Chinese Strategy and Military
Modernization in 2015:
A Comparative Analysis
Anthony H. Cordesman and Steven
Colley with the assistance of
Michael Wang
Final Review Draft
Updated October 10, 2015
A Report of the CSIS Burke Chair in Strategy
Chinese Strategy and Military Modernization: A Comparative Analysis October 5, 2015
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: EVOLVING STRATEGIES IN THE CHINA-U.S. MILITARY BALANCE 1
CHINESE STRATEGY ..................................................................................................................... 2
Key Trends in Chinese Military Modernization...................................................................... 3
China’s View of Its Strategic Position Relative to the United States ..................................... 6
PUTTING CHINA IN PERSPECTIVE: AMERICA’S DEVELOPING STRATEGY IN ASIA ....................... 10
The U.S. Shift to “Rebalancing” to Asia in 2012 ................................................................. 10
Secretary of Defense Panetta’s Summary of U.S. Views of China at the Shangri-La Dialogue
in 2012 .................................................................................................................................. 11
Secretary of Defense Hagel’s Summary at Shangri-La Dialogue in 2013 ........................... 13
The 2014 U.S. Quadrennial Defense Review ........................................................................ 15
Secretary Ashton Carter’s Speech in May 2015 ................................................................... 16
The 2015 Asia-Pacific Maritime Security Strategy .............................................................. 17
THE CHINESE RESPONSE ............................................................................................................ 19
COMPETITION AND COOPERATION ............................................................................................. 22
CHAPTER 2: ASSESSING CHINA’S ARMED FORCES .................................................... 25
CHINA’S DEFENSE WHITE PAPERS ............................................................................................. 28
The 2010 White Paper .......................................................................................................... 28
The 2013 White Paper .......................................................................................................... 29
The 2015 White Paper .......................................................................................................... 30
US DEFENSE WHITE PAPERS ON CHINA’S STRATEGY AND FORCES ........................................... 33
The U.S. View of Chinese Strategy ....................................................................................... 33
Strategy, Modernization, and Shifts that Affect the U.S. Role in Asia .................................. 34
Disputes Over the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands and South China Sea ....................................... 36
Relations Between China and India ...................................................................................... 37
Counter-Space Strategies...................................................................................................... 37
Building an “Informationized” Military ............................................................................... 37
THE STRATEGIC FORCES DRIVING CHINESE MILITARY MODERNIZATION ................................. 39
“DEFENSIVE” FORCE MODERNIZATION AND TRANSFORMATION VERSUS “OFFENSIVE” FORCE
MODERNIZATION AND TRANSFORMATION ................................................................................. 44
CHAPTER 3: UNDERLYING RESOURCES FOR CHINA’S SECURITY CAPABILITIES
....................................................................................................................................................... 45
IS BECOMING AN ECONOMIC SUPERPOWER A PRELUDE TO BECOMING A MILITARY SUPERPOWER?
................................................................................................................................................... 45
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THE ECONOMIC TRENDS SHAPING MILITARY SPENDING ........................................................... 58
Downward Economic Growth Trends but Stable Forecast .................................................. 58
Economic Uncertainties and Risks ....................................................................................... 60
Shorter Term Risks ......................................................................................................................................................... 62
Longer-Term Risks ......................................................................................................................................................... 66
Chinese Economic Growth Relative to Increases in Military Spending ............................... 74
FACTORS THAT MAY IMPACT CHINA’S MILITARY SPENDING, STRATEGY AND MODERNIZATION
................................................................................................................................................... 80
Inflation ................................................................................................................................. 81
FDI and Current Account Balance ....................................................................................... 83
DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS ............................................................................................................. 84
SOCIETAL TRENDS AND ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION ............................................................. 85
CHAPTER 4: ESTIMATES OF CHINESE MILITARY SPENDING ................................. 91
CHINESE STATEMENTS ON MILITARY SPENDING ....................................................................... 91
US ANALYSES OF CHINESE DEFENSE BUDGETS ......................................................................... 98
OTHER OUTSIDE ASSESSMENTS OF CHINESE MILITARY SPENDING .......................................... 102
LIMITED TRANSPARENCY AND PROBLEMS IN ESTIMATING CHINESE MILITARY EXPENDITURES
................................................................................................................................................. 107
THE CHINESE RESPONSE .......................................................................................................... 110
CHAPTER 5: CHINESE STRATEGY AND PLA MILITARY DOCTRINE ................... 112
CHINESE STRATEGIC DOCTRINE............................................................................................... 112
Active Defense ..................................................................................................................... 113
Local War under Conditions of Informatization ................................................................. 114
People’s War ....................................................................................................................... 116
CHINESE CAMPAIGN DOCTRINE ............................................................................................... 117
Integrated Joint Operations ................................................................................................ 117
Information Warfare ........................................................................................................... 119
US Views on Chinese Cyber Activities ................................................................................ 123
Integrated Firepower Operations ....................................................................................... 127
Mobility and Comprehensive Support ................................................................................ 128
SERVICE STRATEGY ................................................................................................................. 129
The Nine-Dash Line ............................................................................................................ 130
Chinese Actions to Establish Control within the First Island Chain .................................. 134
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THE US VIEW .......................................................................................................................... 140
Japanese and South Korean Perspectives on the Balance ................................................. 143
Putting China’s Strategy and Actions in Perspective ......................................................... 145
CHAPTER 6: CHINESE MILITARY ORGANIZATION................................................... 147
PLA MILITARY ORGANIZATION .............................................................................................. 147
ORGANIZATION OF THE PLA .................................................................................................... 150
OPERATIONAL COMMAND LEVELS .......................................................................................... 153
PLA Army (PLAA)............................................................................................................... 154
PLA Navy (PLAN) ............................................................................................................... 156
PLA Air Force (PLAAF) ..................................................................................................... 158
PLA Second Artillery Force (SAF) ..................................................................................... 159
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE CHINESE SECURITY AND PARAMILITARY FORCES ....................... 161
Ministry of State Security (MSS) ......................................................................................... 162
Ministry of Public Security (MPS) ...................................................................................... 162
People’s Armed Police Force (PAPF) ................................................................................ 162
PLA ORGANIZATIONAL REFORMS ........................................................................................... 162
Reforming Military Regions and Force Groupings for Joint Operations .......................... 163
Continued Importance of Improving Training and Education ........................................... 163
The 5 New Leading Small Groups Spearhead Reform ....................................................... 164
