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"Che"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeChe(disambiguation).
Ernesto"Che"Guevara(Spanishpronunciation: [ernesto "te" geaa]June14,[1]1928October9,1967)commonlyknownasCheGuevara ,ElChe,orsimplyChe,wasan
ArgentineMarxistrevolutionary,physician,author,intellectual,guerrillaleader,military
theorist,andmajorfigureoftheCubanRevolution.Sincehisdeath,hisstylizedvisagehas
becomeaubiquitouscounterculturalsymbolandglobalinsigniawithinpopularculture.[4]
Asayoungmedicalstudent,GuevaratraveledthroughoutLatinAmericaandwastransformed
bytheendemicpovertyhewitnessed. [5]Hisexperiencesandobservationsduringthesetripsledhimtoconcludethattheregion'singrainedeconomicinequalitieswereanintrinsicresultof
monopolycapitalism,neocolonialism,andimperialism,withtheonlyremedybeingworld
revolution.[6]ThisbeliefpromptedhisinvolvementinGuatemala'ssocialreformsunderPresidentJacoboArbenzGuzmn,whoseeventualCIAassistedoverthrowsolidifiedGuevara's
radicalideology.Later,whilelivinginMexicoCity,hemetRaulandFidelCastro,joinedtheir
26thofJulyMovement,andinvadedCubaaboardtheGranmawiththeintentionofoverthrowing
U.S.backedCubandictatorFulgencioBatista.[7]Guevarasoonrosetoprominenceamongtheinsurgents,waspromotedtosecondincommand,andplayedapivotalroleinthesuccessful
twoyearguerrillacampaignthatdeposedtheBatistaregime.[8]
FollowingtheCubanRevolution,Guevaraperformedanumberofkeyrolesinthenew
government.Theseincludedreviewingtheappealsandfiringsquadsforthoseconvictedaswar
criminalsduringtherevolutionarytribunals,[9]institutingagrarianreformasministerofindustries,servingasbothnationalbankpresidentandinstructionaldirectorforCubasarmed
forces,andtraversingtheglobeasadiplomatonbehalfofCubansocialism.Suchpositions
allowedhimtoplayacentralroleintrainingthemilitiaforceswhorepelledtheBayofPigs
Invasion[10]andbringingtoCubatheSovietnucleararmedballisticmissileswhichprecipitated
the1962CubanMissileCrisis.[11]Additionally,hewasaprolificwriteranddiarist,composingaseminalmanualonguerrillawarfare,alongwithabestsellingmemoirabouthisyouthful
motorcyclejourneyacrossSouthAmerica.GuevaraleftCubain1965toinciterevolutionsfirst
unsuccessfullyinCongoKinshasaandlaterinBolivia,wherehewascapturedbyCIAassisted
Bolivianforcesandexecuted. [12]
Guevararemainsbothareveredandreviledhistoricalfigure,polarizedinthecollective
imaginationinamultitudeofbiographies,memoirs,essays,documentaries,songs,andfilms.
Timemagazinenamedhimoneofthe100mostinfluentialpeopleofthe20thcentury,[13]whileanAlbertoKordaphotographofhimentitledGuerrilleroHeroico(shown),wasdeclared"the
mostfamousphotographintheworld." [14]
Earlylife
ErnestoGuevarawasborntoCeliadelaSernayLlosaandErnestoGuevaraLynchonJune14,1928[1]
inRosario,Argentina,theeldestoffivechildreninafamilyofSpanish,BasqueandIrishdescent. [15]Inlieuofhisparents'surnames,hislegalname(ErnestoGuevara)willsometimesappearwithdelaSerna,
orLynchaccompanyingit.InreferencetoChe's"restless"nature,hisfatherdeclared"thefirstthingto
noteisthatinmyson'sveinsflowedthebloodoftheIrishrebels."[16]VeryearlyoninlifeErnestito(as
hewasthencalled)developedan"affinityforthepoor".[17]Growingupinafamilywithleftistleanings,
Guevarawasintroducedtoawidespectrumofpoliticalperspectivesevenasaboy. [18]Hisfather,astaunchsupporterofRepublicansfromtheSpanishCivilWar,oftenhostedmanyveteransfromthe
conflictintheGuevarahome. [19]
Thoughsufferingcripplingboutsofacuteasthmathatweretoafflicthimthroughouthislife,heexcelled
asanathlete,enjoyingswimming,soccer,golf,andshootingwhilealsobecomingan"untiring"cyclist.[20][21]Hewasanavidrugbyunionplayer,andplayedatflyhalffortheUniversityofBuenosAiresFirst
XV.[22]Hisrugbyplayingearnedhimthenickname"Fuser"acontractionofElFuribundo(raging)andhismother'ssurname,delaSernaforhis
aggressivestyleofplay. [23]Hisschoolmatesalsonicknamedhim"Chancho"("pig"),becauseherarelybathed,andproudlyworea"weeklyshirt."
Guevaralearnedchessfromhisfatherandbeganparticipatinginlocaltournamentsbyage12.Duringadolescenceandthroughouthislifehewas
passionateaboutpoetry,especiallythatofPabloNeruda,JohnKeats,AntonioMachado,FedericoGarcaLorca,GabrielaMistral,CsarVallejo,and
WaltWhitman.[24]HecouldalsoreciteRudyardKipling's"If" andJosHernndez's"MartnFierro"frommemory. [24]TheGuevarahomecontainedmorethan3,000books,whichallowedGuevaratobeanenthusiasticandeclecticreader,withinterestsincludingKarlMarx,WilliamFaulkner,Andr
Gide,EmilioSalgariandJulesVerne.[25]Additionally,heenjoyedtheworksofJawaharlalNehru,FranzKafka,AlbertCamus,VladimirLenin,and
JeanPaulSartreaswellasAnatoleFrance,FriedrichEngels,H.G.Wells,andRobertFrost.[26]
Ashegrewolder,hedevelopedaninterestintheLatinAmericanwritersHoracioQuiroga,CiroAlegra,JorgeIcaza,
RubnDaro,andMiguelAsturias.[26]Manyoftheseauthors'ideashecatalogedinhisownhandwrittennotebooksofconcepts,definitions,andphilosophiesofinfluentialintellectuals.Theseincludedcomposinganalyticalsketchesof
BuddhaandAristotle,alongwithexaminingBertrandRussellonloveandpatriotism,JackLondononsociety,and
Nietzscheontheideaofdeath.SigmundFreud'sideasfascinatedhimashequotedhimonavarietyoftopicsfrom
dreamsandlibidotonarcissismandtheoedipuscomplex.[26]Hisfavoritesubjectsinschoolincludedphilosophy,
mathematics,engineering,politicalscience,sociology,historyandarchaeology.[27][28]
Yearslater,aFebruary13,1958,declassifiedCIA'biographicalandpersonalityreport'wouldmakenoteofGuevaras
widerangeofacademicinterestsandintellect,describinghimas"quitewellread"andthecommentthat"Cheisfairly
intellectualforaLatino". [29]
Motorcyclejourney
Mainarticles:TheMotorcycleDiariesandTheMotorcycleDiaries(film)
In1948,GuevaraenteredtheUniversityofBuenosAirestostudymedicine.Butin1951,hetookayearofffrom
studiestoembarkonatriptraversingSouthAmericabymotorcyclewithhisfriendAlbertoGranado,withthefinalgoalofspendingafewweeks
volunteeringattheSanPabloLepercolonyinPeru,onthebanksoftheAmazonRiver.OnthewaytoMachuPicchuhighintheAndes,hewas
struckbythecrushingpovertyoftheremoteruralareas,wherepeasantfarmersworkedsmallplotsoflandownedbywealthylandlords.[30]Lateronhisjourney,GuevarawasespeciallyimpressedbythecamaraderieamongthoselivinginaLeperColony,stating"Thehighestformsofhuman
solidarityandloyaltyariseamongsuchlonelyanddesperatepeople."[30]GuevarausednotestakenduringthistriptowriteanaccountentitledThe
MotorcycleDiaries,whichlaterbecameaNewYorkTimesbestseller,[31]andwasadaptedintoa2004awardwinningfilmofthesamename.
Bytrip'send,hecametoviewLatinAmericanotascollectionofseparatenations,butasasingleentityrequiringacontinentwideliberation
strategy.Hisconceptionofaborderless,unitedHispanicAmericasharingacommon'Latino'heritagewasathemethatprominentlyrecurredduring
hislaterrevolutionaryactivities.UponreturningtoArgentina,hecompletedhisstudiesandreceivedhismedicaldegreeinJune1953,makinghim
officially"Dr.ErnestoGuevara".[32][33]GuevaralaterremarkedthatthroughhistravelsofLatinAmerica,hecamein"closecontactwithpoverty,hungeranddisease"alongwiththe"inabilitytotreatachildbecauseoflackofmoney"and"stupefactionprovokedbythecontinualhungerand
punishment"thatleadsafatherto"acceptthelossofasonasanunimportantaccident".ItwastheseexperienceswhichGuevaracitesas
convincinghimthatinorderto"helpthesepeople",heneededtoleavetherealmofmedicine,andconsiderthepoliticalarenaofarmedstruggle.[5]
Guatemala,ArbenzandUnitedFruit
Mainarticle:1954Guatemalancoupd'tat
OnJuly7,1953,Guevarasetoutagain,thistimetoBolivia,Peru,Ecuador,Panama,CostaRica,Nicaragua,
HondurasandElSalvador.OnDecember10,1953,beforeleavingforGuatemala,Guevarasentanupdatetohis
AuntBeatrizfromSanJos,CostaRica.IntheletterGuevaraspeaksoftraversingthroughthe"dominions"ofthe
UnitedFruitCompany,whichconvincedhim"howterrible"the"Capitalistoctopuses"were. [34]Thisaffirmedindignationcarriedthe"headhuntingtone"thatheadoptedinordertofrightenhismoreConservativerelatives,and
endswithGuevaraswearingonanimageofthethenrecentlydeceasedJosefStalin,nottorestuntilthese
"octopuseshavebeenvanquished."[35]Laterthatmonth,GuevaraarrivedinGuatemalawherePresidentJacoboArbenzGuzmnheadedademocraticallyelectedgovernmentthat,throughlandreformandotherinitiatives,was
attemptingtoendthe latifundiasystem.Toaccomplishthis,PresidentArbenzhadenactedamajorlandreform
program,wherealluncultivatedportionsoflargelandholdingsweretobeexpropriatedandredistributedto
landlesspeasants.Thebiggestlandowner,andonemostaffectedbythereforms,wastheUnitedFruitCompany,
fromwhichtheArbenzgovernmenthadalreadytakenmorethan225,000uncultivatedacres. [36]Pleasedwiththeroadthenationwasheadingdown,GuevaradecidedtosettledowninGuatemalasoasto"perfecthimselfand
accomplishwhatevermaybenecessaryinordertobecomeatruerevolutionary". [37]
InGuatemalaCity,GuevarasoughtoutHildaGadeaAcosta,aPeruvianeconomistwhowaswellconnected
politicallyasamemberoftheleftleaningAlianzaPopularRevolucionariaAmericana(APRA,AmericanPopular
RevolutionaryAlliance).SheintroducedGuevaratoanumberofhighlevelofficialsintheArbenzgovernment.
