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Syafiqah Lyana binti Shamsuri
4 Jujur (2009)
5 Bersih (2010)
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All living & non-living things are madeup of elements.
At least 25 elements have been foundto be essential to living organisms.
C, O, H & N make up about 96% of thechemical composition of living matter.
Major elements : C, H, N, O, Ca, P, S, K,Na, Cl & Mg.
Trace elements : boron (B), chromium(Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), fluorine(F), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese(Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se),silicon (Si), tin (Sn), vanadium (V), &
zinc (Zn).
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a substance, composed of only onekind of atom which cannot be
broken down into simplersubstances by a chemical reaction.
Types of Element Can be dividedinto two
Chemical compoundin the cell
Major elementsTrace elements
Ultratraceelements
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids Water.
Organic
Compound
Inorganic
Compounds
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Provide energy duringrespiration
To build cell wall inplant cell
To form external skeletonof insects
As food storage(starch in plant cells,
glycogen in animal cells)
To be converted to otherorganic compounds
e.g.: amino acids & fats.
To produce sugary nectar insome flower to attract feeding
insects (pollination)
To form glycoprotein
Mucus lining ofhuman respiratorysystem to trap dust& microbial sporesIn plasmamembrane for cell
recognition
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To form lipid bilayer ofplasma membrane
To protect organ &as heat insulator
As a source of energy
Solvent for vitamins A,D,E,K
To synthesis steroid hormones
including sex hormones
As a stored product inthe form of adipose tissues
and fats or oil in seeds
To produce liver bile for thedigestion of fats
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To form the structureof cell such as
protoplasm
To form the protein moleculesin the plasma membrane
To produce new cellsTo build up muscles for
movement
To form haemoglobin in red bloodcell to transport oxygen
To form connective tissuessuch as tendons, ligaments
and muscles coverings
To synthesise enzymes, andhormones to controls chemicals
processes
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Contain carbon, hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus
Two types :DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Its basic unit structure isnucleotide which consist of
a sugar, a phosphate &a nitrogen base.
The importance of nucleicacid in cell:
Carry genetic information
Direct protein synthesis
Determine the traits whichare inherited from the parents
Control all the core activitiesthat characterise such aschemical reaction & growth
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As a major component ofprotoplasm
As a transport medium withincells & between cells
Allows chemical changes totake place in solution
As a medium for biochemicalreactions in the cell
As a universal solvent todissolve respiratory gases& allow diffusion during
gaseous exchange atalveolus & cells
To provide support especiallyin non-woody plants when
cells are turgid & hydrostaticskeleton in some animals
Component of lubricants &secretion (synovial fluid,digestive juices, mucus
& sweat)
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Contain theContain theelementelementcarbon,carbon,
hydrogen &hydrogen &
oxygenoxygen
3 main groups :3 main groups :
MONOSACCHARIDESMONOSACCHARIDES
,,
DISACCHARIDES,DISACCHARIDES,
POLYSACCHARIDESPOLYSACCHARIDES
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Basic building blocks ofBasic building blocks of
carbohydratescarbohydrates
Simple sugar as glucose,Simple sugar as glucose,
fructose & galactosefructose & galactose
Consist of single chemicalConsist of single chemical
group made up of a ringgroup made up of a ring
of carbon, hydrogenof carbon, hydrogen& oxygen atoms& oxygen atoms
Reducing sugarsReducing sugars
Can be detected by usingCan be detected by using
Benedicts testBenedicts test
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Complex sugarsComplex sugars
Consist ofConsist oftwo monosaccharidestwo monosaccharides
combined chemically throughcombined chemically through condensationcondensation..
Mono + monoMono + mono disaccharides + waterdisaccharides + waterE.g..: maltose (malt sugar),E.g..: maltose (malt sugar),
sucrose (cane sugar), lactose (milk sugar)sucrose (cane sugar), lactose (milk sugar)
Can be broken down intoCan be broken down into
monosaccharides throughmonosaccharides through hydrolysihydrolysi
Glucose + glucoseGlucose + glucose maltose + watermaltose + waterGlucose + fructoseGlucose + fructose sucrose + watersucrose + waterGlucose + galactoseGlucose + galactose lactose + waterlactose + water
All are reducing sugar except sucroseAll are reducing sugar except sucrose
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Large complex sugarLarge complex sugar
Many monosaccharides areMany monosaccharides are
joined together to form longjoined together to form long
chain of simple sugar calledchain of simple sugar calledpolymerspolymers..
e.g. :e.g. : STARCHSTARCH,, GLYCOGENGLYCOGEN &&CELLULOSECELLULOSE
Produced by plants as aform of food in storage Structural polysaccharidesin plant cell
Formed by animals as ameans of storing glucose
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Element in proteins
Large and complexmolecules
Monomer:Amino acids
CarbonHydrogenOxygenNitrogen
Phosphorus
Molecules of amino acids are joinedtogether through condensation
Amino acids are joined togetherbypeptide bond
Amino acid + amino acid dipeptide + water
olypeptides are formed when many molecules of amino acids are jointogether to form long chains of amino acid.
20 amino acids found inthe proteins of living cells Two types of amino acid:
Essentialamino acids :
cannot synthesisedby body cells
Non-essentialamino acids : can
be synthesised bybody cells
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Primarystructure:
a longstraightchain of
polypeptide
Secondarystructure:coiled to
form helixor pleated
sheet.