The Broader anti-Corruption Campaign ............................................................................ 164
The Chinese View on the Current State of the PLA in Relation to Local Wars and Joint
Operations........................................................................................................................... 165
CHAPTER 7: FORCE CHANGES AND TRENDS IN TOTAL PERSONNEL ................ 166
SHIFTS IN TOTAL PERSONNEL .................................................................................................. 166
PERSONNEL SHARE BY SERVICE AND FORCE ELEMENT ........................................................... 168
SHIFTS IN THE PLA’S PERSONNEL SYSTEM .............................................................................. 170
Rebalancing the Personnel System ..................................................................................... 170
Recruiting High-Level Human Capital into the PLA .......................................................... 171
Creating Opportunities for Increased Qualification .......................................................... 171
Greater Compensation for PLA Personnel ......................................................................... 172
SHIFTS IN RESERVE AND MILITIA FORCE STRUCTURE ............................................................. 172
PLA Reserve Forces ............................................................................................................ 172
PLA Militia Forces ............................................................................................................. 173
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SHIFTS IN THE PERSONNEL OF THE CHINESE SECURITY AND PARAMILITARY FORCES.............. 174
Ministry of State Security (MSS) ......................................................................................... 174
Ministry of Public Security (MPS) ...................................................................................... 174
People’s Armed Police Force (PAPF) ................................................................................ 175
CHAPTER 8: BROAD PATTERNS IN PLA MODERNIZATION AND THE ROLE OF
ARMS AND TECHNOLOGY IMPORTS AND EXPORTS ................................................ 177
THE US INTELLIGENCE COMMUNITY’S ASSESSMENT .............................................................. 177
UNCERTAIN PATTERNS OF CHANGE ......................................................................................... 178
PLA TRAINING PRACTICES: A CRITICAL ASPECT OF MODERNIZATION ................................... 179
Joint Operations.................................................................................................................. 180
Focus on C4ISR and Information Technology.................................................................... 181
Amphibious Operations ...................................................................................................... 182
ARMS TRADE AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER: THE ROLE OF IMPORTS ..................................... 183
ARMS TRADE AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER: THE ROLE OF EXPORTS ..................................... 188
Putting China’s Arms Exports in Context ........................................................................... 188
Tracking the Trends in Chinese Arms Transfers ................................................................ 189
ARMS TRADE AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER: THE ROLE OF ESPIONAGE ................................. 200
CHAPTER 9: THE PLA ARMY ............................................................................................. 203
SHIFTS IN FORCE STRUCTURE .................................................................................................. 206
SHIFTS IN PERSONNEL .............................................................................................................. 207
TRENDS IN EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................................ 209
Trends in MBTs, AIFV/APCs, Artillery, and Multiple Rocket Launchers (MRLs) ............. 212
Equipment Modernization ................................................................................................... 216
The US Official View of PLAA Modernization ................................................................... 218
The Japanese Official View of PLAA Modernization ......................................................... 220
SHIFTS IN TRAINING, READINESS, AND THE CAPABILITY TO “FIGHT LOCAL WARS” ............... 220
THE PLAA AND POWER PROJECTION ...................................................................................... 221
THE PLAA IN COMPARISON TO REGIONAL MILITARIES AND THE US ...................................... 222
CHAPTER 10: THE PLA NAVY ............................................................................................ 226
PLAN STRATEGY AND DEVELOPMENTS .................................................................................. 226
The US Official View of PLAN Developments .................................................................... 231
The Japanese Official View of PLAN Developments .......................................................... 236
SHIFTS IN FORCE STRUCTURE, EQUIPMENT COMPOSITION, AND PERSONNEL .......................... 236
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SHIFTS IN FORCE STRUCTURE, PERSONNEL, AND FORCE SIZE .................................................. 237
PLAN MODERNIZATION .......................................................................................................... 247
China’s Submarine Modernization ..................................................................................... 247
China’s Surface Vessels and “Blue Water” Modernization ............................................... 250
China’s Other Maritime Forces.......................................................................................... 255
Major Combatant Holdings ................................................................................................ 259
SHIFTS IN PERSONNEL .............................................................................................................. 262
THE PLAN AND POWER PROJECTION ...................................................................................... 264
The Chinese View ................................................................................................................ 264
THE US REACTION AND THE AIR SEA BATTLE ........................................................................ 273
CHAPTER 11: PLA AIR FORCE .......................................................................................... 276
PLAAF STRATEGY AND DEVELOPMENTS ................................................................................ 276
SHIFT IN FORCE STRUCTURE .................................................................................................... 282
THE PACE OF MODERNIZATION ................................................................................................ 288
KEY ASPECTS OF EQUIPMENT MODERNIZATION ...................................................................... 293
Anti-Access/Area Denial (A2/AD) ...................................................................................... 293
Stealth ................................................................................................................................. 293
Other Advanced Fighters and Carrier Aircraft .................................................................. 295
UAVs, Drones, and Other Advanced ISR............................................................................ 297
SHIFTS IN PERSONNEL .............................................................................................................. 303
CHAPTER 12: THE PLA SECOND ARTILLERY FORCE AND DEVELOPING SPACE
CAPABILITIES ........................................................................................................................ 304
SAF STRATEGY AND DEVELOPMENTS ..................................................................................... 305
The US Official View and the Growth of China’s Precision Strike Capability .................. 308
SHIFTS IN FORCE STRUCTURE, EQUIPMENT COMPOSITION, AND PERSONNEL .......................... 313
SHIFTS IN EQUIPMENT COMPOSITION ....................................................................................... 325
SRBMs ................................................................................................................................. 325
Cruise Missiles .................................................................................................................... 330
MRBMs ............................................................................................................................... 334
ICBMs and SLBMs .............................................................................................................. 338
Chinese Missile Defense Capabilities ................................................................................. 349
IMPROVED PERSONNEL ............................................................................................................ 350
CHINESE SPACE STRATEGY AND DEVELOPMENTS ................................................................... 351
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Other Military Developments ............................................................................................. 353
Chinese Counterspace and ASAT Capabilities ................................................................... 355
Anti-Access/Area Denial Sea-based Space Programs ................................................................................................... 357
Anti-Access/Area Denial Land-based Space Programs ................................................................................................ 358
CHAPTER 13: CHINA’S NUCLEAR FORCES AND WEAPONS OF MASS
DESTRUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 360
CHINESE MILITARY NUCLEAR STRATEGY ............................................................................... 360
Change and Missile Defense ............................................................................................... 362
Multiple Independently-Targetable Re-entry Vehicles (MIRV) .......................................... 364