GuevarathenestablishedcontactwithagroupofCubanexileslinkedtoFidelCastrothroughtheJuly26,1953
attackontheMoncadaBarracksinSantiagodeCuba.[38]Duringthisperiodheacquiredhisfamousnickname,
duetohisfrequentuseoftheArgentinevocativeinterjectionche,aslangcasualspeechfillerusedsimilarlyto"eh"or"pal." [39]
Guevara'sattemptstoobtainamedicalinternshipwereunsuccessfulandhiseconomicsituationwasoftenprecarious.OnMay15,1954,ashipment
ofkodainfantryandlightartilleryweaponswassentfromCommunistCzechoslovakiafortheArbenzGovernmentandarrivedinPuertoBarrios,[40]
[41].Asaresult,theU.S.CIAsponsoredanarmywhichinvadedthecountryandinstalledtherightwingdictatorshipofCarlosCastilloArmas.[37]GuevarawaseagertofightonbehalfofArbenzandjoinedanarmedmilitiaorganizedbytheCommunistYouthforthatpurpose,butfrustratedwith
thegroup'sinaction,hesoonreturnedtomedicalduties.Followingthecoup,heagainvolunteeredtofight,butsoonafter,Arbenztookrefugeinthe
MexicanEmbassyandtoldhisforeignsupporterstoleavethecountry.Guevarasrepeatedcallstoresistwerenotedbysupportersofthecoup,and
hewasmarkedformurder.[42]AfterHildaGadeawasarrested,GuevarasoughtprotectioninsidetheArgentineconsulate,whereheremaineduntilhe
receivedasafeconductpasssomeweekslaterandmadehiswaytoMexico. [43]HemarriedGadeainMexicoinSeptember1955. [44]
TheoverthrowoftheArbenzregimecementedGuevara'sviewoftheUnitedStatesasan imperialistpowerthatwouldopposeandattempttodestroy
anygovernmentthatsoughttoredressthesocioeconomicinequalityendemictoLatinAmericaandotherdevelopingcountries.Inspeakingaboutthe
coupGuevarastated:
"ThelastLatinAmericanrevolutionarydemocracythatofJacoboArbenzfailedasaresultofthecoldpremeditatedaggressioncarriedoutbythe
U.S.A.ItsvisibleheadwastheSecretaryofStateJohnFosterDulles,amanwho,throughararecoincidence,wasalsoastockholderandattorneyfor
theUnitedFruitCompany."[42]
Guevara'sconvictionthatMarxismachievedthrougharmedstruggleanddefendedbyanarmedpopulacewastheonlywaytorectifysuchconditions
wasthusstrengthened.[45]Gadeawrotelater,"ItwasGuatemalawhichfinallyconvincedhimofthenecessityforarmedstruggleandfortakingthe
initiativeagainstimperialism.Bythetimeheleft,hewassureofthis." [46]
MexicoCityandpreparation
GuevaraarrivedinMexicoCityinearlySeptember1954,andworkedintheallergysectionoftheGeneral
Hospital.InadditionhegavelecturesonmedicineattheNationalAutonomousUniversityofMexicoandworked
asanewsphotographerforLatinaNewsAgency. [47]HisfirstwifeHildanotesinhermemoirMyLifewithChe,thatforawhile,GuevaraconsideringgoingtoworkasadoctorinAfricaandthathecontinuedtobedeeply
troubledbythepovertyaroundhim. [48]Inoneinstance,HildadescribesGuevara'sobsessionwithanelderlywasherwomanwhomhewastreating,remarkingthathesawheras"representativeofthemostforgottenand
exploitedclass."HildalaterfoundapoemthatChehaddedicatedtotheoldwoman,containing"apromiseto
fightforabetterworld,forabetterlifeforallthepoorandexploited."[48]
DuringthistimeherenewedhisfriendshipwithicoLpezandtheotherCubanexileswhomhehadmetin
Guatemala.InJune1955,LpezintroducedhimtoRalCastrowhosubsequentlyintroducedhimtohisolder
brother,FidelCastro,therevolutionaryleaderwhohadformedthe26thofJulyMovementandwasnowplottingto
overthrowthedictatorshipofFulgencioBatista.DuringalongconversationwithCastroonthenightoftheirfirst
meeting,GuevaraconcludedthattheCuban'scausewastheoneforwhichhehadbeensearchingandbefore
daybreakhehadsignedupasamemberofthe26JMovement. [49]BythispointinGuevaraslife,hedeemedthatU.S.controlledconglomeratesinstalledandsupportedrepressiveregimesaroundtheworld.Inthisvein,heconsideredBatistaa"U.S.puppet
whosestringsneededcutting." [50]
Althoughheplannedtobethegroup'scombatmedic,GuevaraparticipatedinthemilitarytrainingwiththemembersoftheMovement.Thekey
portionoftraininginvolvedlearninghitandruntacticsofguerrillawarfare.Guevaraandtheothersunderwentarduous15hourmarchesover
mountains,acrossrivers,andthroughthedenseundergrowth,learningandperfectingtheproceduresofambushandquickretreat.Fromthestart
GuevarawasAlbertoBayo's"prizestudent"amongthoseintraining,scoringthehighestonallofthetestsgiven. [51]Attheendofthecourse,hewas
called"thebestguerrillaofthemall"bytheirinstructor,ColonelBayo.[52]
CubanRevolution
Mainarticle:CubanRevolution
Invasion,warfareandSantaClara
ThefirststepinCastro'srevolutionaryplanwasanassaultonCubafromMexicoviatheGranma,anold,leaky
cabincruiser.TheysetoutforCubaonNovember25,1956.AttackedbyBatista'smilitarysoonafterlanding,
manyofthe82menwereeitherkilledintheattackorexecuteduponcaptureonly22foundeachother
afterwards.[53]Guevarawrotethatitwasduringthisbloodyconfrontationthathelaiddownhismedicalsuppliesandpickedupaboxofammunitiondroppedbyafleeingcomrade,finalizinghissymbolictransitionfromphysician
tocombatant.
OnlyasmallbandofrevolutionariessurvivedtoregroupasabedraggledfightingforcedeepintheSierraMaestra
mountains,wheretheyreceivedsupportfromtheurbanguerrillanetworkofFrankPas,the26thofJulyMovement,
andlocalcampesinos.WiththegroupwithdrawntotheSierra,theworldwonderedwhetherCastrowasaliveor
deaduntilearly1957whentheinterviewbyHerbertMatthewsappearedinTheNewYorkTimes.Thearticle
presentedalasting,almostmythicalimageforCastroandtheguerrillas.Guevarawasnotpresentforthe
interview,butinthecomingmonthshebegantorealizetheimportanceofthemediaintheirstruggle.Meanwhile,
assuppliesandmoralediminished,andwithanallergytomosquitobiteswhichresultedinagonizingwalnutsized
cystsonhisbody, [54]Guevaraconsideredthese"themostpainfuldaysofthewar."[55]
Asthewarcontinued,Guevarabecameanintegralpartoftherebelarmyand"convincedCastrowithcompetence,diplomacyandpatience."[8]Guevarasetupfactoriestomakegrenades,builtovenstobakebread,taughtnewrecruitsabouttactics,andorganizedschoolstoteachilliterate
campesinostoreadandwrite. [8]Moreover,Guevaraestablishedhealthclinics,workshopstoteachmilitarytactics,andanewspapertodisseminate
information.[56]ThemanwhothreeyearslaterwouldbedubbedbyTimeMagazine:"Castro'sbrain",atthispointwaspromotedbyFidelCastroto
Comandante(commander)ofasecondarmycolumn. [8]
AstheonlyotherrankedComandantebesidesFidelCastro,Guevarawasanextremelyharshdisciplinarianwhounhesitatinglyshotdefectors.
Deserterswerepunishedastraitors,andGuevarawasknowntosendexecutionsquadstohuntdownthoseseekingtogoAWOL.[57]Asaresult,
Guevarabecamefearedforhisbrutalityandruthlessness. [58]Duringtheguerrillacampaign,Guevarawasalsoresponsiblefortheoftensummary
executionofanumberofmenaccusedofbeinginformers,desertersorspies.[59]
Althoughhemaintainedademandingandharshdisposition,Guevaraalsoviewedhisroleofcommanderasoneofa
teacher,entertaininghismenduringbreaksbetweenengagementswithreadingsfromthelikesofRobertLouis
Stevenson,Cervantes,andSpanishlyricpoets.[60]HiscommandingofficerFidelCastrohasdescribedGuevaraas
intelligent,daring,andanexemplaryleaderwho"hadgreatmoralauthorityoverhistroops." [61]Castrohasfurther
remarkedthatGuevaratooktoomanyrisks,evenhavinga"tendencytowardfoolhardiness".[62]Guevara'steenagelieutenant,JoelIglesias,recountssuchactionsinhisdiary,notingthatGuevara'sbehaviorincombatevenbrought
admirationfromtheenemy.OnoneoccasionIglesiasrecountsthetimehehadbeenwoundedinbattle,stating"Che
ranouttome,defyingthebullets,threwmeoverhisshoulder,andgotmeoutofthere.Theguardsdidn'tdarefireat
him...latertheytoldmehemadeagreatimpressiononthemwhentheysawhimrunoutwithhispistolstuckinhis
belt,ignoringthedanger,theydidn'tdareshoot." [63]
GuevarawasinstrumentalincreatingtheclandestineradiostationRadioRebeldeinFebruary1958,whichbroadcast
newstotheCubanpeoplewithstatementsbythe26thofJulymovement,andprovidedradiotelephonecommunication
betweenthegrowingnumberofrebelcolumnsacrosstheisland.Guevarahadapparentlybeeninspiredtocreatethe
stationbyobservingtheeffectivenessofCIAsuppliedradioinGuatemalainoustingthegovernmentofJacoboArbenz
Guzmn.[64]
InlateJuly1958,GuevaraplayedacriticalroleintheBattleofLasMercedesbyusinghiscolumntohaltaforceof1,500mencalledupbyBatista's
GeneralCantilloinaplantoencircleanddestroyCastro'sforces.Yearslater,MajorLarryBockmanoftheUnitedStatesMarineCorpswouldanalyze
anddescribeChe'stacticalappreciationofthisbattleas"brilliant."[65]DuringthistimeGuevaraalsobecamean"expert"atleadinghitandruntactics
againstBatistasarmy,andthenfadingbackintothecountrysidebeforethearmycouldcounterattack. [66]
Asthewarextended,GuevaraledanewcolumnoffightersdispatchedwestwardforthefinalpushtowardsHavana.Travellingbyfoot,Guevara
embarkedonadifficult7weekmarchonlytravellingatnighttoavoidambush,andoftennoteatingforseveraldays. [67]IntheclosingdaysofDecember1958,GuevarastaskwastocuttheislandinhalfbytakingLasVillasprovince.Inamatterofdaysheexecutedaseriesof"brilliant
tacticalvictories"thatgavehimcontrolofallbuttheprovincescapitalcityofSantaClara.[67]Guevarathendirectedhis"suicidesquad"intheattack
onSantaClara,thatbecamethefinaldecisivemilitaryvictoryoftherevolution.[68][69]InthesixweeksleadinguptotheBattleofSantaClarathereweretimeswhenhismenwerecompletelysurrounded,outgunned,andoverrun.Che'seventualvictorydespitebeingoutnumbered10:1,remainsin
theviewofsomeobserversa"remarkabletourdeforceinmodernwarfare."[70]
RadioRebeldebroadcastthefirstreportsthatGuevara'scolumnhadtakenSantaClaraonNewYear'sEve1958.This
contradictedreportsbytheheavilycontrollednationalnewsmedia,whichhadatonestagereportedGuevara'sdeath
duringthefighting.At3amonJanuary1,1959,uponlearningthathisgeneralswerenegotiatingaseparatepeace
withGuevara,FulgencioBatistaboardedaplaneinHavanaandfledfortheDominicanRepublic,alongwithan
amassed"fortuneofmorethan$300,000,000throughgraftandpayoffs".[71]ThefollowingdayonJanuary2,Guevara
enteredHavanatotakefinalcontrolofthecapitol. [72]FidelCastrohowevertook6moredaystoarrive,ashestoppedtorallysupportinseverallargecitiesonhiswaytorollingvictoriouslyintoHavanaonJanuary8,1959.
