
STUDIES:whatroledoes
Canadaplayinkeepingpeace
intheworld?
SocialconflictSpecific
skilloutcomesinthis
Frameworkinclude(grade
58),recognizebias[and]
discriminationand
proposesolutions.
Grade
6unit,WesternCanada:
diversityandinterdependence,
includinghumanrights,
andplanningand
evaluatingactionsfor
peaceandsustainability.
Grade9:explainthe
conceptofmarketat
multiplelevels,describe
andanalysehow
ecosystemsarecreated,
influenced,andsustained,
andexplainandanalyse
howAtlanticCanadians
aremembersoftheglobalcommunity[and]needto
becomecontributing
membersoftheglobal
community.
SocialconflictCurriculum
outcomesassertthatsocial
andculturalgroupshave
differentperspectiveson
socialissues,andmention
humanrightsand
discrimination. Grade9:
demonstratean
understandingof
the
issuesandevents
surroundingcrosscultural
understandinginthelocal,
regional,andgloballevels
includingprejudice,
discrimination,social
injustice,ethnocentrism,
racism,multiculturalism,and
antiracism.
childrensrights). The
grade9course,Geography
ofCanada,Global
Connectionsstrand:
Sincetheworlds
economiesarebecoming
increasingly
interconnected,andthe
flowofpeople,products,
money,andideasaround
theworldis
accelerating.
SocialconflictHeritage
andCitizenship,grade6:identifycurrentconcernsof
Aboriginalpeoples(e.g.self
government,landclaims).
HISTORY(1998),grade7
ConflictandChange
unit:historicalinstancesof
conflictsuchasthe
rebellionsof1837inUpper
andLowerCanada.
Studentsaretoanalyze
anddescribeconflicting
pointsofviewaboutan
historicalevent(e.g.the
expulsionof
the
Acadians),
givingexamplesoffactand
opinion[andto]describethe
impactoftheTreatyofParis
andtheQuebecActfromboth
theEnglishandtheFrench
pointsofview. Grade8:
showunderstandingof
thegrowthand
developmentoftheWest
fromthepointsofviewof
theCanadiangovernment,
Aboriginalpeoples,Metis,
andnewimmigrants;
showunderstanding
of
majordevelopmentsthat
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32 KATHYBICKMORE
MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO
therelocationofNativePeopleontoreserves,and
howislifeina
contemporaryreserve
similartoanddifferent
fromlifeonareservein
thepast.Grade7,
SpaceshipEarth:what
differentconflictsmay
ariseasaresultof
interactionofvarious
culturalgroups?What
couldhelptopreventor
counteracttheseconflicts?
Coreconcepts:Canadian
citizenshipforthefuture
includingredressingpast
andpresentinjusticesand
eliminatinginequalities;
Citizenshipintheglobal
contextincludinghelp
reducethedisparitiesand
humanrightsviolationsthat
havebecomeacommon
meansofaddressing
internalandinternational
disputes, and
Environmental
citizenship.Grade
9:
definecolonialism,
imperialism,and
nationalism.
affectedtheworking
conditionsofCanadian
workers(e.g.developmentof
unions,WinnipegGeneral
Strike),andtoidentify
majordevelopments(e.g.
thesuffragemovement)
andpersonalities(e.g.
NellieMcClung)inthe
womensrightsmovement,
anddemonstratean
understandingofthe
changingroleofwomenin
Canadiansociety.Grade10:
explainhow
and
why
social
supportprograms(e.g.old
agepensions,unemployment
insurance,medicare)were
designed,andassesstheir
effectivenessinmeetingthe
needsofvarioussegmentsof
society, andexplainhow
andwhytheCanadian
governmentrestricted
certainrightsand
freedomsinwartime,and
describetheimpactof
theserestrictionsonthe
generalpopulation
and
on
variousgroupswithinthe
Canadianpopulation.
The above curricula, specially in Ontario and Manitoba, did
emphasize theresponsibilityofcitizens torecognizesome fundamental
sources of social conflict and injustice, and to participate actively in
nonviolentcitizenactioninresponsetosuchproblems. Interconnection
andinterdependencewerementionedagreatdealinanabstractfashion,
butpowerimbalance,injustice,orspecificconflictswerementionedvery
little. The languageofglobalperspective andhuman rightshadbeen
adopted,but
these
provincial
expectations
would
not
require
teachers
to
allocatemuch time to examine specific internationalpeople,places, or
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 33
problems. Therewasremarkably little internationalcontentmentioned
in these curricula (there was more in some grade 11 and 12 social
sciences,butgenerallyfewerstudentsparticipate insuchcourses). The
pitfalls of dependence for marginalized regions were essentially
unmentioned. As with the interpersonal appreciation of diversity
discussed earlier, these curricula presented international diversity and
humanrightsprimarilyasuncontestedideals,disconnectedfromspecific
instances.