THE STRATEGIC NUCLEAR BALANCE ....................................................................................... 368
Assessments of China’s Nuclear Forces ............................................................................. 374
The Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) Estimate ............................................................................................................... 374
The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Estimate ............................................................................................................ 377
The Global Security Estimate ....................................................................................................................................... 380
The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) Estimate ..................................................................................................... 383
The Federation of American Scientists (FAS) Estimate................................................................................................ 386
The United States Nuclear Posture ..................................................................................... 387
The U.S. Force on Russia at a Time of Rising Chinese Capability .................................... 390
North and South Korea ....................................................................................................... 392
India and Pakistan .............................................................................................................. 398
Chinese Biological and Chemical Weapons ....................................................................... 402
CHAPTER 14: CHINESE MILITARY MODERNIZATION AND THE TAIWAN STRAIT
MILITARY BALANCE ........................................................................................................... 403
THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT ..................................................................................................... 403
TAIWAN AND OTHER FLASHPOINTS ......................................................................................... 404
CHINESE MILITARY STRATEGY IN THE TAIWAN STRAIT .......................................................... 405
TAIWANESE MILITARY STRATEGY ........................................................................................... 406
THE US PERSPECTIVE ON THE CHINA-TAIWAN BALANCE ....................................................... 415
THE JAPANESE PERSPECTIVE OF THE CHINA-TAIWAN BALANCE ............................................. 421
U.S. DATA ON THE HISTORICAL TRENDS IN THE TAIWAN STRAIT MILITARY BALANCE .......... 424
The Naval Balance .............................................................................................................. 428
The Air and Missile Balance ............................................................................................... 435
The Ground Force Balance ................................................................................................ 444
CHAPTER 15: US AND CHINA: STRATEGIC COMPETITION OR COOPERATION IN
THE PACIFIC, IOR, AND SOUTH CHINA SEA ................................................................ 451
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THE BROADER CONTEXT OF CHINA’S SECURITY AND STRATEGIC INTERESTS ......................... 451
STRATEGIC RIVALRY VERSUS GRAND STRATEGY .................................................................... 452
RIVALRY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: A CASE STUDY ....................................................................... 453
CHINA’S DECLARED STRATEGY AND COMPETITION WITH THE U.S. AFFECTING THE PACIFIC AND
THE IOR ................................................................................................................................... 454
Chinese Defense White Paper Views of the Challenges from the U.S. ............................... 455
The Chinese Defense White Paper View of the Challenges in Asia ................................... 455
The Strategic Impact of China’s Dependence on Energy Imports ..................................... 456
Gulf Energy Exports are China’s Main Strategic Interest ................................................. 460
China’s Real World Strategic Interests in the East China Sea ........................................... 461
China’s Real World Strategic Interests in the East China Sea ........................................... 463
Chokepoints and Shipments from the Gulf are the Key Strategic Issue ............................. 464
The Expanding Role of Chinese Forces .............................................................................. 465
The Impact of China’s Shift to a “Blue Water” Navy ........................................................ 466
Chinese Naval Modernization and its Impact on Nearby Waters, the Pacific and the IOR 469
Chinese Naval Forces in the IOR ....................................................................................... 472
The Expanding Role of Chinese Air Forces ........................................................................ 473
Expanding PLAFF Strike and Power Projection Capabilities ........................................... 473
A2/AD and Stealth Capabilities .......................................................................................... 475
Expanding Chinese Naval, Air, and Land-based Missile Forces ....................................... 477
CHINESE CLAIMS TO THE SOUTH CHINA SEA ........................................................................... 480
Defining the Nine Dash Line and China’s Claims.............................................................. 481
2015 Land Reclamation Operations and Increasing Tensions in the South China Sea ..... 484
Chinese Actions to Establish Control within the First Island Chain .................................. 491
The Successor to the Nine Dash Line? ............................................................................... 499
CHAPTER 16: US AND CHINA: U.S. “REBALANCING” AND THE CHINESE
REACTION ............................................................................................................................... 502
U.S. “REBALANCING” TO ASIA ................................................................................................ 502
“Rebalancing” in 2012 ....................................................................................................... 502
“Rebalancing” in 2013 ....................................................................................................... 508
Secretary Hagel’s Summary in April 2014 ................................................................................................................... 513
“Rebalancing” in 2015 ....................................................................................................... 517
The FY2016 Shift to Global Rebalancing and a Focus on Force Cuts .............................. 519
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Shifts from FY2013 to FY2016 ............................................................................................ 521
US Force Strength in the Pacific: The US Pacific Command (PACOM) ........................... 524
The 2015 PACOM Posture Statement................................................................................. 529
U.S. Force Strength in the Gulf: The US Central Command .............................................. 538
SHIFTS IN U.S. POWER PROJECTION THE US AIR SEA BATTLE OR JAM-GC ........................... 541
Defining the Air-Sea Battle in 2013 .................................................................................... 542
TENSIONS AND THE POTENTIAL FOR CONFLICT IN THE PACIFIC AND IOR ................................ 544
Tensions between China and Asia States ............................................................................ 544
Timelines and Incidents ...................................................................................................... 545
China’s View of Disputes with Japan Involving the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands ................... 549
China’s View of Disputes with Japan Involving the East China Sea ................................. 551
US and Chinese “Incidents” ............................................................................................... 553
THE JAPANESE RESPONSE AND THE ADIZ DEBATE ................................................................. 557
THE JAPANESE REINTERPRETATION OF THE ITS CONSTITUTION AND COLLECTIVE SELF DEFENSE
................................................................................................................................................. 560
THE IMPACT OF SHIFTS IN US AND CHINESE STRATEGY AND FORCES IN THE PACIFIC AND IOR
................................................................................................................................................. 563
The Asian States .................................................................................................................. 563
THE BROADER STRATEGIC IMPACT OF CHINESE MILITARY MODERNIZATION ......................... 564
COOPERATION, COMPETITION, OR CONFLICT ........................................................................... 569
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1: People’s Liberation Army: Total Personnel ............................................................................................. 26
Figure 1.2: Selected PLA Army Equipment Holdings ................................................................................................. 26
Figure 1.3: Selected PLA Navy Equipment Holdings .................................................................................................. 27
Figure 1.4: Selected PLA Air Force Equipment Holdings .......................................................................................... 27
Figure 1.5: East China Sea Air Defense Identification Zones ..................................................................................... 39
Figure 3.1: IMF Estimate of Comparative Rise in China’s GDP (nominal) – Part One (Billions $USD in Current
Dollars/Prices) ............................................................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 3.1: IMF Estimate of Comparative Rise in China’s GDP (nominal) - Part Two (Billions $USD in Current