InFebruary,therevolutionarygovernmentproclaimedGuevara"aCubancitizenbybirth"inrecognitionofhisrolein
thetriumph. [73]WhenHildaGadeaarrivedinCubainlateJanuary,Guevaratoldherthathewasinvolvedwithanother
woman,andthetwoagreedonadivorce,[74]whichwasfinalizedonMay22. [75]OnJune2,1959,hemarriedAleida
March,aCubanbornmemberofthe26thofJulymovementwithwhomhehadbeenlivingsincelate1958. [76]
LaCabaa,landreform,andliteracy
DuringtherebellionagainstBatista'sdictatorship,thegeneralcommandoftherebelarmy,ledbyFidelCastro,introducedintotheliberatedterritories
the19thcenturypenallawcommonlyknownastheLeydelaSierra.[77]Thislawincludedthedeathpenaltyforextremelyseriouscrimes,whetherperpetratedbythedictatorshiporbysupportersoftherevolution.In1959,therevolutionarygovernmentextendeditsapplicationtothewholeofthe
republicandtothoseitconsideredwarcriminals,capturedandtriedaftertherevolution.AccordingtotheCubanMinistryofJustice,thislatter
extensionwassupportedbythemajorityofthepopulation,andfollowedthesameprocedureasthoseintheNurembergTrialsheldbytheAlliesafter
WorldWarII. [78]
Toimplementaportionofthisplan,CastronamedGuevaracommanderoftheLaCabaaFortressprison,forafivemonthtenure(January2through
June12,1959).[79]GuevarawaschargedwithpurgingtheBatistaarmyandconsolidatingvictorybyexacting"revolutionaryjustice"againstthose
consideredtobetraitors,chivatos(informants)orwarcriminals. [80]ServinginthepostascommanderofLaCabaa,Guevarareviewedtheappealsof
thoseconvictedduringtherevolutionarytribunalprocess.[9]Onsomeoccasionsthepenaltydeliveredbythetribunalwasdeathbyfiringsquad.[81]RalGmezTreto,seniorlegaladvisortotheCubanMinistryofJustice,hasarguedthatthedeathpenaltywasjustifiedinordertopreventcitizens
themselvesfromtakingjusticeintotheirownhands,ashappenedtwentyyearsearlierintheantiMachadorebellion.[82]Biographersnotethatin
January1959,theCubanpublicwasina"lynchingmood", [83]andpointtoasurveyatthetimeshowing93%publicapprovalforthetribunalprocess.[9]With20,000CubansestimatedtohavebeenkilledatthehandsofBatista'scollaborators,[84]andmanyofthosesentencedtodeathaccusedof
tortureandphysicalatrocities, [9]thenewlyempoweredgovernmentcarriedoutexecutions"withoutrespectfordueprocess."[85]Althoughtheexact
numbersdiffer,itisestimatedthatseveralhundredpeoplewereexecutedduringthistime. [86]
ConflictingviewsexistofGuevara'sdelighttowardstheexecutionsatLaCabaa.Someexiledoppositionbiographersreportthatherelishedthe
ritualsofthefiringsquad,andorganizedthemwithgusto.[85]WhatisacknowledgedbyallsidesisthatGuevarahadbecomea"hardened"man,whohadnoqualmsaboutthedeathpenaltyorsummaryandcollectivetrials.Iftheonlywayto"defendtherevolutionwastoexecuteitsenemies,he
wouldnotbeswayedbyhumanitarianorpoliticalarguments."[85]ThisisfurtherconfirmedbyaFebruary5,1959,lettertoLuisParedesLpezinBuenosAireswhereGuevarastatesunequivocally"TheexecutionsbyfiringsquadsarenotonlyanecessityforthepeopleofCuba,butalsoan
impositionofthepeople." [87]
Alongwithensuring"revolutionaryjustice",theotherkeyearlyplatformofGuevara'swasestablishing
agrarianlandreform.AlmostimmediatelyafterthesuccessoftherevolutiononJanuary27,1959,Che
Guevaramadeoneofhismostsignificantspeecheswherehetalkedabout"thesocialideasoftherebel
army."Duringthisspeech,hedeclaredthatthemainconcernofthenewCubangovernmentwas"thesocial
justicethat landredistributionbringsabout." [88]AfewmonthslateronMay171959,theAgrarianReformLawcalledonandcraftedbyCheGuevarawentintoeffect,limitingthesizeofallfarmsto1,000acres.Any
holdingsovertheselimitswereexpropriatedbythegovernmentandeitherredistributedtopeasantsin67
acreparcelsorheldasstateruncommunes. [89]Thelawalsostipulatedthatsugarplantationscouldnotbe
ownedbyforeigners.[90]
OnJune12,1959,CastrosentGuevaraoutonathreemonthtourof14countries,mostofthemBandung
PactmembersinAfricaandAsia.SendingGuevarafromHavanaallowedCastrotoappeartobedistancing
himselffromCheandhisMarxistsympathies,thattroubledboththeUnitedStatesandsomeofCastro's
26thofJulyMovementmembers. [91]Hespent12daysinJapan(July1527),participatinginnegotiationsaimedatexpandingCuba'straderelationswiththatnation.Duringthisvisit,GuevarasecretlyvisitedthecityofHiroshima,wheretheAmericanmilitaryhaddetonatedanatombomb14years
earlier.Guevarawas"reallyshocked"atwhathewitnessedandbyhisvisittoahospitalwhereAbombsurvivorswerebeingtreated.[92]
UponreturningtoCubainSeptember1959,itwasevidentthatCastronowhadmorepoliticalpower.Thegovernmenthadbegunlandseizures
includedintheagrarianreformlaw,butwashedgingoncompensationofferstolandowners,insteadofferinglowinterest"bonds",whichputtheU.S.
onalert.AtthispointtheaffectedwealthycattlemenofCamageymountedacampaignagainstthelandredistributions,andenlistedthenewly
disaffectedrebelleaderHuberMatos,whoalongwiththeantiCommunistwingofthe26thofJulyMovement,joinedthemindenouncingthe
"Communistencroachment." [93]DuringthistimeDominicandictatorRafaelTrujillowasofferingassistancetothe"AntiCommunistLegionoftheCaribbean"whowastrainingintheDominicanRepublic.ThismultinationalforcecomprisedmostlyofSpaniardsandCubans,butalsoofCroatians,
Germans,Greeks,andrightwingmercenaries,wereplottingtotoppleCastro'snewregime.[93]
SuchthreatswereheightenedwhenonMarch4,1960,twomassiveexplosionsrippedthroughtheFrenchfreighterLaCoubre,whichwascarrying
BelgianmunitionsfromtheportofAntwerp,anddockedinHavanaHarbor.Theblastskilledatleast76peopleandinjuredseveralhundred,with
Guevarapersonallyprovidingfirstaidtosomeofthevictims.CubanleaderFidelCastroimmediatelyaccusedtheCIAof"anactofterrorism"andheld
astatefuneralthefollowingdayforthevictimsoftheblast.[94]ItwasatthememorialservicethatAlbertoKordatookthefamousphotographof
Guevara,nowknownasGuerrilleroHeroico.[95]
TheseperceivedthreatspromptedCastrotofurthereliminate"counterrevolutionaries",andutilizeGuevaratonowdrasticallyincreasethespeedof
landreform.Toimplementthisplan,anewgovernmentagencytheNationalInstituteofAgrarianReform(INRA)wasestablishedtoadministerthe
newAgrarianReformlaw,andquicklybecamethemostimportantgoverningbodyinthenationwithGuevaraservingasitsheadasministerof
industries. [90]UnderGuevara'scommand,INRAestablisheditsown100,000personmilitia,usedfirsttohelpthegovernmentseizecontroloftheexpropriatedlandandsuperviseitsdistribution,andlatertosetupcooperativefarms.Thelandconfiscatedincluded480,000acresownedbyU.S.
corporations. [90]Monthslaterasretaliation,U.SPresidentDwightD.EisenhowersharplyreducedtheimportofCubansugar(Cubasmaincashcrop),thusleadingGuevaraonJuly10,1960,toaddressover100,000workersinfrontofthePresidentialPalaceatarallycalledtodenounceU.S.
"economicaggression." [96]
Alongwithlandreform,oneoftheprimaryareasthatGuevarastressedneedednationalimprovementwas
intheareaofliteracy.Before1959theofficialliteracyrateforCubawasbetween6076%,with
educationalaccessinruralareasandalackofinstructorsthemaindeterminingfactor. [98]Asaresult,theCubangovernmentatGuevara'sbehestdubbed1961the"yearofeducation",andsent"literacy
brigades"outintothecountrysidetoconstructschools,trainneweducators,andteachthe
predominatelyilliterateGuajiros(peasants)toreadandwrite.UnlikemanyofGuevara'slatereconomic
initiatives,thiscampaignwas"aremarkablesuccess." [98]Bythecompletionofthecampaign,707,212
adultsweretaughttoreadandwrite,raisingthenationalliteracyrateto96%.[98]
The"NewMan",BayofPigsandMissileCrisis
GuevarathenacquiredtheadditionalpositionofFinanceMinisterasPresidentoftheNationalBank,whichalongwithMinisterofIndustries,placed
Cheatthezenithofhispower,asthe"virtualczar"oftheCubaneconomy. [96]
Asaconsequenceofhisnewposition,itwasnowGuevara'sdutytosigntheCubancurrency,whichpercustomwouldbearhissignature.However,
insteadofusinghismoredignifiedfullname,hedismissivelysignedthebillssolely"Che".[99]Itwasthroughthissymbolicact,whichhorrifiedmany
intheCubanfinancialsector,thatGuevarasignaledhisdistasteformoneyandtheclassdistinctionsitbroughtabout.[99]Guevara'slongtimefriendRicardoRojolaterremarkedthat"thedayhesignedCheonthebills,(he)literallyknockedthepropsfromunderthewidespreadbeliefthatmoney
wassacred." [26]
Guevara'sfirstdesiredeconomicgoal,whichcoincidedwithhisaversionforwealth,wastoseeanation
wideeliminationofmaterialincentivesinfavorofmoralones.Heviewedcapitalismasa"contestamong
wolves"where"onecanonlywinatthecostofothers,"andthusdesiredtoseethecreationofa"new
manandwoman."[101]Guevaracontinuallystressedthatasocialisteconomyinitselfisnot"worththeeffort,sacrifice,andrisksofwaranddestruction"ifitendsupencouraging"greedandindividualambition
attheexpensecollectivespirit."[102]AprimarygoalofGuevara'sthusbecametoreform"individual
consciousness"andvaluestoproducebetterworkersandcitizens. [102]Inhisview,Cuba's"newman"wouldbeabletoovercomethe"egotism"and"selfishness"thatheloathedanddiscernedwasuniquely
characteristicofindividualsincapitalistsocieties. [102]Indescribingthisnewmethodof"development",Guevarastated:
"Thereisagreatdifferencebetweenfreeenterprisedevelopmentandrevolutionarydevelopment.Inoneof
them,wealthisconcentratedinthehandsofafortunatefew,thefriendsofthegovernment,thebestwheelerdealers.Intheother,wealthisthe
peoplespatrimony." [103]
Afurtherintegralpartoffosteringasenseof"unitybetweentheindividualandthemass",Guevarabelieved,wasvolunteerworkandwill.Todisplay
this,Guevara"ledbyexample",working"endlesslyathisministryjob,inconstruction,andevencuttingsugarcane"onhisdayoff. [104]Hewas
knownforworking36hoursatastretch,callingmeetingsaftermidnight,andeatingontherun. [102]SuchbehaviorwasbefittingofGuevara'snewprogramofmoralincentives,whereeachworkerwasnowrequiredtomeetaquotaandproduceacertainnumberofgoods.However,asa
replacementforthepayincreasesabolishedbyGuevara,workerswhonowexceededtheirquotaonlyreceivedacertificateofcommendation,while
workerswhofailedtomeettheirquotasweregivenapaycut.[102]Guevaraunapologeticallydefendedhispersonalphilosophytowardsmotivationandwork,stating:
"Thisisnotamatterofhowmanypoundsofmeatonemightbeabletoeat,orhowmanytimesayearsomeonecangotothebeach,orhowmany
ornamentsfromabroadonemightbeabletobuywithhiscurrentsalary.Whatreallymattersisthattheindividualfeelsmorecomplete,withmuchmore
internalrichnessandmuchmoreresponsibility." [105]
WhateverthemeritsordemeritsofGuevaraseconomicprinciples,hisprogramssoonendedinfailure. [106]Guevara'sprogramof"moralincentives"
forworkerscausedarapiddropinproductivityandarapidriseinabsenteeism. [107]InreferencetothecollectivefailingsofGuevara'svision,reporterI.F.StonewhointerviewedChetwiceduringthistime,remarkedthathewas"GalahadnotRobespierre",whileopiningthat"inasensehewas,like