Exceptionstothesecurriculasgeneralpatternofconflictavoidance
provideimportantillustrationsofhowattentiontoconflictcouldchange
the citizenship expectations embedded in curriculum. For example,
globallevelinterdependenceandcitizenshipexpectationswereincluded
notonly inSocialStudies,butalso inPhysicalandHealthEducation inNovaScotiaandinEnglishLanguageArtsinOntario(seeTable4). The
SocialStudiescurriculum(Table5),especiallyinManitoba,didconfront
some difficult topics, grounding explicit concern for global and local
equity andjustice in specific examples. Notable learning expectations
required examination of contemporary First World (including
mainstreamCanadian) patterns ofbehaviour that impact on injustices
and challenges endured currently by Third World and Canadian
Aboriginalpeoples.
Nova Scotias mention of citizens divergent worldviews and
students participation in debating controversial issues was limited
primarilyto
vague
introductory
statements.
However,
Nova
Scotia
required an entire grade9 course on individuallocalglobal linkages,
which could cover conflictual issues in more detail. Manitobas and
Ontarios Social Sciences curricula included significant attention to
critical reflection on questions of global andnational injustice. Mixed
withunabashedly capitalist and status quo intentions aroundnational
unity and competing in the global economywere spaces for applying
principlesofjusticeandactivecitizenshiptospecificpoliticalissuessuch
as landmines,Aboriginal landclaims,workersrights,womensrights,
and EnglishFrench colonial rivalries in Canadain historical and
contemporarysettings.
The English LanguageArts curriculamade essentially no specific
mention of controversy or social conflicts. Health education similarly
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34 KATHYBICKMORE
avoidedvirtuallyallmentionofsocialconflictorcontroversy,exceptfor
the mention in Nova Scotias introduction that the use of certain
curricular resources mightbe contested, yet worth the risk. Even in
Social Studies, to different degrees in the different provinces,
discrimination against specificoutgroupswas framedmost frequently
aspast,asifsuchproblemswerelargelysolved.
Canadianidentitywaspresentedinaverypositivelightinallthree
setsofcurricula: provincialauthorityovercurriculumdoesnotseemto
preventthesecurriculafromreinforcingremarkablysimilarandunified
approachestonational identity. Sometimespastordistant instancesof
social conflict and injustice were juxtaposed with current Canadian
values of equality, rights, and participation. All the reviewed Social
Studies curricula appeared to have been influenced by internationalcitizenship education practice, in particular United States guidelines
emphasizing study of multiple perspectives organized around key
concepts(especiallyNationalCouncilfortheSocialStudies,1994). Like
national identity, international linkages and global citizenship
responsibilitywerepresentedinsimilarwaysinallthreeprovinces.
However, some interesting differences occurred among these
provincial curricula in how they applied democratic, justice, and
interdependence concepts to specific instances of social conflicts and
political controversies. Controversy was rarely encouraged in these
curricula,but it was not totally ignored, especially in Social Studies.
OntariosSocial
Sciences
curriculum
included
substantial
attention
to
pastintergroupconflictsandinjustices. InManitoba,moreremarkably,
anumberofcurrentsocialconflictsandjusticeissueswerenamed,thus
more likely tobe included in teaching resources and actually covered.
Clearlyateachercouldpresentpastconflictsinwaysthatwouldinform
comparisonandopendiscussionoftodaysconflicts,buttherewereonly
veryrareexplicitrequirementsheretodoso.
CONCLUSION
Thisresearchhaspointedoutmanypotentialandpartialopportunities
for democratic social cohesion education in three sets of official
provincial curriculum guidelines. The discursive assumption that
diverse students are becoming citizens with agency in relation to
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 35
unresolved social conflicts was an evident subtext throughout these
curricula. Theydidprovidesomerationale,motivation,andsafetynet
for teachers who would choose to offer their students guided
opportunities to practise constructively addressing risky topics and
perspectives. Despitetypicalpatternsofdenialandfearofcontroversy,
asignificantminorityofteachersdoeffectivelyaddressthechallengesof
democraticsocialcohesionandcitizendevelopmentbyengagingdiverse
students inpluralistic,constructivemanagementofconflict(Hess,2002;
McCully,ODoherty,& Smyth, 1999;Wilson,Haas,Laughlin,& Sunal
2002;Worthington,1985). Atthesametime,thesecurriculacarriedamix
of contradictory expectations for citizenship: everything from being
goodbybeing compliant toanexhortation thatyoung individualscan
and should change the world. There was consequently considerablespaceforteachers,individuallyandcollectively,tousethesecurriculain
relatively conservative or relatively transformative ways. Teachers
agency to pick up on these spaces of possibility is constrained and
shapedbysomeofthesamediscursivepatternsthathaveshapedthese
curriculumguidelines.