Dollars/Prices) ............................................................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 3.2: China’s Rise in Per Capita GDP – Part I (Current $USD)...................................................................... 50
Figure 3.2: China’s Rise in Per Capita GDP – Part II (Current $USD) .................................................................... 51
Figure 3.3: China’s GDP Growth - Part I (Percent Change in Constant Prices)....................................................... 52
Figure 3.3: China’s GDP Growth - Part II (Percent Change in Constant Prices) ..................................................... 53
Figure 3.4: China’s Rise in GDP (PPP) – Part I (Billions of Current International Dollars*) ................................. 54
Figure 3.4: China’s Rise in GDP (PPP) – Part II (Billions of Current International Dollars) .................................. 56
Figure 3.5: China & USA Defense Spending as a Percentage of GDP ...................................................................... 57
Figure 3.6: 2015 IMF World Economic Outlook – Asia and Pacific Region’s Growth Moderation .......................... 60
Figure 3.7: IMF Assessment of China’s Economic Reforms – 2014 ........................................................................... 65
Figure 3.8: July 2013 IMF Assessment of China’s Demographic Changes ................................................................ 68
Figure 3.9: July 2014 IMF Assessment of China. ....................................................................................................... 69
Figure 3.10: July 2014 IMF Assessment of China’s Financial Sector ........................................................................ 70
Figure 3.11: July 2014 IMF Assessment of China’s Economic Growth and Inequality .............................................. 71
Figure 3.12: Different Estimates of Chinese GDP Growth Rates (Market Prices): 2000-2020.................................. 72
Figure 3.13: China’s GDP (PPP) (Billions of Current International Dollars) ........................................................... 73
Figure 3.14: Comparing Percentage of GDP spent on Military Expenditures – Part Two ........................................ 78
Figure 3.15: Chinese GDP Growth and Defense Spending – Part One ...................................................................... 79
Figure 3.15: Chinese GDP Growth and Defense Spending – Part Two ..................................................................... 80
Figure 3.16: Estimates of Chinese Inflation Rates (CPI % increase) ......................................................................... 82
Figure 3.17: Chinese Population Projection (in millions) .......................................................................................... 86
Figure 3.18: Chinese Population Growth Indicators .................................................................................................. 87
Figure 3.19: Chinese Births vs. Deaths over Time ...................................................................................................... 88
Figure 3.20: The Impact of Population, Control, Age and Shifts in Gender on China’s Work Force – Part I ........... 89
Figure 3.21: The Impact of Population, Control, Age and Shifts in Gender on China’s Work Force – Part II .......... 90
Figure 4.1: Official PRC Defense Budget Allocation for 2009 (in RMB billion) ........................................................ 94
Figure 4.2: Historical PRC Defense Budget Compared to US Estimates of Total Defense Spending ........................ 99
Figure 4.3: DoD Comparison of Chinese and Other Regional Defense Budgets ...................................................... 100
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Figure 4.4: Historical US Defense Expenditures ...................................................................................................... 101
Figure 4.5: Chinese Military Budget Trends versus IISS and SIPRI Estimates: Part I ............................................. 104
Figure 4.5: Chinese Military Budget Trends versus IISS and SIPRI Estimates: Part II ........................................... 105
Figure 4.6: PRC Defense Spending-related Comparative Statistics, 1980-2011 ...................................................... 105
Figure 4.7: PRC Official Defense Budget Annual Data, 2002-2012 ......................................................................... 106
Figure 4.8: Change in China’s Defense Budget ........................................................................................................ 106
Figure 4.9: Changes in Defense Budgets in Surround Counties over the Past 10 Years .......................................... 107
Figure 4.1 China’s New Map of Greater China: June 2014 ..................................................................................... 133
Figure 5.2: DoD Representation of the First and Second Island Chains .................................................................. 139
Figure 5.3 Comparison of Forces Strength and Defense Budgets between Southeast Asia, China, Japan, ROK ..... 143
Figure 5.4: Japanese Ministry of Defense Summary of the Military Balance ........................................................... 144
Figure 5.5: South Korean Ministry of Defense Summary of the Military Strength of the Major Northeast Asian Powers
................................................................................................................................................................................... 145
Figure 6.1: China’s Political Structure ..................................................................................................................... 148
Figure 6.2: The Party Central Military Commission (CMC) .................................................................................... 149
Figure 6.3: High Command Structure of the PLA (as of 2013) ................................................................................. 151
Figure 6.4: Chinese Military Regions ....................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 6.5: Locations of PLAA Group Armies .......................................................................................................... 156
Figure 6.6: PLAN Fleet Headquarters ...................................................................................................................... 158
Figure 6.7: Locations of PLAAF & PLAN Major Aviation Units.............................................................................. 159
Figure 7.1: Trends in PLA Personnel ........................................................................................................................ 167
Figure 7.2: Shifts in Percentage of Total Personnel by Service: 1985-2015 ............................................................ 169
Figure 7.3: Active and Reserve Personnel by Service in the PLA: 2015 ................................................................... 170
Figure 7.4: Historical Trends in Absolute PLA and PAPF Personnel ...................................................................... 176
Figure 8.1: Total Arms Imports to China, 1994 – 2014 ............................................................................................ 185
(US$ millions, 1990 prices) ....................................................................................................................................... 185
Figure 8.2: Value of Russian Arms Exports to China, 1994-2014 (US$ millions, 1990 prices) ............................... 186
Figure 8.3: Percentage of Overall PRC Arms Imports from Russia, 1994-2014 ...................................................... 187
Figure 8.4: Worldwide Arms Transfer Agreements, 2004-2011 and Suppliers’ Share with Developing World (in
millions of current 2011 US dollars) ......................................................................................................................... 190
Figure 8.5: Worldwide Arms Deliveries, 2004-2011 and Suppliers’ Share with Developing World (in millions of
current 2011 US dollars) ........................................................................................................................................... 191
Figure 8.6: Percentage of Each Supplier’s Agreements Value by Region, 2004-2011 ............................................. 191
Figure 8.7: Percentage of Total Agreements Value by Supplier to Regions, 2004-2011 .......................................... 192
Figure 8.8: Worldwide Arms Deliveries, 2004-2011and Suppliers’ Share with Developing World (in millions of
current 2011 US dollars) ........................................................................................................................................... 193
Figure 8.9: Arms Deliveries to Developing Nations, by Supplier, 2004-2011 (in millions of current US dollars) ... 194
Figure 8.10: Arms Deliveries to Developing Nations, by Supplier, 2004-2011 ........................................................ 194
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Figure: 8.11: Percentage of Supplier Deliveries Value by Region, 2004-2011 ........................................................ 195
Figure 8.12: Numbers of Weapons Delivered by Suppliers to Developing Nations .................................................. 196
Figure 8.13: Numbers of Weapons Delivered by Suppliers to Asia and the Pacific ................................................. 197
Figure 8.14: Numbers of Weapons Delivered by Suppliers to Near East.................................................................. 198
Figure 8.15: Numbers of Weapons Delivered by Suppliers to Africa ........................................................................ 199
Figure 9.1: PLAA Force Strength in 2015 ................................................................................................................ 204
Figure 9.2: Deployment of PLAA Group Armies ....................................................................................................... 205
Figure 9.3: PLA Ground Forces Force Structure, 1985-2015 .................................................................................. 207
Figure 9.4: Historical Trends in total PLAA Personnel, 1985-2015 ......................................................................... 208
Figure 9.5: PLA Major Weapons and Equipment, 1985-2015 – Part One ............................................................... 210
Figure 9.5: PLA Major Weapons and Equipment, 1985-2015 – Part Two ............................................................... 211