someearlysaint,takingrefugeinthedesert.Onlytherecouldthepurityofthefaithbesafeguardedfromtheunregeneraterevisionismofhuman
nature."[108]
OnApril17,1961,1,400U.S.trainedCubanexilesinvadedtheislandduringtheBayofPigsInvasion.Guevarahimselfdidnotplayakeyroleinthe
fighting,asonedaybeforetheinvasionawarshipcarryingMarinesfakedaninvasionofftheWestCoastofPinarDelRioanddrewforces
commandedbyGuevaratothatregion.However,historiansgiveGuevara,whowasdirectorofinstructionforCubasarmedforcesatthetime,ashare
ofcreditforthevictory.[10]AuthorTadSzulcinhisexplanationoftheCubanvictory,assignsGuevarapartialcredit,stating:"TherevolutionarieswonbecauseCheGuevara,astheheadoftheInstructionDepartmentoftheRevolutionaryArmedForcesinchargeofthemilitiatrainingprogram,had
donesowellinpreparing200,000menandwomenforwar."[10]Itwasalsoduringthisdeploymentwherehesufferedabulletgrazingtothecheek
whenhispistolfelloutofitsholsterandaccidentallydischarged. [109]
InAugust1961,duringaneconomicconferenceoftheOrganizationofAmericanStatesinPuntadelEste,Uruguay,CheGuevarasentanoteof
"gratitude"toU.S.PresidentJohnF.KennedythroughRichardN.Goodwin,ayoungsecretaryoftheWhiteHouse.Itread"ThanksforPlayaGirn
(BayofPigs).Beforetheinvasion,therevolutionwasshaky.Nowit'sstrongerthanever." [110]InresponsetoU.S.TreasurySecretaryDouglasDillonpresentingtheAllianceforProgressforratificationbythemeeting,GuevaraantagonisticallyattackedtheUnitedStatesclaimofbeinga
"democracy",statingthatsuchasystemwasnotcompatiblewith"financialoligarchy,discriminationagainstblacks,andoutragesbytheKuKlux
Klan."[111]Guevaracontinued,speakingoutagainstthe"persecution"thatinhisview"drovescientistslikeOppenheimerfromtheirposts,deprived
theworldforyearsofthemarvelousvoiceofPaulRobeson,andsenttheRosenbergstotheirdeathsagainsttheprotestsofashockedworld." [111]GuevaraendedhisremarksbyinsinuatingthattheUnitedStateswasnotinterestedinrealreforms,sardonicallyquippingthat"U.S.expertsnever
talkaboutagrarianreformtheypreferasafesubject,likeabetterwatersupply.Inshorttheyseemtopreparetherevolutionofthetoilets." [26]
Guevara,whowaspracticallythearchitectoftheSovietCubanrelationship,[112]thenplayedakeyroleinbringingtoCubatheSovietnucleararmed
ballisticmissilesthatprecipitatedtheCubanMissileCrisisinOctober1962andbroughttheworldtothebrinkofnuclearwar. [113]DuringaninterviewwiththeBritishCommunistnewspaperTheDailyWorkerafewweeksafterthecrisis,GuevarastillfumingovertheperceivedSovietbetrayal,stated
thatifthemissileshadbeenunderCubancontrol,theywouldhavefiredthemoff. [114]SamRussell,theBritishcorrespondentwhospoketoGuevaraatthetimecameawaywith"mixedfeelings",callinghim"awarmcharacter"and"clearlyamanofgreatintelligence",but"crackersfromthewayhe
wentonaboutthemissiles." [114]ThemissilecrisisfurtherconvincedGuevarathatthetwoWorld'ssuperpowers(U.S.&U.S.S.R.)usedCubaasa
pawnintheirownglobalstrategies,afterwardhedenouncedtheSovietsalmostasfrequentlyashedenouncedtheAmericans. [115]
Internationaldiplomacy
ByDecember1964,CheGuevarahademergedasa"revolutionarystatesmenofworldstature"andthustraveledtoNewYorkCityasheadofthe
CubandelegationtospeakattheUnitedNations.[26]Duringhisimpassionedaddress,hecriticizedtheUnitedNationsinabilitytoconfrontthe"brutal
policyofapartheid"inSouthAfrica,proclaiming"cantheUnitedNationsdonothingtostopthis?" [116]GuevarathendenouncedtheUnitedStatespolicytowardstheirblackpopulation,stating:
"Thosewhokilltheirownchildrenanddiscriminatedailyagainstthembecauseofthecoloroftheirskinthosewholetthemurderersofblacksremain
free,protectingthem,andfurthermorepunishingtheblackpopulationbecausetheydemandtheirlegitimaterightsasfreemenhowcanthosewho
dothisconsiderthemselvesguardiansoffreedom?" [116]
AnindignantGuevaraendedhisspeechbyrecitingtheSecondDeclarationofHavana,decreeingLatinAmericaa"familyof200millionbrotherswho
sufferthesamemiseries." [116]This"epic",Guevaradeclared,wouldbewrittenbythe"hungryIndianmasses,peasantswithoutland,exploitedworkers,andprogressivemasses."ToGuevaratheconflictwasastruggleofmassandideas,whichwouldbecarriedforthbythose"mistreatedand
scornedbyimperialism"whowerepreviouslyconsidered"aweakandsubmissiveflock."Withthis"flock",Guevaranowasserted,"Yankeemonopoly
capitalism"nowterrifyinglysawtheir"gravediggers."[116]Itwouldbeduringthis"hourofvindication"Guevarapronounced,thatthe"anonymousmass"wouldbegintowriteitsownhistory"withitsownblood",andreclaimthose"rightsthatwerelaughedatbyoneandallfor500years."Guevara
endedhisremarkstotheUnitedNationsgeneralassemblybyhypothesizingthatthis"waveofangerwould"sweepthelandsofLatinAmerica",and
thatthelabormasseswho"turnthewheelofhistory",forthefirsttimewere"awakeningfromthelong,brutalizingsleeptowhichtheyhadbeen
subjected. [116]
GuevaralaterlearnedthatthereweretwofailedattemptsonhislifebyCubanexilesduringhisstopattheU.N.complex. [117]ThefirstfromMollyGonzaleswhotriedtobreakthroughbarricadesuponhisarrivalwithaseveninchhuntingknife,andlaterduringhisaddressbyGuillermoNovowitha
timerinitiatedbazookathatwasfiredofftargetfromaboatintheEastRiverattheUnitedNationsHeadquarters.[117][118]Afterwards,Guevaracommentedonbothincidentsstatingthat"itisbettertobekilledbyawomanwithaknifethanbyamanwithagun",whileaddingwithalanguid
waveofhiscigarthattheexplosionhad"giventhewholethingmoreflavor." [117]
WhileinNewYorkCity,GuevaraalsoappearedontheCBSSundaynewsprogramFacetheNation [119]andmet
witharangeofpeople,fromU.S.SenatorEugeneMcCarthy [120]toassociatesofMalcolmX.MalcolmXexpressedhisadmiration,declaringGuevara"oneofthemostrevolutionarymeninthiscountryrightnow"while
readingastatementfromhimtoacrowdattheAudubonBallroom.[121]
OnDecember17,GuevaraleftforParisandembarkedonathreemonthtourthatincludedthePeople'sRepublic
ofChina,theUnitedArabRepublic(Egypt),Algeria,Ghana,Guinea,Mali,Dahomey,CongoBrazzavilleand
Tanzania,withstopsinIrelandandPrague.WhileinIreland,GuevaraembracedhisownIrishheritage,
celebratingSaintPatrick'sDayinLimerickCity.[122]Hewrotetohisfatheronthisvisit,humorouslystating"IaminthisgreenIrelandofyourancestors.Whentheyfoundout,thetelevision[station]cametoaskmeaboutthe
Lynchgenealogy,butincasetheywerehorsethievesorsomethinglikethat,Ididn'tsaymuch."[123]
Duringthisvoyage,hewrotealettertoCarlosQuijano,editorofaUruguayanweekly,whichwaslaterretitled
SocialismandManinCuba .[101]OutlinedinthetreatisewasGuevara'ssummonsforthecreationofanewconsciousness,statusofwork,androleoftheindividual.Healsolaidoutthereasoningbehindhisanticapitalist
sentiments,stating:
"Thelawsofcapitalism,blindandinvisibletothemajority,actupontheindividualwithouthisthinkingaboutit.Heseesonlythevastnessofa
seeminglyinfinitehorizonbeforehim.Thatishowitispaintedbycapitalistpropagandists,whopurporttodrawalessonfromtheexampleof
Rockefellerwhetherornotitistrueaboutthepossibilitiesofsuccess.
TheamountofpovertyandsufferingrequiredfortheemergenceofaRockefeller,andtheamountofdepravitythattheaccumulationofafortuneofsuch
magnitudeentails,areleftoutofthepicture,anditisnotalwayspossibletomakethepeopleingeneralseethis." [101]
Guevaraendedtheessaybydeclaringthat"thetruerevolutionaryisguidedbyagreatfeelingoflove"andbeckoningonallrevolutionariesto"strive
everydaysothatthisloveoflivinghumanitywillbetransformedintoactsthatserveasexamples",thusbecoming"amovingforce".[101]ThegenesisforGuevara'sassertionsreliedonthefactthathebelievedtheexampleoftheCubanRevolutionwas"somethingspiritualthatwouldtranscendall
borders."[26]
InAlgiersonFebruary24,1965,hemadewhatturnedouttobehislastpublicappearanceontheinternationalstagewhenhedeliveredaspeechat
aneconomicseminaronAfroAsiansolidarity. [124]Hespecifiedthemoraldutyofthesocialistcountries,accusingthemoftacitcomplicitywiththeexploitingWesterncountries.Heproceededtooutlineanumberofmeasureswhichhesaidthecommunistbloccountriesmustimplementinorderto
accomplishthedefeatofimperialism.[125]HavingcriticizedtheSovietUnion(theprimaryfinancialbackerofCuba)insuchapublicmanner,hereturnedtoCubaonMarch14toasolemnreceptionbyFidelandRalCastro,OsvaldoDorticsandCarlosRafaelRodrguezattheHavanaairport.
Twoweekslater,in1965Guevaradroppedoutofpubliclifeandthenvanishedaltogether.HiswhereaboutswereagreatmysteryinCuba,ashewas
generallyregardedassecondinpowertoCastrohimself.Hisdisappearancewasvariouslyattributedtothefailureofthe industrializationschemehe
hadadvocatedwhileministerofindustry,topressureexertedonCastrobySovietofficialsdisapprovingofGuevara'sproChineseCommuniststance
ontheSinoSovietsplit,andtoseriousdifferencesbetweenGuevaraandthepragmaticCastroregardingCuba'seconomicdevelopmentand
ideologicalline.
ThecoincidenceofGuevara'sviewswiththoseexpoundedbytheChineseCommunistleadershipwas
increasinglyproblematicforCubaasthenation'seconomybecamemoreandmoredependentontheSoviet
Union.SincetheearlydaysoftheCubanrevolution,Guevarahadbeenconsideredbymanyanadvocateof
MaoiststrategyinLatinAmericaandtheoriginatorofaplanfortherapidindustrializationofCubawhichwas
frequentlycomparedtoChina's"GreatLeapForward".CastrobecamewearyofGuevara,becauseofthefact
thatGuevarawasopposedtoSovietconditionsandrecommendationsthatCastropragmaticallysawas
necessary.OfwhichGuevaradescribedascorrupt"premonopolist". [126]However,bothGuevaraandCastroweresupportivepubliclyontheideaofaunitedfront.
FollowingtheCubanMissileCrisisandwhatGuevaraperceivedasaSovietbetrayalwhenNikitaKhrushchev
withdrewthemissilesfromCubanterritory,GuevarahadgrownmoreskepticaloftheSovietUnion.As
revealedinhislastspeechinAlgiers,hehadcometoviewtheNorthernHemisphere,ledbytheU.S.inthe
WestandtheSovietUnionintheEast,astheexploiteroftheSouthernHemisphere.Hestronglysupported
CommunistNorthVietnamintheVietnamWar,andurgedthepeoplesofotherdevelopingcountriestotake
uparmsandcreate"manyVietnams". [127]
PressedbyinternationalspeculationregardingGuevara'sfate,CastrostatedonJune16,1965thatthepeoplewouldbeinformedwhenGuevara
himselfwishedtoletthemknow.Still,rumorsspreadbothinsideandoutsideCuba.OnOctober3,Castrorevealedanundatedletterpurportedly
writtentohimbyGuevarasomemonthsearlier:init,GuevarareaffirmedhisenduringsolidaritywiththeCubanRevolution,butdeclaredhisintention
toleaveCubatofightfortherevolutionarycauseabroad.Additionally,heresignedfromallhispositionsinthegovernmentandparty,andrenounced
hishonoraryCubancitizenship. [128]Guevara'smovementscontinuedtobeacloselyguardedsecretforthenexttwoyears.