Likeanyofficial citizenshipeducation, the curricula reviewedhere
reflect the intersections and contradictions among the voices of the
various powerful and lesspowerful stakeholders who negotiate in
relation tonationalandregional identityandsocialcohesion througha
federalist state. Examination of curriculum discourse in these three
Canadianjurisdictions
suggests
that,
despite
the
democratic
language
withwhichmanyof thedocumentsare introduced, thesegovernments
arebynomeansunambiguouslycommitted toactive,critical, inclusive
citizen agency in relation to current conflicts. At the same time, the
tendency to avoid conflict and discourage potentially educative
disruption was not absolute. Each provincial curriculum reviewed
above did present various kinds of subject matter and skillbuilding
expectationsthatcouldopenimportantspacesforpluralisticdemocratic
engagement.
Therewere few instances in thecurricula reviewedhereofexplicit
attentiontocontrastingviewpoints inspecificsocialconflicts,especially
to gendered social relations or transnational socialstructural factors.
Substantive content about concerns ofdiversehuman communities,or
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36 KATHYBICKMORE
specificequity issues,wasquiterare in thesecurriculum requirements.
Theassumptionembedded inthisdiscourseseemedtobe that learning
about us and how we should act is prerequisite to more complicated
political engagement social cohesion before conscientization.
Citizenshipeducation thatbeginsbymarginalizingconflictingvoices is
unlikelytoprovideasolidfoundationformorepluralisticdemocracy.
The conflictrelated learning opportunities and expectations
embeddedinthesecurriculumdiscoursesoffergroundsforoptimismas
wellasconcern. Therewassubstantialattentiontocitizenshipeducation
forandaboutconflictinthesecurricula. Allthreesetsofcurriculainall
three subject areas attended to conflictrelated skills such as
interpersonal communication and getting along with others. At the
same time,muchof this curriculumdiscourse embodiedunchallengeddominant discursive perspectives, and could leave little space for
actually practising engagement in unfinished democratic efforts. To
differentdegreesinthevarioussubjectareasandprovincialsystems,the
rhetoric of these curricula emphasized social harmony values and
individual skills such as communication, generic critical thinking,
cooperation, and appreciation of diversity. Thus all three sets of
curricula appeared to emphasize assimilation more than democratic
engagement implicit social control and homogenization through
inculcation of unproblematized values, silencing ormarginalization of
dissenting viewpoints. This emphasis is unlikely to provide a secure
foundationfor
democratic
social
cohesion
because
it
provides
little
supportfordevelopmentofcreative,autonomousdissentingviewpoints,
and littlepracticewithmanagingactualpublic issuesor social conflict
challenges.
Education inand forconflictmanagement isacrucial ingredientof
democracy. Democraticprocessesofopendialogueanddeliberation,as
wellassubstantivedemocraticequity,aredefinedby their inclusionof
conflictingvoices andperspectives. It is aparadoxofdemocracy and
humanrightsthatadegreeofcoercion(forexample,nondiscrimination
laws and compulsory education) may contribute to democratic self
determination. Governmentcurriculumrequirementscancontribute to
democracyanddemocratizationby insisting thatevery student receive
an opportunity to engage in guided experience and practice with
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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 37
constructive deliberation on social and political conflicts to develop
skills,agency,andwellinformedviewpointsasdemocraticcitizens. To
contribute to citizenship education for democratic agency, explicit
curriculumcanandmustdelve into theunsafebutrealworldofsocial
and political conflicts and injustices that defy simple negotiated
settlement, including the roots and human costs of current local and
globalinjustices.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ithankthebrilliantstudentswhoassistedwiththisprojectatvarioustimesover
thelastfewyears: RuthAmanuel,OlimpiaBoido,ChristineGiese,MonaGhali,
Angela MacDonald,John Myers, and Miriam Zachariah. In addition, many
thanks to the CJE Guest Editors and anonymous reviewers for invaluable
feedback.
NOTES
This paper draws from my larger SSHRCfunded study, Safe and Inclusive
Schools(Bickmore2004a),thatcomparesimplicitandexplicitcurricula,policies,
andprogramsforpeacekeeping(security),peacemaking(conflictresolution),and
peacebuilding (redressing social and cultural injusticesunderlyingdestructive
conflicts)inthreeurbanCanadianschooldistricts.
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