Figure 9.5: PLA Major Weapons and Equipment, 1985-2015 – Part Three ............................................................. 212
Figure 9.6: Summary Trends in PLA Major Weapon System Inventory, 1985-2015 ............................................... 214
Figure 9.7: Historical PLAA Equipment Inventory of Major Weapon Systems, 1985-2015 ..................................... 215
Figure 9.8: Historical Trends in the PLAA’s Modern Major Weapon Inventory, 1985-2015 ................................... 217
Figure 9.9: Pace of PLAA Modernization – Percent of Modern Weapon Systems, 2000-2015 ................................ 218
Figure 9.10: PLA Forces in Comparison to Regional Countries and the US ........................................................... 223
Figure 9.11: PLAA Ground Forces Equipment in Comparison to Regional Countries and the US ......................... 224
Figure 9.12: PLAA Artillery in Comparison to Regional Countries and the US ....................................................... 225
Figure 11.1: Deployment of China’s Air Forces ....................................................................................................... 280
Figure 11.2: The Size of the PLAAF in 2015 ............................................................................................................. 281
Figure 11.3: Force Structure of the PLA Air Force, 1985-2015 – Part I .................................................................. 284
Figure 11.3: Force Structure of the PLAAF, 1985-2015 – Part II ............................................................................ 285
Figure 11.3: Force Structure of the PLAAF, 1985-2015 – Part III ........................................................................... 286
Figure 11.3: Force Structure of the PLAAF, 1985-2015 – Part IV ........................................................................... 287
Figure 11.4: Historical PLAAF Force Structure, 1985-2015, Part I ........................................................................ 289
Figure 11.5: Historical PLAAF Force Structure, 1985-2014, Part II ....................................................................... 290
Figure 11.6: Historical Trend PLAAF Numbers by Key Missions Area, 1985-2014 ................................................ 291
Figure 11.7: Historical Relative Trends in the PLAAF’s Force Structure By Percent of Total Force ..................... 292
Figure 11.8: Total Versus Modern Aircraft in the PLAAF ........................................................................................ 300
Figure 11.9: Modern Versus Total PLAAF Aircraft by Major Mission Type ............................................................ 301
Figure 11.10: Percentage of Modern PLAAF Aircraft .............................................................................................. 302
Figure 11.11: Historical PLAAF Personnel Trends .................................................................................................. 303
Figure 12.1: Historical Quantitative Data on the SAF- Part I .................................................................................. 316
Figure 12.1: Historical Quantitative Data on the SAF- Part II ................................................................................ 317
Figure 12.2: Historical Size and Composition of the SAF Arsenal ........................................................................... 318
Figure 12.3: The SAF’s Changing Force Structure, 1985-2015 (Percent) ............................................................... 319
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Figure 12.4: The Expanding Range of China’s Theater Missile Forces – Part I ...................................................... 320
Figure 12.4: The Expanding Range of China’s Theater Missile Forces – Part II..................................................... 321
Figure 12.5: Year-on-Year Missile Launcher Strength, 2005-2012 .......................................................................... 323
Figure 12.6: Year-on-Year Missile Inventory, 2005-2012 ........................................................................................ 324
Figure 12.7: NASIC Estimate of the Regional Balance of Short-range Ballistic Missiles (SRBMs) ......................... 327
Figure 12.8: RAND Data on PRC SRBMs and the “Notional SRBM” Model (2009) ............................................... 328
Figure 12.9: SRBMs Needed to Obtain Given Probabilities of Neutralizing a Single Runway ................................ 329
Figure 12.10: NASIC Estimate of the Regional Balance of Land Attack Cruise Missiles ......................................... 333
Figure 12.11: NASIC Estimate of the Regional Balance of MRBMs and IRBMs ...................................................... 336
Figure 12.12: Development of Ballistic and Cruise Missile Launchers, 1985-2015 ................................................. 337
Figure 12.13: NASIC Estimate of the Regional Balance of ICBMs and SLBMs ....................................................... 344
Figure 12.14: Percentage of Modern ICBMs in the SAF’s Arsenal, 1985-2012 ....................................................... 345
Figure 12.15: The Expanding Range of China’s Medium and Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Forces – Part I ... 346
Figure 12.16: China’s Conventional Strike Capabilities – Part II ............................................................................ 347
Figure 12.17: The Expanding Range of China’s ICBM and Longer-Range Forces – Part III ................................. 348
Figure 12.18: DoD Assessment of Chinese Space Launch Trends ............................................................................ 355
Figure 13.1: China’s Nuclear Tunnel Storage System .............................................................................................. 367
Figure 13.2: Chinese, US and Russian Nuclear Forces ............................................................................................ 369
Figure 13.2: Chinese, US and Russian Nuclear Forces ............................................................................................ 370
Figure 13.2: Chinese, US and Russian Nuclear Forces ............................................................................................ 371
Figure 13.3: Comparative Estimate of Global Holdings of Nuclear Weapons ......................................................... 373
Figure 13.4: Nuclear Competition and Uncertainty .................................................................................................. 374
Figure 14.1: Taiwanese (ROC) Ministry of Defense Summary of the PRC-ROC Military Balance ......................... 412
Figure 14.2: Taiwan Assessment of PRC’s Defense Budget from 2004 to 2013 ....................................................... 413
Figure 14.3: Taiwan Assessment of PRC’s Hidden Defense Budget from 2004 to 2013 .......................................... 414
Figure 14.4: Taiwan Assessment of the PRC’s People’s Armed Police Budget from 2004 to 2013 ......................... 415
Figure 14.5: The Balance in the Taiwan Straits in 2015 ........................................................................................... 419
Figure 14.6: Japanese Ministry of Defense Summary of the PRC-ROC Military Balance ....................................... 423
Figure 14.7: A Summary of Trends in the PLA ......................................................................................................... 425
Figure 14.8: Trends in PLA Forces Deployed in the Vicinity of the Taiwan Strait ................................................... 426
Figure 14.9: Trends in the ROC Armed Forces ........................................................................................................ 427
Figure 14.10: Absolute Trends in PLAN Deployments to the East and South Sea Fleets ......................................... 429
Figure 14.11: Absolute Trends in ROC Naval Forces............................................................................................... 430
Figure 14.12: Relative Increases in PLAN Deployments to the East and South Sea Fleets since 2005 (percentage
increase) .................................................................................................................................................................... 433
Figure 14.13: Increases in ROC Naval Deployments since 2005 (percentage increase) .......................................... 434
Figure 14.14: Absolute Trends in PLAAF Forces Deployed Near the Taiwan Strait ............................................... 437
Chinese Strategy and Military Modernization: A Comparative Analysis October 5, 2015
xiv
Figure 14.15: Absolute Trends in the ROCAF Aircraft Inventory ............................................................................. 438
Figure 14.16: Relative Changes in PLAAF Force Deployments to the Taiwan Strait, since 2005 (percentage increase)
................................................................................................................................................................................... 440
Figure 14.17: Changes in ROCAF Force Numbers, since 2005 (percentage increase) ............................................ 441
Figure 14.18: Japanese Ministry of Defense Summary of the Trends in the Balance of Modern PRC-ROC Fighter
Aircraft ...................................................................................................................................................................... 442
Figure 14.19: Department of Defense Estimate of PLA SAM and SRBM Coverage ................................................. 443
Figure 14.20: A Comparison of Personnel Trends in PLAA and ROC Army in the Taiwan Strait Region ............... 446
Figure 14.21: A Comparison of Trends in PLAA and ROC Equipment Holdings in the Taiwan Strait Region ........ 447
Figure 14.22: A Comparison of Relative Trends in PRC and ROC Artillery Forces (percentage increase over 2005
levels) ......................................................................................................................................................................... 448
Figure 14.23: PRC Force Deployment near Taiwan - Part One ............................................................................... 449
Figure 14.23: PRC Force Deployment near Taiwan – Part Two .............................................................................. 450