Congo
In1965,GuevaradecidedtoventuretoAfricaandofferhisknowledgeandexperienceasaguerrillatothe
ongoingconflictintheCongo.AccordingtoAlgerianPresidentAhmedBenBella,GuevarathoughtthatAfrica
wasimperialism'sweaklinkandthereforehadenormousrevolutionarypotential.[129]EgyptianPresidentGamalAbdelNasser,whohadfraternalrelationswithChedatingbacktohis1959visit,sawGuevara'splanstofightin
theCongoas"unwise"andwarnedthathewouldbecomea"Tarzan"figure,doomedtofailure. [130]Despitethe
warning,GuevaratraveledtotheCongowhileusingthealiasRamnBentez. [131]GuevaraledtheCubanoperationinsupportoftheMarxistSimbamovement,whichhademergedfromtheongoingCongoCrisis.
Guevara,hissecondincommandVictorDreke,and12otherCubanexpeditionariesarrivedintheCongoon
April24,1965andacontingentofapproximately100AfroCubansjoinedthemsoonafterward. [132][133]TheycollaboratedforatimewithguerrillaleaderLaurentDsirKabila,whohadpreviouslyhelpedsupportersofthe
CIAslainPatriceLumumbaleadanunsuccessfulrevoltmonthsearlier.AsanadmirerofthelateLumumba,
Guevaradeclaredthathis"murdershouldbealessonforallofus." [134]Guevara,withlimitedknowledgeofSwahiliandthelocallanguageswasassignedateenageinterpreterFreddyIlanga.Overthecourseofseven
monthsIlangagrewto"admirethehardworkingGuevara",whoaccordingtoMr.Ilanga,"showedthesame
respecttoblackpeopleashedidtowhites."[135]HoweverGuevarasoonbecamedisillusionedwiththe
disciplineofKabila'stroopsandlaterdismissedhim,stating"nothingleadsmetobelieveheisthemanofthehour."[136]
Asanadditionalobstacle,whiteSouthAfricanmercenaries,ledbyMikeHoareinconcertwithCubanexilesandtheCIA,workedwiththeCongo
NationalArmytothwartGuevarainthemountainsnearthevillageofFizionLakeTanganyika.Theywereabletomonitorhiscommunications,andso
preemptedhisattacksandinterdictedhissupplylines.DespitethefactthatGuevarasoughttoconcealhispresenceintheCongo,theU.S.
governmentwasawareofhislocationandactivities:TheNationalSecurityAgencywasinterceptingallofhisincomingandoutgoingtransmissions
viaequipmentaboardtheUSNSPvtJoseF.Valdez(TAG169),afloatinglisteningpostthatcontinuouslycruisedtheIndianOceanoffDares
Salaamforthatpurpose. [137]
Guevara'saimwastoexporttherevolutionbyinstructinglocalantiMobutuSimbafightersinMarxistideologyand
focotheorystrategiesofguerrillawarfare.InhisCongoDiary,hecitestheincompetence,intransigenceand
infightingofthelocalCongoleseforcesaskeyreasonsfortherevolt'sfailure.[138]Laterthatyear,illwithdysentery,sufferingfromacuteasthma,anddisheartenedaftersevenmonthsoffrustrations,Guevaraleftthe
CongowiththeCubansurvivors(Sixmembersofhiscolumnhaddied).AtonepointGuevaraconsideredsending
thewoundedbacktoCuba,andfightinginCongoaloneuntilhisdeath,asarevolutionaryexamplehowever,after
beingurgedbyhiscomradesandpressedbytwoemissariessentbyCastro,atthelastmomenthereluctantly
agreedtoretreat.InspeakingabouttheCongo,Guevaraconcludedthat"Thehumanelementfailed.Thereisno
willtofight,theleadersarecorruptinaword,therewasnothingtodo." [139]Afewweekslater,whenwritingthe
prefacetothediaryhekeptduringtheCongoventure,hebegan:"Thisisthehistoryofafailure."[140]
GuevarawasreluctanttoreturntoCuba,becauseCastrohadmadepublicGuevara's"farewellletter"aletter
intendedtoonlyberevealedinthecaseofhisdeathwhereinheseveredalltiesinordertodevotehimselfto
revolutionthroughouttheworld.[141]Asaresult,GuevaraspentthenextsixmonthslivingclandestinelyinDaresSalaamandPrague.DuringthistimehecompiledhismemoirsoftheCongoexperience,andwrotedraftsoftwo
morebooks,oneonphilosophyandtheotheroneconomics.HethenvisitedseveralWesternEuropeancountries
totesthisnewfalseidentitypapers,createdbyCubanIntelligenceforhislatertravelstoSouthAmerica.As
GuevarapreparedforBolivia,hewrotealastlettertohisfivechildrentobereaduponhisdeath,whichendedwithhiminstructingthem:
"Aboveall,alwaysbecapableoffeelingdeeplyanyinjusticecommittedagainstanyone,anywhereintheworld.Thisisthemostbeautifulqualityina
revolutionary." [142]
Bolivia
Guevara'slocationwasstillnotpublicknowledge.RepresentativesofMozambique'sindependencemovement,
theFRELIMO,reportedthattheymetwithGuevarainlate1966orearly1967inDaresSalaamregardinghis
offertoaidintheirrevolutionaryproject,whichtheyultimatelyrejected. [143]Inaspeechatthe1967InternationalWorkers'DayrallyinHavana,theActingMinisterofthearmedforces,MajorJuanAlmeida,announcedthat
Guevarawas"servingtherevolutionsomewhereinLatinAmerica".Thepersistentreportsthathewasleadingthe
guerrillasinBoliviawereeventuallyshowntobetrue.[citationneeded]
AtCastro'sbehest,aparcelofmontanedryforestintheremoteancahuazregionhadbeenpurchasedby
nativeBolivianCommunistsforGuevaratouseasatrainingareaandbasecamp. [citationneeded]Beforehe
departedforBolivia,GuevarahadalteredhisappearancesohewouldbeunrecognizableasCheGuevara.[144]GuevaraarrivedinBolivia,usedthefalsenameAdolfoMenaGonzlez,andposedasaUruguayanbusinessman
workingfortheOrganizationofAmericanStates.[145]
TrainingatthiscampintheancahuazvalleyprovedtobemorehazardousthancombattoGuevaraandthe
Cubansaccompanyinghim.Littlewasaccomplishedinthewayofbuildingaguerrillaarmy.FormerStasi
operativeHaydeTamaraBunkeBider,betterknownbyhernomdeguerre"Tania",whohadbeeninstalledas
hisprimaryagentinLaPaz,wasreportedlyalsoworkingfortheKGBandinseveralWesternsourcessheis
inferredtohaveunwittinglyservedSovietinterestsbyleadingBolivianauthoritiestoGuevara'strail. [146][147]
Guevara'sguerrillaforce,numberingabout50andoperatingastheELN(EjrcitodeLiberacinNacionalde
Bolivia"NationalLiberationArmyofBolivia"),waswellequippedandscoredanumberofearlysuccesses
againstBolivianregularsinthedifficultterrainofthemountainousCamiriregion.AsaresultofGuevarasunits
winningseveralskirmishesagainstBoliviantroopsinthespringandsummerof1966,theBoliviangovernment
begantooverestimatethetruesizeoftheguerrillaforce.[148]ButinSeptember,theArmymanagedtoeliminatetwoguerrillagroupsinaviolentbattle,reportedlykillingoneoftheleaders.
Guevara'splanforfomentingrevolutioninBoliviafailed,apparentlybecause:
HehadexpectedtodealonlywiththeBolivianmilitary,whowerepoorlytrainedandequipped.However,
GuevarawasunawarethattheU.S.governmenthadsentateamoftheCIA'sSpecialActivitiesDivision
commandosandotheroperativesintoBoliviatoaidtheantiinsurrectioneffort.TheBolivianArmywouldalso
betrained,advised,andsuppliedbyU.S.ArmySpecialForcesincludingarecentlyorganizedelitebattalion
ofRangerstrainedinjunglewarfarethatsetupcampinLaEsperanza,asmallsettlementclosetothe
locationofGuevara'sguerrillas. [149]
Guevarahadexpectedassistanceandcooperationfromthelocaldissidentswhichhedidnotreceive,nordid
hereceivesupportfromBolivia'sCommunistParty,undertheleadershipofMarioMonje,whichwasoriented
towardMoscowratherthanHavana.InGuevara'sowndiarycapturedafterhisdeath,hebristledwith
complaintsabouttheCommunistPartyofBolivia,whichhecharacterizedas"distrustful,disloyalandstupid."[150]
HehadexpectedtoremaininradiocontactwithHavana.However,thetwoshortwavetransmittersprovidedto
himbyCubawerefaultythustheguerrillaswereunabletocommunicatewithandberesupplied,leaving
themisolatedandstranded.
Inaddition,Guevara'sknownpreferenceforconfrontationratherthancompromise,whichhadpreviouslysurfacedduringhisguerrillawarfarecampaign
inCuba,contributedtohisinabilitytodevelopsuccessfulworkingrelationshipswithlocalleadersinBolivia,justasithadintheCongo. [151]This
tendencyhadexistedinCuba,buthadbeenkeptincheckbythetimelyinterventionsandguidanceofFidelCastro.[152]
TheendresultwasthatGuevarawasunabletoattractanyinhabitantsofthelocalareatojoinhismilitiainthe11monthsheattemptedrecruitment[citationneeded].NeartheendoftheventureGuevaracomplainedinhisdiarythat"thepeasantsdonotgiveusanyhelp,andareturninginto
informers."[153]
Captureandexecution
FlixRodrguez,aCubanexileturnedCIASpecialActivitiesDivisionoperative,advisedBolivian
troopsduringthehuntforGuevarainBolivia.[154]OnOctober7,aninformantapprisedtheBolivianSpecialForcesofthelocationofGuevara'sguerrillaencampmentintheYuroravine.They
encircledtheareawith1,800soldiers,andGuevarawaswoundedandtakenprisonerwhile
leadingadetachmentwithSimenCubaSarabia.ChebiographerJonLeeAndersonreports
BolivianSergeantBernardinoHuanca'saccount:thatatwicewoundedGuevara,hisgunrendered
useless,shouted"Donotshoot!IamCheGuevaraandworthmoretoyoualivethandead." [155]
GuevarawastiedupandtakentoadilapidatedmudschoolhouseinthenearbyvillageofLa
HigueraonthenightofOctober7.ForthenextdayandahalfGuevararefusedtobeinterrogated
byBolivianofficersandwouldonlyspeakquietlytoBoliviansoldiers.OneofthoseBolivian
soldiers,helicopterpilotJaimeNinodeGuzman,describesCheaslooking"dreadful".AccordingtoGuzman,Guevarawasshotthroughtherightcalf,
hishairwasmattedwithdirt,hisclotheswereshredded,andhisfeetwerecoveredinroughleathersheaths.Despitehishaggardappearance,he
recountsthat"Cheheldhisheadhigh,lookedeveryonestraightintheeyesandaskedonlyforsomethingtosmoke."DeGuzmanstatesthathe
"tookpity"andgavehimasmallbagoftobaccoforhispipe,withGuevarathensmilingandthankinghim. [156]LateronthenightofOctober8,Guevara,despitehavinghishandstied,kickedBolivianOfficerEspinosaintothewall,aftertheofficerenteredtheschoolhouseinordertosnatch
Guevara'spipefromhismouthasasouvenir.[157]Inanotherinstanceofdefiance,GuevaraspatinthefaceofBolivianRearAdmiralUgartecheshortly
beforehisexecution.[157]
ThefollowingmorningonOctober9,Guevaraaskedtoseethe"maestra"(schoolteacher)ofthevillage,22yearoldJuliaCortez.Cortezwouldlater
statethatshefoundGuevaratobean"agreeablelookingmanwithasoftandironicglance"andthatduringtheirconversationshefoundherself
"unabletolookhimintheeye",becausehis"gazewasunbearable,piercing,andsotranquil." [157]Duringtheirshortconversation,GuevaracomplainedtoCortezaboutthepoorconditionoftheschoolhouse,statingthatitwas"anti pedagogical"toexpectcampesinostudentstobe
educatedthere,while"governmentofficialsdriveMercedescars"...declaring"that'swhatwearefightingagainst." [157]
LaterthatmorningonOctober9,BolivianPresidentRenBarrientosorderedthatGuevarabekilled.TheexecutionerwasMarioTern,ahalfdrunken
sergeantintheBolivianarmywhohadrequestedtoshootCheonthebasisofthefactthatthreeofhisfriendsfromBCompanyallnamed"Mario"
hadbeenkilledinanearlierfirefightwithGuevara'sbandofguerrillas.[9]Tomakethebulletwoundsappearconsistentwiththestorythegovernmentplannedtoreleasetothepublic,FlixRodrguezorderedTerntoaimcarefullytomakeitappearthatGuevarahadbeenkilledinactionduringa
clashwiththeBolivianarmy. [158]GaryPrado,aBoliviansoldierwhowaswiththegroupthatcapturedGuevara,saidthatthereasonsBarrientosorderedtheimmediateexecutionofGuevaraissotherewouldbenopossibilitythatGuevarawouldescapefromprisonandsotherewouldbeno
dramainregardstoatrial. [159]
MomentsbeforeGuevarawasexecutedhewasaskedifhewasthinkingabouthisownimmortality."No",hereplied,"I'mthinkingaboutthe
immortalityoftherevolution."[160]CheGuevarathentoldhisexecutioner,"Iknowyou'vecometokillme.Shoot,coward,youareonlygoingtokilla
man."[161]Ternhesitated,thenopenedfirewithhissemiautomaticrifle,hittingGuevarainthearmsandlegs.Guevarawrithedontheground,apparentlybitingoneofhiswriststoavoidcryingout.Ternthenfiredseveraltimesagain,woundinghimfatallyinthechestat1:10pm,accordingto
Rodrguez.[162]InallGuevarawasshotninetimes.Thisincludedfivetimesinthelegs,onceintherightshoulderandarm,onceinthechest,and
finallyinthethroat. [157]
Postexecution,remainsandmemorial
Guevara'sbodywasthenlashedtothelandingskidsofahelicopterandflowntonearbyVallegrande
wherephotographsweretakenofhimlyingonaconcreteslabinthelaundryroomoftheNuestra
SeoradeMalta.[163]Ashundredsoflocalresidentsfiledpastthebody,manyofthemconsideredGuevara'scorpsetorepresenta"Christlike"visage,withsomeofthemevensurreptitiouslyclipping
locksofhishairasdivinerelics. [164]Suchcomparisonswerefurtherextendedwhentwoweekslateruponseeingthepostmortemphotographs,EnglishartcriticJohnBergerobservedthatthey
resembledtwofamouspaintings:Rembrandt'sTheAnatomyLessonofDr.NicolaesTulp andAndrea
Mantegna'sLamentationovertheDeadChrist.[165]
AdeclassifiedmemorandumdatedOctober11,1967toUnitedStatesPresidentLyndonB.Johnson
fromhisNationalSecurityAdvisor,WaltWhitmanRostow,calledthedecisiontokillGuevara"stupid"
but"understandablefromaBolivianstandpoint."[166]Aftertheexecution,Rodrgueztookseveralof
Guevara'spersonalitems,includingaRolexGMTMasterwristwatch [167]whichhecontinuedtowear
manyyearslater,oftenshowingthemtoreportersduringtheensuingyears.[168]Today,someof
thesebelongings,includinghisflashlight,areondisplayattheCIA. [169]Afteramilitarydoctoramputatedhishands,BolivianarmyofficerstransferredGuevara'sbodytoanundisclosedlocationandrefusedtorevealwhetherhisremainshad
beenburiedorcremated.ThehandswerepreservedinformaldehydetobesenttoBuenosAiresforfingerprintidentification.(Hisfingerprintswereon
filewiththeArgentinepolice.)TheywerelatersenttoCuba.