Tertiarystructure :
helix orpleatedsheet isfolded in
various ways
to formlobular
Quaternary
structure :foldedprotein
chains arejoined
together toform asinglerotein
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Organic compound that containcarbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Types of lipids
PhospholipidsFats and Oils Steroid Wax
triglycerides consists one
molecule 1 molecule
of glyceroland 3
molecule offatty acid Divided into
saturatedfats andunsaturatedfats
importantcomponent inthe formation
of plasmamembrane
Complexorganiccompound
e.g.:cholesterol,hormones
In cuticlesof theepidermis ofleaves,fruits andseeds
Preventingthe entryandevaporatingof water
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Solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
High melting point Low melting point
Increase the level of cholesterol in
the blood
Decrease the level of cholesterol in
the blood
Increase the risk of heart diseases Does not increase the risk of heartdiseases
Example : animal fats (lard, butter) Example : vegetable oils (palm oil,corn oil)
SATURATED FAT UNSATURATED FAT
SIMILARITIES
BOTH are triglyceride & contain fatty acids.
DIFFERENCESContain saturated fatty acid Contain unsaturated fatty acid
Its Carbon chain contains maximumnumber of hydrogen
Its carbon chain is not saturatedwith hydrogen.
Single bond between carbon atoms(-c-c-)
At least 1 Double bond betweencarbon atoms (-c=c-)
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Metabolism :biochemical processesin the cells
Involves a series of
chemical reactions(complex compound can
be synthesisedfromsimple substances or
broken down). Its controlby enzymes.
ENZYMEs :organic catalystthat increase therate of abiochemical
reaction
A proteinswhich functionas biocatalyst.
Organismsdepends on
enzymes for thebiochemical
processes in thecells
Enable biochemical reactions totake place quickly in the cells
where the internal environmentsuch as temperature may not
favourable for chemical
reactions
Substrate : the substancethat is acted upon by anenzyme.
Required for :
Digestion,synthesis ofsubstances,contraction ofmuscles,respiration,
etc.
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All enzyme areprotein
Produced by livingcell
The action of enzyme is specific
Speed up biochemicalreactions but are not
changed or destroyed at theend of reaction
Required very smallquantities to
produce a largeamount of chemical
change
Chemical reactioncatalysed are
reversible reactions
Sensitive to temperature40-60oC denaturedLow temp. less activeOptimum temp. 35-40oC
Sensitive to pHMost active at pH7Some enzymesrequire specificacidic(pepsin)/alkalinecondition (trypsin)
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secreted out of thecell & functionsoutside the cell.
Examples : salivary amylase,trypsin, & lipase are
produced in the pancreas &transported to the
duodenum.
produced by the cell &function within the cell.
Examples : enzymes that areinvolved in respiration
(mitochondria) & in
photosynthesis (chloroplast)
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pH Level
Protein aredenatured bychanges in the
pH level of thereaction medium. Most enzymes
are effective inonly a narrow pHrange.
The optimumpH : theparticular pH atwhich the rate ofreaction isfastest.
Temperature
Low temperature, the rate of enzyme
reaction is low. Temperature >, rate of reaction >.
increasing the force & the rate ofcollision. Low temp (below 40oC), a rise of 10oC
will double the rate of reaction. Optimum temp = 37oC @ body
temperature.
Over 40oC, enzymes becomesdenatured rapidly
At 60oC, enzymes are denatured & the
reaction stop.
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Concentration of Substrate Concentration of Enzyme
pH value, temperature &enzyme concentration arekept constant, the rate of
enzyme reaction increasesdirectly proportional to theamount of substrate presentuntil a limiting value.
The rate of enzyme reactiondoes not increase even
though the [substrate]increase.
pH value, temperature,
substrate concentration are
kept constant.
Reaction increases directlyproportional to the [enzyme]
until it reaches a limiting
value. Any increase in the enzyme
concentration does not
increase the rate ofreaction.
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APPLICATION ENZYMES USES
Daily Product Rennin To coagulate milk proteins incheese production
Lactose To produce lactose-free milk.
Meat Industry Trypsin To digest & tenderise meat,which makes it easier to cookthe meat & shortens cookingtime
Bakingindustry
-amylase To breakdown starch flourinto sugars in the making of
breads & buns.Production offruit juices
-amylaseAmyloglucosidase
Glucoseisomerase
To produce fructose syrupfrom corn starch. Used asfood drink sweeteners.
Pectinase To di est the ectin in lant
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Brewingindustry
-amylase To digest starch into sugars
Zymase To convert sugars into alcohol
Extraction ofagar frommarineseaweed
Cellulase To breakdown plant cell wallsfrom seaweeds. Makes iteasier to extract agar fromseaweeds.
Biological
detergent
Amylase
ProteaseLipase
To be used in dish washers &
in washing powders.
Leatherindustry
Protease To remove hair & to softenleather to make bags, belts &shoes.
Paper industry Amylase To digest starch into smallermolecules to fill spacesbetween cellulose fibres toproduce smoother paper.
Medicine Microbial trypsinTo dissolve blood clots
Genetic Ligase To produce GMO to increase
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No glucose
Respirationcannot occur
No food storage
No starch orglycogen
No cellulose
Plant cell cannotmaintain fixed
shape
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LACK OFENZYMES
ANTIBODIES
HORMONESHAEMOGLOBIN
Plasmamembrane not
properly formed
No carrier proteinsand pores to
transportsubstances across
the plasmamembrane
Muscle cellcannot contract
No new cells areformed
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PLASMAMEMBRANE IS NOT
WELL FORMED
NO ABSORPTIONOF VITAMIN
A D E K
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No cholesterol tostabilise the plasma
membrane
No chemical
reactions in thecells
All living processes
stop functioning
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NO DNA AND
RNA IN THECELLS SYTHESIS OF
PROTEINS STOPSNO DIVISION
OF CELLSOCCUR
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