Figure 15.1: China’s Energy Import Dependence .................................................................................................... 459
Figure 15.2: China’s Major Sources of Oil Imports ................................................................................................. 461
Figure 15.3: South East Asia Navy and Air Force Capabilities ................................................................................ 466
Figure 15.4: Illustrative Chinese Anti-ship Missile Designs ..................................................................................... 479
Figure 15.5: China’s Dashed Line Map from 2009 .................................................................................................. 483
Figure 15.6: Historical Context of China’s Advances into the South China Sea ...................................................... 485
Figure 15.7: South China Sea Conflicts Between China and Vietnam ...................................................................... 486
Figure 15.8: Chinese Activities in South China Sea since 2010 ................................................................................ 487
Figure 15.9: Chinese Occupations in the South China Sea ....................................................................................... 488
Figure 15.10: China’s Increasing Presence after Spratly’s Militarization ............................................................... 489
Figure 15.11: Development Trends of Other Countries in South China Sea ............................................................ 490
Figure 15.12: Chinese Maritime Claims and the Nine Dash Line ............................................................................ 494
Figure 15.13: Chinese Claims and the Nine Dash Line: Key Island Groups involved in Disputes .......................... 495
Figure 15.14 Chinese Claims and the Nine Dashed Line: EEZs Overlapping the Zone Enclosed by Map of Nine Dashed
Line ............................................................................................................................................................................ 496
Figure 15.15 Chinese Claims and the Nine Dashed Line: EEZs in South China Sea and East China Sea) .............. 497
Figure 15.16: Chinese Claims and the Nine Dashed Line: Locations of 2001, 2002, and 2009 U.S.-Chinese Incidents
at Sea and In Air)....................................................................................................................................................... 498
Figure 15.17: China’s New Map of Greater China: June 2014 ................................................................................ 500
Figure 16.1 Japanese Constitutional Interpretation and Legal Policies ................................................................... 561
Chinese Strategy and Military Modernization: A Comparative Analysis October 5, 2015
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CHAPTER 1: EVOLVING STRATEGIES IN THE
CHINA-U.S. MILITARY BALANCE China’s emergence as a global economic superpower, and as a major regional military power in
Asia and the Pacific, has had a major impact on its relations with the United States and its
neighbors. China was the driving factor in the new strategy the United States announced in 2012
that called for the U.S. to “rebalance” its forces to Asia-Pacific region.1 At the same time, China’s
actions on its borders, in the East China Sea, and in the South China Sea have shown that China is
steadily expanding its geopolitical role in the Pacific, and having a steadily increasing impact on
the strategy and military developments in other Asian powers.
As a result, the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the United States, and China’s neighbors face
a critical need to improve their understanding of how each state in the region is developing its
military power, and find ways to avoid the kind of military competition that could lead to rising
tension or conflict.
This study is intended to support such a dialogue between China, the United States, and other key
Asian powers. It focuses on the current developments in China’s military strategy, forces, and
modernization, but does in the context of how they are influencing US. strategy and force
development, the reactions of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. It also focuses on how Chinese
military developments affect the rising tensions in areas like the East China Sea, South China Sea,
and Taiwan.
This study is not meant to provide a given view of Chinese strategy, Chinese forces, or the trends
in the regional military balance. It is rather intended to provide analysts with a better basis for
understanding the different official estimates of the changes in Chinese force strength and force
quality. Accordingly, it makes extensive comparisons of the assessments of Chinese military
developments in official reporting by the US, China, and other Asian governments. In doing so, it
relies heavily on Chinese white papers and the US Department of Defense (DoD) Report to
Congress on Military and Security, as well as the military white papers of Japan, South Korea, and
Taiwan. Key portions compare these different perspectives to work done by outside scholars and
the information in databases like those developed by the IISS and IHS Jane’s.
The analysis begins by focusing on Chinese strategy, the organization and structure of Chinese
forces, Chinese military spending and resources, and the broad trends in Chinese military
modernization. It then examines the trends in Chinese land, air, naval, paramilitary, missile, and
nuclear forces. Finally, it examines how Chinese strategy and military modernization have affected
the security situation in the Taiwan Straits, South China Sea, East China Sea, Northeast Asia, and
the U.S. military posture in the Pacific. The balance in the Korean Peninsula, and the role played
by China in this military balance, is addressed in depth in a previous Burke Chair report entitled
The Evolving Military Balance in the Korean Peninsula and Northeast Asia.
Where possible, the study attempts to quantify key trends and the differences between the official
reports and views of given countries. Accordingly, the analysis in each chapter is supported by
comparative trend analyses, maps and graphics, and chronologies, and by an examination of the
differences between key sources uncertainties involved.
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Chinese Strategy
Chinese strategy sets the stage for all the other aspects of China’s military development, but it is
important to note that China’s unclassified strategy documents are highly political documents that
are exercises in strategic communications. As the chapters of this analysis show, they have also
become less detailed as China’s forces have become stronger, and as China’s has emerged as a
major military power and become more challenging.
There are many debates over how realistic China’s public statements of its strategy really are, but
China’s summary of the Peoples Liberation Army’s (PLA) strategic goals in its 2015 defense white
paper, China’s Military Strategy, do provide broad insights strategicgoals : 2
China's national strategic goal is to complete the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects
by 2021 when the CPC celebrates its centenary; and the building of a modern socialist country that is
prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced and harmonious by 2049 when the People's Republic of
China (PRC) marks its centenary. It is a Chinese Dream of achieving the great rejuvenation of the Chinese
nation. The Chinese Dream is to make the country strong. China's armed forces take their dream of making
the military strong as part of the Chinese Dream.
Without a strong military, a country can be neither safe nor strong. In the new historical period, aiming at the
CPC's goal of building a strong military in the new situation, China's armed forces will unswervingly adhere
to the principle of the CPC's absolute leadership, uphold combat effectiveness as the sole and fundamental
standard, carry on their glorious traditions, and work to build themselves into a people's military that follows
the CPC's commands, can fight and win, and boasts a fine style of work.
In the new circumstances, the national security issues facing China encompass far more subjects, extend over
a greater range, and cover a longer time span than at any time in the country's history. Internally and
externally, the factors at play are more complex than ever before. Therefore, it is necessary to uphold a
holistic view of national security, balance internal and external security, homeland and citizen security,
traditional and non-traditional security, subsistence and development security, and China's own security and
the common security of the world.
To realize China's national strategic goal and implement the holistic view of national security, new
requirements have been raised for innovative development of China's military strategy and the
accomplishment of military missions and tasks. In response to the new requirement of safeguarding national
security and development interests, China's armed forces will work harder to create a favorable strategic
posture with more emphasis on the employment of military forces and means, and provide a solid security
guarantee for the country's peaceful development.
In response to the new requirement arising from the changing security situation, the armed forces will
constantly innovate strategic guidance and operational thoughts so as to ensure the capabilities of fighting
and winning. In response to the new requirement arising from the worldwide RMA, the armed forces will
pay close attention to the challenges in new security domains, and work hard to seize the strategic initiative
in military competition.
In response to the new requirement coming from the country's growing strategic interests, the armed forces
will actively participate in both regional and international security cooperation and effectively secure China's
overseas interests. And in response to the new requirement arising from China's all-round and deepening
reform, the armed forces will continue to follow the path of civil-military integration (CMI), actively
participate in the country's economic and social construction, and firmly maintain social stability, so as to
remain a staunch force for upholding the CPC's ruling position and a reliable force for developing socialism
with Chinese characteristics.