OnOctober15,FidelCastroacknowledgedthatGuevarawasdeadandproclaimedthreedaysofpublic
mourningthroughouttheisland. [170]OnOctober18,Castroaddressedacrowdofonemillionmournersin
Havana'sPlazadelaRevolucinandspokeaboutGuevara'scharacterasarevolutionary.[171]FidelCastroclosedhisimpassionedeulogythusly:
"Ifwewishtoexpresswhatwewantthemenoffuturegenerationstobe,wemustsay:LetthembelikeChe!
Ifwewishtosayhowwewantourchildrentobeeducated,wemustsaywithouthesitation:Wewantthemto
beeducatedinChesspirit!Ifwewantthemodelofaman,whodoesnotbelongtoourtimesbuttothe
future,Isayfromthedepthsofmyheartthatsuchamodel,withoutasinglestainonhisconduct,withouta
singlestainonhisaction,isChe!" [172]
FrenchintellectualRgisDebray,whowascapturedinApril1967whilewithGuevarainBolivia,gavean
interviewfromprison,inAugust1968,whereheenlargedonthecircumstancesofGuevara'scapture.
Debray,whohadlivedwithGuevara'sbandofguerrillasforashorttime,saidthatinhisviewtheywere
"victimsoftheforest"andthus"eatenbythejungle." [173]DebraydescribedadestitutesituationwhereGuevara'smensufferedmalnutrition,lackofwater,absenceofshoes,andonlypossessedsixblankets
for22men.DebrayrecountsthatGuevaraandtheothershadbeensufferingan"illness"whichcaused
theirhandsandfeettoswellinto"moundsofflesh"tothepointwhereyoucouldnotdiscernthefingersontheirhands.[173]Despitethefutilesituation,DebraydescribedGuevaraas"optimisticaboutthefutureofLatinAmerica"andremarkedthatGuevarawas"resignedtodieinthe
knowledgethathisdeathwouldbeasortofrenaissance",notingthatGuevaraperceiveddeath"asapromiseofrebirth"and"ritualofrenewal."[173]
Inlate1995,retiredBolivianGeneralMarioVargasrevealedtoJonLeeAnderson,authorofCheGuevara:ARevolutionaryLife,thatGuevara'sbody
waslocatednearaVallegrandeairstrip.Theresultwasamultinationalsearchfortheremains,whichwouldlastmorethanayear.InJuly1997,a
teamofCubangeologistsandArgentineforensicanthropologistsdiscoveredtheremnantsofsevenbodiesintwomassgraves,includingoneman
withamputatedhands(likeGuevara).BoliviangovernmentofficialswiththeMinistryofInteriorlateridentifiedthebodyasGuevarawhentheexcavated
teeth"perfectlymatched"aplastermoldofChe'steeth,madeinCubapriortohisCongoleseexpedition.The"clincher"thenarrivedwhenArgentine
forensicanthropologistAlejandroInchaurreguiinspectedtheinsidehiddenpocketofabluejacketdugupnexttothehandlesscadaverandfounda
smallbagofpipetobacco.NinodeGuzman,theBolivianhelicopterpilotwhohadgivenCheasmallbagoftobacco,laterremarkedthathe"had
seriousdoubts"atfirstand"thoughttheCubanswouldjustfindanyoldbonesandcallitChe"howeverhestated"afterhearingaboutthetobacco
pouch,Ihavenodoubts."[156]OnOctober17,1997,Guevara'sremains,withthoseofsixofhisfellowcombatants,werelaidtorestwithmilitaryhonorsinaspeciallybuiltmausoleumintheCubancityofSantaClara,wherehehadcommandedoverthedecisivemilitaryvictoryoftheCuban
Revolution.[174]
RemovedwhenGuevarawascapturedwashis30,000word,handwrittendiary,acollectionofhispersonal
poetry,andashortstoryheauthoredaboutayoungCommunistguerrillawholearnstoovercomehisfears.[175]HisdiarydocumentedeventsoftheguerrillacampaigninBolivia [176]withthefirstentryonNovember7,1966shortlyafterhisarrivalatthefarminancahuaz,andthelastdatedOctober7,1967,thedaybefore
hiscapture.Thediarytellshowtheguerrillaswereforcedtobeginoperationsprematurelybecauseof
discoverybytheBolivianArmy,explainsGuevara'sdecisiontodividethecolumnintotwounitsthatwere
subsequentlyunabletoreestablishcontact,anddescribestheiroverallunsuccessfulventure.Italsorecords
theriftbetweenGuevaraandtheCommunistPartyofBoliviathatresultedinGuevarahavingsignificantly
fewersoldiersthanoriginallyexpectedandshowsthatGuevarahadagreatdealofdifficultyrecruitingfrom
thelocalpopulace,partlybecauseofthefactthattheguerrillagrouphadlearnedQuechua,unawarethatthe
locallanguagewasactuallyTupGuaran.[177]Asthecampaigndrewtoanunexpectedclose,Guevarabecameincreasinglyill.Hesufferedfromeverworseningboutsofasthma,andmostofhislastoffensives
werecarriedoutinanattempttoobtainmedicine. [178]
TheBolivianDiarywasquicklyandcrudelytranslatedbyRampartsmagazineandcirculatedaroundtheworld.[179]Thereareatleastfouradditional
diariesinexistencethoseofIsraelReyesZayas(Alias"Braulio"),HarryVillegasTamayo("Pombo"),EliseoReyesRodriguez("Rolando") [146]and
DarielAlarcnRamrez("Benigno") [180]eachofwhichrevealsadditionalaspectsoftheevents.InJuly2008,theBoliviangovernmentofEvoMoralesunveiledGuevara'sformerlysealeddiariescomposedintwofrayednotebooks,alongwithalogbookandseveralblackandwhitephotographs.Atthis
event,Bolivia'sviceministerofculture,PabloGroux,expressedthattherewereplanstopublishphotographsofeveryhandwrittenpagelaterinthe
year.[181]Meanwhile,inAugustof2009,anthropologistsworkingforBolivia'sJusticeMinistrydiscoveredandunearthedfiveofGuevara'sfellow
guerrillasneartheBoliviantownofTeoponte.[182]
Legacy
Mainarticles:LegacyofCheGuevaraandCheGuevarainpopularculture
ThecurrentcourtofopinionplacesCheonacontinuumthatteetersbetweenviewinghimasamisguidedrebel,acoruscatinglybrilliantguerrilla
philosopher,apoetwarriorjoustingatwindmills,abrazenwarriorwhothrewdownthegauntlettothebourgeoisie,theobjectofferventpaeansto
hissainthood,oramassmurdererclothedintheguiseofanavengingangelwhoseeveryactionisimbricatedinviolencethearchetypal
fanaticalterrorist.
Dr.PeterMcLaren,authorofCheGuevara,PauloFreire,andthePedagogyofRevolution [183]
Overfortyyearsafterhisexecution,Che'slifeandlegacystillremainacontentiousissue.Thecontradictions
ofhisethosatvariouspointsinhislifehavecreatedacomplexcharacterofunendingduality.
Asaresultofhisperceivedmartyrdom,poeticinvocationsforclassstruggle,anddesiretocreatethe
consciousnessofanewmandrivenbymoralratherthanmaterialincentives, [184]Guevaraevolvedintoaquintessentialiconof leftistinspiredmovements.AnarrayofnotableindividualshaveviewedCheGuevaraas
ahero[185]forexample,NelsonMandelareferredtohimas"aninspirationforeveryhumanbeingwholoves
freedom"[26]whileJeanPaulSartredescribedhimas"notonlyanintellectualbutalsothemostcomplete
humanbeingofourage."[186]OtherswhoexpressedtheiradmirationincludeauthorsGrahamGreenewho
remarkedthatChe"representedtheideaofgallantry,chivalry,andadventure"[187],andSusanSontagwho
expoundedthat"(Che's)goalwasnothinglessthanthecauseofhumanityitself." [188]Intheblackcommunity,philosopherFrantzFanonprofessedGuevaratobe"theworldsymbolofthepossibilitiesofone
man"[189],whileBlackPantherPartyheadStokelyCarmichaeleulogizedthat"CheGuevaraisnotdead,hisideasarewithus." [190]Praisehasbeenreflectedthroughoutthepoliticalspectrum,withtheanarchocapitalist/ libertariantheoristMurrayRothbardextollingGuevaraasa"heroicfigure",
lamentingafterhisdeaththat"morethananymanofourepochorevenofourcentury,(Che)wasthelivingembodimentoftheprincipleofrevolution",[191]whilejournalistChristopherHitchenscommentedthat"[Che's]deathmeantalottomeandcountlesslikemeatthetime,hewasarolemodel,albeitanimpossibleoneforusbourgeoisromanticsinsofarashewentanddidwhatrevolutionariesweremeanttodofoughtanddiedforhis
beliefs."[192]GuevararemainsabelovednationalherotomanyinCuba,wherehisimageadornsthe$3CubanPesoandschoolchildrenbegineach
morningbypledging"WewillbelikeChe." [193]InhisnativehomelandofArgentina,wherehighschoolsbearhisname,[194]numerousChemuseums
dotthecountry,whichin2008unveileda12footbronzestatueofhiminhisbirthcityofRosario.[195]Additionally,Guevarahasbeensanctifiedby
someBoliviancampesinos [196]as"SaintErnesto",towhomtheyprayforassistance. [197]
Conversely,Machover,oneofhisbiographers,dismissestheheroworshippingandportrayshimasaruthlessexecutioner. [198]DetractorshavetheorizedthatinmuchofLatinAmerica,Cheinspiredrevolutionshadthepracticalresultofreinforcingbrutalmilitarismandinternecineconflictfor
manyyears. [199]InanassessmentofGuevara,BritishhistorianHughThomasacknowledge'sthatChewasa"brave,sincereanddeterminedman
whowasalsoobstinate,narrow,anddogmatic."[200]Attheendofhislife,accordingtoThomas,"heseemstohavebecomeconvincedofthevirtuesofviolenceforitsownsake",while"hisinfluenceoverCastroforgoodorevil"grewafterhisdeath,asFideltookupmanyofhisviews.InThomas'
assessment"asinthecaseofMart,orLawrenceofArabia,failurehasbrightened,notdimmedthelegend."[200]AlvaroVargasLlosaofTheIndependentInstitutehashypothesizedthatGuevarascontemporaryfollowers"deludethemselvesbyclingingtoamyth",whiledescribingGuevara
as"MarxistPuritan"whoemployedhisrigidpowertosuppressdissent,whilealsooperatingasa"coldbloodedkillingmachine". [199]LlosahasalsoaccusedGuevara's"fanaticaldisposition"asbeingthelinchpinofthe"Sovietization"oftheCubanrevolution,speculatingthathepossesseda"total
subordinationofrealitytoblindideologicalorthodoxy."[199]GuevararemainsahatedfigureamongstmanyintheCubanexilecommunity,whoview
himwithanimosityas"thebutcherofLaCabaa."[201]Guevara'sexiledgrandsonCanekSnchezGuevarahasalsorecentlybecomeanoutspoken
criticofthecurrentCubanregime. [202]
Despitehispolarizedstatus,ahighcontrastmonochromegraphicofhisfacehasbecomeoneoftheworld'smostuniversallymerchandizedand
objectifiedimages, [203][204]foundonanendlessarrayofitems,includingtshirts,hats,posters,tattoos,andbikinis, [205]ironicallycontributingtothe
consumerculturehedespised.Yet,Guevarastillremainsatranscendentfigurebothinspecificallypoliticalcontexts[206]andasawideranging
populariconofyouthfulrebellion. [207]
Timeline
Archivalmedia
Videofootage
Guevarainterviewedin1964onavisittoDublin,Ireland,(2:53),Englishtranslation,fromRTLibrariesandArchives,VideoClip
Guevararecitingapoem,(1:00),Englishsubtitles,fromElChe:InvestigatingaLegendKulturVideo2001,VideoClip
GuevarashowingsupportforFidelCastro,(0:22),Englishsubtitles,fromElChe:InvestigatingaLegendKulturVideo2001,VideoClip
Guevaraspeakingaboutlabor,(0:28),Englishsubtitles,fromElChe:InvestigatingaLegendKulturVideo2001,VideoClip
GuevaraspeakingabouttheBayofPigs,(0:17),Englishsubtitles,fromElChe:InvestigatingaLegendKulturVideo2001,VideoClip
Guevaraspeakingagainstimperialism,(1:20),Englishsubtitles,fromElChe:InvestigatingaLegendKulturVideo2001,VideoClip
Audiorecording
GuevarainterviewedonABC'sIssuesandAnswers,(23:53),Englishtranslation,narratedbyLisaHoward,March241964,Audioclip
Listofworks
Mainarticle:ListofworksrelatedtoCheGuevara
OriginallywritteninSpanishbyErnesto"Che"Guevara,latertranslatedintoEnglish
ANewSociety:ReflectionsforToday'sWorld,OceanPress,1996,ISBN1875284060
BackontheRoad:AJourneyThroughLatinAmerica,GrovePress,2002,ISBN0802139426
CheGuevara,Cuba,andtheRoadtoSocialism,PathfinderPress,1991,ISBN0873486439
CheGuevaraonGlobalJustice,OceanPress(AU),2002,ISBN1876175451
CheGuevara:RadicalWritingsonGuerrillaWarfare,PoliticsandRevolution,FiliquarianPublishing,2006,ISBN1599869993
CheGuevaraReader:WritingsonPolitics&Revolution,OceanPress,2003,ISBN1876175699
CheGuevaraSpeaks:SelectedSpeechesandWritings,PathfinderPress(NY),1980,ISBN0873486021
CheGuevaraTalkstoYoungPeople,Pathfinder,2000,ISBN087348911X
Che:TheDiariesofErnestoCheGuevara ,OceanPress(AU),2008,ISBN1920888934
ColonialismisDoomed,MinistryofExternalRelations:RepublicofCuba,1964,ASINB0010AAN1K
CriticalNotesonPoliticalEconomy:ARevolutionaryHumanistApproachtoMarxistEconomics OceanPress,2008,ISBN1876175559
EpisodesoftheCubanRevolutionaryWar,195658,PathfinderPress(NY),1996,ISBN0873488245
GuerrillaWarfare:AuthorizedEditionOceanPress,2006,ISBN1920888284
LatinAmerica:AwakeningofaContinent,OceanPress,2005,ISBN1876175737
Marx&Engels:AnIntroduction,OceanPress,2007,ISBN1920888926
OurAmericaAndTheirs:KennedyAndTheAllianceForProgress,OceanPress,2006,ISBN1876175818
ReminiscencesoftheCubanRevolutionaryWar:AuthorizedEditionOceanPress,2005,ISBN1920888330
SelfPortraitCheGuevara,OceanPress(AU),2004,ISBN1876175826
SocialismandManinCuba ,PathfinderPress(NY),1989,ISBN0873485777
TheAfricanDream:ThediariesoftheRevolutionaryWarintheCongoGrovePress,2001,ISBN0802138349
TheArgentine,OceanPress(AU),2008,ISBN1920888934
TheBolivianDiaryofErnestoCheGuevara PathfinderPress,1994,ISBN0873487664
TheDiaryofCheGuevara:TheSecretPapersofaRevolutionary,AmereonLtd,ISBN0891902244
TheGreatDebateonPoliticalEconomy,OceanPress,2006,ISBN1876175540
TheMotorcycleDiaries:AJourneyAroundSouthAmericaLondon:Verso,1996,ISBN1857023994
ToSpeaktheTruth:WhyWashington's"ColdWar"AgainstCubaDoesn'tEnd,Pathfinder,1993,ISBN0873486331
Notes
1. abcThedateofbirthrecordedonhisbirthcertificatewasJune14,1928,althoughonetertiarysource,(JuliaConstenla,quotedbyJonLeeAnderson),assertsthathewasactuallybornonMay14ofthatyear.Constenlaallegesthatshewastoldbyanunidentifiedastrologerthathismother,CeliadelaSerna,wasalreadypregnantwhensheandErnestoGuevaraLynchweremarriedandthatthedateonthebirthcertificateoftheirsonwasforgedtomakeitappearthathewasbornamonthlaterthantheactualdatetoavoidscandal.(Anderson1997,pp.3,769.)
2. ^PartidoUnidodelaRevolucinSocialistadeCuba,akaPURSC
3. ^Hall2004
4. ^Casey2009,p.128.
5. abOnRevolutionaryMedicine SpeechbyCheGuevaratotheCubanMilitiaonAugust19,1960
6. ^AttheAfroAsianConferenceinAlgeria AspeechbyCheGuevaratotheSecondEconomicSeminarofAfroAsianSolidarityinAlgiers,AlgeriaonFebruary24,1965
7. ^Beaubien,NPRAudioReport,2009,00:0900:13
8. abcd"Castro'sBrain"1960.
9. abcdeTaibo1999,p.267.
10. abcKellner1989,p.6970.
11. ^Anderson1997,p.526530.
12. ^Ryan1998,p.4
13. ^Dorfman1999.
14. ^MarylandInstituteofArt,referencedatBBCNewsMay26,2001
15. ^Che'slastname"Guevara"derivesfromtheCastilianizedformoftheBasque"Gebara",ahabitationalnamefromtheprovinceoflava.Throughhisgrandmother,AnaLynch,hewasadescendantofPatrickLynch,anemigrantfromGalway,Irelandinthe1740s.
16. ^Lavretsky1976
17. ^Kellner1989,p.23.
18. ^Argentina:Che'sRedMother TimeMagazine ,July14,1961
19. ^Anderson1997,p.2223.
20. ^Sandison1996,p.8.
21. ^Kellner1989,p.24.
22. ^Cain,Nick&Growden,Greg"Chapter21:TenPeculiarFactsaboutRugby"inRugbyUnionforDummies (2ndEdition),JohnWileyandSons,ISBN139780470035375,p.293.
23. ^Anderson1997,p.28.
24. abHart2004,pg98.
25. ^Haney2005,p.164.
26. abcdefghi(Anderson1997,p.3738)
27. ^Sandison1996,p.10.
28. ^Kellner1989,p.26.
29. ^Ratner1997,p.25.
30. abKellner1989,p.27.
31. ^NYTbestsellerlist:#38PaperbackNonfictionon20050220 ,#9Nonfictionon20041007 andonmoreoccasions.
32. ^Anderson1997,pp.98.
33. ^AcopyofGuevara'sUniversitytranscriptsshowingconferralofhismedicaldiplomacanbefoundonpg75ofBecomingChe:Guevara'sSecondandFinalTripthroughLatinAmerica,byCarlos'Calica'Ferrer(TranslatedfromtheSpanishbySarahL.Smith),MareaEditorial,2006,ISBN9871307071.FerrerwasalongtimechildhoodfriendofChe,andwhenGuevarapassedthelastofhis12examsin1953,hegavehimacopytoprovetoFerrer,whohadbeentellingGuevarathathewouldneverfinish,thathehadfinallycompletedhisstudies.
34. ^Anderson1997,p.126.
35. ^Taibo1999,p.31.
36. ^Kellner1989,p.31.
37. abGuevaraLynch2000,p.26.
38. ^RadioCadenaAgramonte2006.
39. ^Ignacio2007,p.172.
40. ^U.S.DepartmentofState2008.
41. ^Anderson1997,p.144.
42. abKellner1989,p.32.
43. ^Taibo1999,p.39.
44. ^Snow,Anita."'MyLifeWithChe'byHildaGadea ."AssociatedPress atWJXXTV.August16,2008.RetrievedonFebruary23,2009.
45. ^CheGuevara196067byFrankE.Smitha
46. ^Sinclair,Andrew(1970).CheGuevara .TheVikingPress.p.12.
47. ^Kellner1989,p.33.
48. abRebelWife,AReviewofMyLifeWithChe:TheMakingofaRevolutionarybyHildaGadea byTomGjelten,TheWashingtonPost,October12,2008
49. ^Taibo1999,p.55.
50. ^Sandison1996,p.28.
51. ^Kellner1989,p.37.
52. ^Anderson1997,p.194.
53. ^Anderson1997,p.213.
54. ^Sandison1996,p.32.
55. ^DePalma2006,pp.110111.
56. ^Kellner1989,p.45.
57. ^Anderson1997,pp.269270.
58. ^Castaeda1998,pp.105,119.
59. ^Anderson1997,pp.237238,269270,277278.
60. ^Sandison1996,p.35.
61. ^Ignacio2007,p.177.
62. ^Ignacio2007,p.193.
63. ^PosterBoyofTheRevolution bySaulLandau,TheWashingtonPost,October19,1997,PageX01
64. ^Moore,Don."Revolution!ClandestineRadioandtheRiseofFidelCastro ".PateplumaRadio.
65. ^Bockman1984.
66. ^Kellner1989,p.40.
67. abKellner1989,p.47.
68. ^Castro1972,pp.439442.
69. ^Dorschner1980,pp.4147,8187.
70. ^Sandison1996,p.39.
71. ^Kellner1989,p.48.
72. ^Kellner1989,p.13.
73. ^Anderson1997,397.
74. ^Anderson1997,pp.400401.
75. ^Anderson1997,pp.424.