China's armed forces will effectively perform their missions in the new historical period, resolutely uphold
the leadership of the CPC and the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, safeguard China's
sovereignty, security and development interests, safeguard the important period of strategic opportunities for
China's development, maintain regional and world peace, and strive to provide a strong guarantee for
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completing the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects and achieving the great
rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
China's armed forces mainly shoulder the following strategic tasks:
To deal with a wide range of emergencies and military threats, and effectively safeguard the sovereignty and security of China's territorial land, air and sea;
To resolutely safeguard the unification of the motherland;
To safeguard China's security and interests in new domains;
To safeguard the security of China's overseas interests;
To maintain strategic deterrence and carry out nuclear counterattack;
To participate in regional and international security cooperation and maintain regional and world peace;
To strengthen efforts in operations against infiltration, separatism and terrorism so as to maintain China's political security and social stability; and
To perform such tasks as emergency rescue and disaster relief, rights and interests protection, guard duties, and support for national economic and social development.
Key Trends in Chinese Military Modernization
China’s 2015 White Paper also provides some broad insights into the reasons why China is making
key changes taking place in its forces. The White Paper notes that: 3
In the implementation of the military strategic guideline in the new situation, China's armed forces must
closely center around the CPC's goal of building a strong military, respond to the state's core security needs,
aim at building an informationized military and winning informationized wars, deepen the reform of national
defense and the armed forces in an all-round way, build a modern system of military forces with Chinese
characteristics, and constantly enhance their capabilities for addressing various security threats and
accomplishing diversified military tasks.
Development of the Services and Arms of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and the People's Armed Police
Force (PAPF)
In line with the strategic requirement of mobile operations and multi-dimensional offense and defense, the
PLA Army (PLAA) will continue to reorient from theater defense to trans-theater mobility. In the process of
building small, multi-functional and modular units, the PLAA will adapt itself to tasks in different regions,
develop the capacity of its combat forces for different purposes, and construct a combat force structure for
joint operations. The PLAA will elevate its capabilities for precise, multi-dimensional, trans-theater, multi-
functional and sustainable operations.
In line with the strategic requirement of offshore waters defense and open seas protection, the PLA Navy
(PLAN) will gradually shift its focus from "offshore waters defense" to the combination of "offshore waters
defense" with "open seas protection," and build a combined, multi-functional and efficient marine combat
force structure. The PLAN will enhance its capabilities for strategic deterrence and counterattack, maritime
maneuvers, joint operations at sea, comprehensive defense and comprehensive support.
In line with the strategic requirement of building air-space capabilities and conducting offensive and
defensive operations, the PLA Air Force (PLAAF) will endeavor to shift its focus from territorial air defense
to both defense and offense, and build an air-space defense force structure that can meet the requirements of
informationized operations. The PLAAF will boost its capabilities for strategic early warning, air strike, air
and missile defense, information countermeasures, airborne operations, strategic projection and
comprehensive support.
In line with the strategic requirement of being lean and effective and possessing both nuclear and
conventional missiles, the PLA Second Artillery Force (PLASAF) will strive to transform itself in the
direction of informationization, press forward with independent innovations in weaponry and equipment by
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reliance on science and technology, enhance the safety, reliability and effectiveness of missile systems, and
improve the force structure featuring a combination of both nuclear and conventional capabilities. The
PLASAF will strengthen its capabilities for strategic deterrence and nuclear counterattack, and medium- and
long-range precision strikes.
In line with the strategic requirement of performing multiple functions and effectively maintaining social
stability, the PAPF will continue to develop its forces for guard and security, contingency response, stability
maintenance, counter-terrorism operations, emergency rescue and disaster relief, emergency support and air
support, and work to improve a force structure which highlights guard duty, contingency response, counter-
terrorism and stability maintenance. The PAPF will enhance its capabilities for performing diversified tasks
centering on guard duty and contingency response in informationized conditions.
Force Development in Critical Security Domains
The seas and oceans bear on the enduring peace, lasting stability and sustainable development of China. The
traditional mentality that land outweighs sea must be abandoned, and great importance has to be attached to
managing the seas and oceans and protecting maritime rights and interests. It is necessary for China to
develop a modern maritime military force structure commensurate with its national security and development
interests, safeguard its national sovereignty and maritime rights and interests, protect the security of strategic
SLOCs and overseas interests, and participate in international maritime cooperation, so as to provide strategic
support for building itself into a maritime power.
Outer space has become a commanding height in international strategic competition. Countries concerned
are developing their space forces and instruments, and the first signs of weaponization of outer space have
appeared. China has all along advocated the peaceful use of outer space, opposed the weaponization of and
arms race in outer space, and taken an active part in international space cooperation. China will keep abreast
of the dynamics of outer space, deal with security threats and challenges in that domain, and secure its space
assets to serve its national economic and social development, and maintain outer space security.
Cyberspace has become a new pillar of economic and social development, and a new domain of national
security. As international strategic competition in cyberspace has been turning increasingly fiercer, quite a
few countries are developing their cyber military forces. Being one of the major victims of hacker attacks,
China is confronted with grave security threats to its cyber infrastructure. As cyberspace weighs more in
military security, China will expedite the development of a cyber force, and enhance its capabilities of
cyberspace situation awareness, cyber defense, support for the country's endeavors in cyberspace and
participation in international cyber cooperation, so as to stem major cyber crises, ensure national network
and information security, and maintain national security and social stability.
The nuclear force is a strategic cornerstone for safeguarding national sovereignty and security. China has
always pursued the policy of no first use of nuclear weapons and adhered to a self-defensive nuclear strategy
that is defensive in nature. China will unconditionally not use or threaten to use nuclear weapons against non-
nuclear-weapon states or in nuclear-weapon-free zones, and will never enter into a nuclear arms race with
any other country. China has always kept its nuclear capabilities at the minimum level required for
maintaining its national security. China will optimize its nuclear force structure, improve strategic early
warning, command and control, missile penetration, rapid reaction, and survivability and protection, and
deter other countries from using or threatening to use nuclear weapons against China.
Military Force Building Measures
Strengthening ideological and political work. China's armed forces always treat ideological and political
building as the first priority, and have endeavored to reinforce and improve their political work in the new
situation. They will continue to practice and carry forward the Core Socialist Values, cultivate the Core
Values of Contemporary Revolutionary Service Personnel, and carry forward their glorious traditions and
fine styles. Moreover, the armed forces will uphold a series of fundamental principles for and institutions of
the CPC's absolute leadership over the military, enhance the creativity, cohesion and combat effectiveness of
their CPC organizations at all levels, make great efforts to cultivate a new generation of revolutionary service
personnel of noble soul, competence, courage, uprightness and virtue, and ensure that the armed forces will
resolutely follow the commands of the CPC Central Committee and the CMC at all times and under all
conditions, and consistently retain the nature and purpose of the people's armed forces.
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Pushing ahead with logistics modernization. China's armed forces will deepen logistics reform in relevant
policies, institutions and support forces, and optimize strategic logistics deployment. They will innovate the
modes of support, develop new support means, augment war reserves, integrate logistics information
systems, improve rules and standards, and meticulously organize supply and support, so as to build a logistics
system that can provide support for fighting and winning modern wars, serve the modernization of the armed
forces, and transform towards informationization.
Developing advanced weaponry and equipment. Persevering in information dominance, systems building,
independent innovation, sustainable development, overall planning, and emphasis on priorities, China's
armed forces will speed up to upgrade weaponry and equipment, and work to develop a weaponry and
equipment system which can effectively respond to informationized warfare and help fulfill the missions and
tasks.
Cultivating new-type military personnel. China's armed forces will continue with the strategic project for
personnel training and perfect the system for military human resources. They will deepen the reform of
military educational institutions and improve the triad training system for new-type military personnel -
institutional education, unit training and military professional education, so as to pool more talented people
and cultivate more personnel who can meet the demands of informationized warfare.
Intensifying efforts in running the armed forces with strict discipline and in accordance with the law. Aiming
at strengthening the revolutionization, modernization and regularization of the armed forces in all respects,
China will innovate and develop theories and practice in relation to running the armed forces in accordance
with the law, establish a well-knit military law system with Chinese characteristics, so as to elevate the level
of rule by law of national defense and armed forces building.
Innovating military theories. Under the guidance of the CPC's innovative theories, China's armed forces will
intensify their studies of military operations, probe into the mechanisms of winning modern wars, innovate
strategies and tactics featuring mobility and flexibility, and develop theories on military building in the new
situation, so as to bring into place a system of advanced military theories commensurate with the requirement
of winning future wars.
Improving strategic management. It is necessary to optimize the functions and institutions of the CMC and
the general headquarters/departments, improve the leadership and management system of the services and
arms, and adhere to demand-based planning and plan-based resource allocation. China's armed forces will
set up a system and a working mechanism for overall and coordinated programming and planning. They will
also intensify overall supervision and management of strategic resources, strengthen the in-process
supervision and risk control of major projects, improve mechanisms for strategic assessment, and set up and
improve relevant assessment systems and complementary standards and codes.
In-depth Development of Civil-Military Integration (CMI)
Following the guiding principle of integrating military with civilian purposes and combining military efforts
with civilian support, China will forge further ahead with CMI by constantly bettering the mechanisms,
diversifying the forms, expanding the scope and elevating the level of the integration, so as to endeavor to
bring into place an all-element, multi-domain and cost-efficient pattern of CMI.
Accelerating CMI in key sectors. With stronger policy support, China will work to establish uniform military
and civilian standards for infrastructure, key technological areas and major industries, explore the ways and
means for training military personnel in civilian educational institutions, developing weaponry and
equipment by national defense industries, and outsourcing logistics support to civilian support systems. China
encourages joint building and utilization of military and civilian infrastructure, joint exploration of the sea,
outer space and air, and shared use of such resources as surveying and mapping, navigation, meteorology
and frequency spectra. Accordingly, military and civilian resources can be more compatible, complementary
and mutually accessible.
Building a mechanism for operating CMI. At the state level, it is necessary to establish a mechanism for CMI
development, featuring unified leadership, military-civilian coordination, abutment of military and civilian
needs, and resource sharing. Furthermore, it is necessary to improve the management responsibilities of
relevant military and civilian institutions, improve the general standards for both the military and the civilian
sectors, make studies on the establishment of a policy system in which the government makes the investment,
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offers tax incentives and financial support, and expedites legislation promoting military-civilian coordinated
development, so as to form a pattern featuring overall military-civilian planning and coordinated
development. It is also necessary to push forward with the shared utilization of military capabilities and those
of other sectors, and establish a mechanism for joint civil-military response to major crises and emergencies.
Improving the systems and mechanisms of national defense mobilization. China will enhance education in
national defense and boost the awareness of the general public in relation to national defense. It will continue
to strengthen the building of the reserve force, optimize its structure, and increase its proportion in the PLAN,
PLAAF and PLASAF as well as in combat support forces. The ways to organize and employ reserve forces
will be more diversified. China will devote more efforts to science and technology in national defense
mobilization, be more readily prepared for the requisition of information resources, and build specialized
support forces. China aims to build a national defense mobilization system that can meet the requirements of
winning informationized wars and responding to both emergencies and wars.
China’s View of Its Strategic Position Relative to the United States
At the same time, the 2015 Chinese White Paper focuses on a key underlying reality. Whether or
not China openly declares the full range of motives behind its military development, every aspect
of China’s strategy, the changes in its forces, and its military modernization is related to China’s
view that China must pursue its interest in a troubled region, that it must be ready for conflict, and
US is both a potential partner in some forms of military cooperation and a major competitor for
strategic influence and a potential future threat.
Profound changes are taking place in the international situation, as manifested in the historic changes in the
balance of power, global governance structure, Asia-Pacific geostrategic landscape, and international
competition in the economic, scientific and technological, and military fields. The forces for world peace are
on the rise, so are the factors against war. In the foreseeable future, a world war is unlikely, and the
international situation is expected to remain generally peaceful. There are, however, new threats from
hegemonism, power politics and neo-interventionism. International competition for the redistribution of
power, rights and interests is tending to intensify. Terrorist activities are growing increasingly worrisome.
Hotspot issues, such as ethnic, religious, border and territorial disputes, are complex and volatile. Small-scale
wars, conflicts and crises are recurrent in some regions. Therefore, the world still faces both immediate and
potential threats of local wars.
With a generally favorable external environment, China will remain in an important period of strategic
opportunities for its development, a period in which much can be achieved. China's comprehensive national
strength, core competitiveness and risk-resistance capacity are notably increasing, and China enjoys growing
international standing and influence. Domestically, the Chinese people's standard of living has remarkably
improved, and Chinese society remains stable. China, as a large developing country, still faces multiple and
complex security threats, as well as increasing external impediments and challenges. Subsistence and
development security concerns, as well as traditional and non-traditional security threats are interwoven.
Therefore, China has an arduous task to safeguard its national unification, territorial integrity and
development interests.
As the world economic and strategic center of gravity is shifting ever more rapidly to the Asia-Pacific region,
the US carries on its "rebalancing" strategy and enhances its military presence and its military alliances in
this region. Japan is sparing no effort to dodge the post-war mechanism, overhauling its military and security
policies. Such development has caused grave concerns among other countries in the region. On the issues
concerning China's territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests, some of its offshore neighbors
take provocative actions and reinforce their military presence on China's reefs and islands that they have
illegally occupied. Some external countries are also busy meddling in South China Sea affairs; a tiny few
maintain constant close-in air and sea surveillance and reconnaissance against China. It is thus a long-
standing task for China to safeguard its maritime rights and interests. Certain disputes over land territory are
still smoldering. The Korean Peninsula and Northeast Asia are shrouded in instability and uncertainty.
Regional terrorism, separatism and extremism are rampant. All these have a negative impact on the security
and stability along China's periphery.
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The Taiwan issue bears on China's reunification and long-term development, and reunification is an
inevitable trend in the course of national rejuvenation.