76. ^Guevarahadchildrenfrombothhismarriages,andoneillegitimatechild,asfollows:WithHildaGadea(marriedAugust18,1955divorcedMay22,1959),HildaBeatrizGuevaraGadea,bornFebruary15,1956inMexicoCitydiedAugust21,1995inHavana,CubawithAleidaMarch(marriedJune2,1959),AleidaGuevaraMarch,bornNovember24,1960inHavana,Cuba,CamiloGuevaraMarch,bornMay20,1962inHavana,Cuba,CeliaGuevaraMarch,bornJune14,1963inHavana,Cuba,andErnestoGuevaraMarch,bornFebruary24,1965inHavana,CubaandwithLiliaRosaLpez(extramarital),OmarPrez,bornMarch19,1964inHavana,Cuba(Castaeda1998,pp.264265).
77. ^GmezTreto1991,p.115."ThePenalLawoftheWarofIndependence(July28,1896)wasreinforcedbyRule1ofthePenalRegulationsoftheRebelArmy,approvedintheSierraMaestraFebruary21,1958,andpublishedinthearmy'sofficialbulletin(LeypenaldeCubaenarmas,1959)"(GmezTreto1991,p.123).
78. ^GmezTreto1991,pp.115116).
79. ^Anderson1997,pp.372,425.
80. ^Anderson1997,p.376.
81. ^Niess2007,p.60
82. ^GmezTreto1991,p.116).
83. ^Anderson1997,pp.388.
84. ^Niess2007,p.61
85. abcCastaeda1998,pp.143144.
86. ^Differentsourcescitedifferentnumbersofexecutions,withsomeofthediscrepancyresultingfromwhichdeathstoattributedirectlytoGuevaraortotheregimeasawhole.Anderson(1997)givesthenumberspecificallyatLaCabaaprisonas55(p.387.),whilealsostatingthatasawhole"severalhundredpeoplewereofficiallytriedandexecutedacrossCuba"(p.387).(Castaeda1998)noteshowhistoriansdifferonthenumberkilledandplaceitasanywherefrom200700nationwide(p.143).ThisissupportedbyLagowhogivesthefigureas216executionsorderedbyGuevaraacrossCubainthreeyears(19571960).
87. ^Anderson1997,pp.375.
88. ^Kellner1989,p.54.
89. ^Kellner1989,p.57.
90. abcKellner1989,p.58.
91. ^Anderson1997,p.423.
92. ^Niwata2007.GuevararequestedthattheJapanesegovernmentarrangeforhimtovisitHiroshima.Whentheyrefused,hecovertlylefthisOsakahoteltovisitHiroshimabynighttrain,alongwithhisaideOmarFernndez.
93. abAnderson1997,p.435.
94. ^Casey2009,p.25.
95. ^Casey2009,p.2550.
96. abKellner1989,p.55.
97. ^LatinAmerica'sNewLookatChe byDanielSchweimler,BBCNews,October9,2007
98. abcKellner1989,p.61.
99. abCrompton2009,p.71.
100. ^Dumur1964showsCheGuevaraspeakingFrench.
101. abcd"SocialismandManinCuba" AlettertoCarlosQuijano,editorofMarcha,aweeklypublishedinMontevideo,Uruguaypublishedas"FromAlgiers,forMarcha:TheCubanRevolutionToday"byCheGuevaraonMarch12,1965
102. abcdeKellner1989,p.62.
103. ^Kellner1989,p.59.
104. ^PBS:CheGuevara,PopularbutIneffective
105. ^Kellner1989,p.75.
106. ^Kellner1989,p.63.
107. ^Kellner1989,p.74.
108. ^TheSpiritofCheGuevara byI.F.Stone,NewStatesman,October20,1967
109. ^Anderson1997,p.507.
110. ^Anderson1997,p.509.
111. ab"EconomicsCannotbeSeparatedfromPolitics" speechbyCheGuevaratotheministerialmeetingoftheInterAmericanEconomicandSocialCouncil(CIES),inPuntadelEste,UruguayonAugust8,1961
112. ^Anderson1997,p.492.
113. ^Anderson1997,p.530.
114. abAnderson1997,p.545.
115. ^Kellner1989,p.73.
116. abcde"ColonialismisDoomed" speechtothe19thGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsinNewYorkCitybyCubanrepresentativeCheGuevaraonDecember11,1964
117. abcBazookaFiredatU.N.asCubanSpeaks byHomerBigart ,TheNewYorkTimes ,December12,1964page1
118. ^GuillermoNovoBiography bySpartacusEducationalEncyclopedia
119. ^Snow2007.
120. ^Hart2004,pg271.
121. ^Anderson1997,p.618.
122. ^http://www.fantompowa.net/Flame/che_guevara_irish_roots.htm
123. ^St.Patrick'sDay2005:CheLives byPeterMcDermott,TheIrishEcho ,March16222005edition
124. ^Guevara1969,p.350.
125. ^Guevara1969,pp.35259.
126. ^http://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=t&source=web&ct=res&cd=3&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalresearch.ca%2Findex.php%3Fcontext%3Dva%26aid%3D9315&ei=SPZ8StKDDsv2Ab034hR&usg=AFQjCNHqDzcWGSLQab_RR8CmnNWZYhrEYA&sig2=RBPGr8ZVFfdjO_rRoJjCSg
127. ^MessagetotheTricontinental AlettersentbyCheGuevarafromhisjunglecampinBolivia,totheTricontinentalSolidarityOrganisationinHavana,Cuba,intheSpringof1967
128. ^Guevara1965.
129. ^BenBella1997.
130. ^Anderson1997,p.624.
131. ^Anderson1997,p.629.
132. ^Glvez1999,p62.
133. ^Gott2004p.219.
134. ^Kellner1989,p.86.
135. ^DRCongo'sRebelTurnedBrainSurgeon byMarkDoyle,BBCWorldAffairs',December13,2005
136. ^BBCNewsJanuary17,2001.
137. ^"TheinterceptoperatorsknewthatDaresSalaamwasservingasacommunicationscenterforthefighters,receivingmessagesfromCastroinCubaandrelayingthemontotheguerrillasdeepinthebush(Bamford2002,p.181).
138. ^Ireland'sOwn2000.
139. ^Kellner1989,p.87.
140. ^Guevara2000,p.1.
141. ^Castaeda1998,p.316.
142. ^Guevara2009,p.167.
143. ^Mittleman1981,p.38.
144. ^Jacobson,SidandErnieColn.Che:AGraphicBiography.HillandWang,2009.9697.
145. ^Jacobson,SidandErnieColn.Che:AGraphicBiography.HillandWang,2009.98.
146. abSelvage1985.
147. ^Anderson1997,p.693.
148. ^Kellner1989,p.97.
149. ^U.S.Army1967andRyan1998,pp.82102, interalia ."U.S.militarypersonnelinBolivianeverexceeded53advisers,includingasixteenmanMobileTrainingTeam(MTT)fromthe8thSpecialForcesGroupbasedatFortGulick,PanamaCanalZone"(Selvage1985).
150. ^"BiddingforChe ",TimeMagazine ,Dec151967
151. ^Guevara1972.
152. ^Castaeda1998,pp.107112131132.
153. ^Wright2000,p.86.
154. ^ShadowWarrior:TheCIAHeroof100UnknownBattles ,FelixRodriguezandJohnWeisman,Simon&Schuster,October1989
155. ^Anderson1997,p.733.
156. ab"TheManWhoBuriedChe "byJuanO.Tamayo,MiamiHerald,September19,1997
157. abcdeRay,Michle(March1968)."InColdBlood:TheExecutionofChebytheCIA".RampartsMagazine :33.
158. ^Grant2007.RenBarrientoshasneverrevealedhismotivesfororderingthesummaryexecutionofGuevara.
159. ^Almudevar,Lola."Boliviamarkscapture,executionof'Che'Guevara40yearsago ."SanFranciscoChronicle .TuesdayOctober9,2007.RetrievedonNovember7,2009.
160. ^Time magazine1970.
161. ^Anderson1997,p.739.
162. ^Anderson1997,pp.739.
163. ^Almudevar2007andGott2005.
164. ^Casey2009,p.179.
165. ^Casey2009,p.183.
166. ^Lacey2007a.
167. ^WatchblogimageofGuevara'sGMTMaster
168. ^FelixRodrguezentry fromSpartacusSchoolnetEncyclopedia
169. ^Kornbluh1997.
170. ^Anderson1997,pp.740.
171. ^Anderson1997,pp.741.
172. ^Kellner1989,p.101.
173. abcNadle,Marlene(August24,1968)."RgisDebraySpeaksfromPrison".RampartsMagazine :42.
174. ^Cubasalutes'Che'Guevara:RevolutionaryIconFinallyLaidtoRest CNN,October17,1997CNNVIDEO
175. ^"BiddingforChe ",TimeMagazine,Dec151967
176. ^Guevara1967b.
177. ^Ryan1998,p.45
178. ^Ryan1998,p.104
179. ^Ryan1998,p.148
180. ^Ramrez1997.
181. ^BoliviaunveilsoriginalCheGuevaradiary byEduardoGarcia,Reuters,July7,2008
182. ^SlainCheGuevaraSoldiersFound? videoreportbyNationalGeographic ,August21,2009
183. ^McLaren2000,p.7.
184. ^Guevara2005
185. ^Che'sSecondComing? byDavidRieff,November20,2005,NewYorkTimes
186. ^Moynihan2006.
187. ^Sinclair1968/2006,p.80.
188. ^Sinclair1968/2006,p.127.
189. ^McLaren2000,p.3.
190. ^Sinclair1968/2006,p.67.
191. ^ErnestoCheGuevaraR.I.P. byMurrayRothbard,LeftandRight:AJournalofLibertarianThought,Volume3,Number3(SpringAutumn1967)
192. ^JustaPrettyFace? bySeanO'Hagan,TheObserver,July11,2004
193. ^People'sWeekly2004.
194. ^Argentinapaysbelatedhomageto"Che"Guevara byHelenPopper,Reuters,June14,2008
195. ^StatueforChe's'80thbirthday' byDanielSchweimler,BBCNews,June15,2008
196. ^OnatouristtrailinBolivia'shills,Che'sfameliveson ByHectorTobar,LosAngelesTimes ,October17,2004
197. ^Schipani2007.
198. ^BehindCheGuevarasmask,thecoldexecutioner TimesOnline ,September16,2007
199. abcVargasLlosa2005.
200. abKellner1989,p.106.
201. ^D'Rivera2005.
202. ^""Chvezesdficildeencasillar,peroafinaldecuentasquedaclaroqueesunpobrerico" ".ElNacional.
203. ^BBCNewsMay26,2001
204. ^seealsoCheGuevara(photo)
205. ^Lacey2007b.
206. ^BBCNews2007.
207. ^O'Hagan2004.
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Externallinks
Ernesto"Che"Guevara
"GuerrilleroHeroico "
CheGuevaraattheLaCoubrememorialservice.
TakenbyAlbertoKorda onMarch5,1960.
Dateofbirth: June14,1928 [1]
Placeofbirth: Rosario,Argentina
Dateofdeath: October9,1967(aged39)
Placeofdeath: LaHiguera,Bolivia
Major
organizations:
26thofJulyMovement,UnitedParty
oftheCubanSocialistRevolution,[2]NationalLiberationArmy(Bolivia)
Religion: None [3]Contents
1Earlylife
1.1Motorcyclejourney
2Guatemala,ArbenzandUnitedFruit
3MexicoCityandpreparation
4CubanRevolution
4.1Invasion,warfareandSantaClara
4.2LaCabaa,landreform,andliteracy
4.3The"NewMan",BayofPigsandMissileCrisis
5Internationaldiplomacy
6Congo
7Bolivia
7.1Captureandexecution
7.2Postexecution,remainsandmemorial
8Legacy
9Timeline
10Archivalmedia
10.1Videofootage
10.2Audiorecording
11Listofworks
12Notes
13References
14Externallinks
Guevarawaslikeafathertome...he
educatedme.Hetaughtmetothink.
Hetaughtmethemostbeautifulthing
whichistobehuman.
Urbano (akaLeonardoTamayo) ,
foughtwithCheinCubaandBolivia[97]
Thissectionneedsadditionalcitationsforverification.Pleasehelp improvethisarticle byadding reliablereferences.Unsourcedmaterialmaybechallenged and removed.(November
2009)
Therewasnopersonmorefearedbythe
company(CIA)thanCheGuevarabecausehe
hadthecapacityandcharismanecessaryto
directthestruggleagainstthepolitical
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