ChapterChapterChapterChapter
MMOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONSOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONS
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After reading this chapter you should be able to:
1. Define motivation and explain its importance in the field of organizational behavior.
2. Describe need hierarchy theory and what it recommends about improving motivation in organizations.
3. Identify and explain the conditions through which goal setting can be used to improve job performance.
4. Explain equity theory and procedural justice, and explain how both may be applied to motivating people in organizations.
5. Describe expectancy theory and how it may be applied in organizations.
6. Distinguish between job enlargement and job enrichment as techniques for motivating employees.
7. Describe the job characteristics model and its implications for redesigning jobs to enhance motivation.
Motivation in Organizations: Its Basic Nature (Pp. 130-132)
Motivation - set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain humanbehavior toward attaining some goalComponents
Arousal - drive or energy behind our actionsDirection - choices that we make in pursuing some goalMaintaining - conditions that suggest continuance of our
actions
Key PointsMotivation and job performance are not synonymous
- motivation is one of several determinants of performanceMotivation is multifaceted
- several motives may be operative at the same timePeople are motivated by more than just money
- goals, other than financial goals, are operative at work
Motivating By Meeting Needs (Pp. 133-137)
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy - theory specifying that there are five humanneeds that are arranged so that lower-level, more basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become activated
Deficiency needs - if these needs are not met, people will not develop either physically or psychologicallyPhysiological needs - biological drives such as the need
for food, air, water, and shelter Safety needs - need for a secure environment, free from
threats of physical or psychological harmSocial needs - need to be affiliative, i.e., to have friends
and to be loved and accepted by other people
Growth needs - gratification of these needs helps a person to reachher/his full potential Esteem needs - need to develop self-respect and to gain
the approval of othersSelf-actualization needs - need to discover who we are
and to develop ourselves to our fullest potential
Motivating By Meeting Needs (cont.)
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (cont.)Evaluation of the theory
- has not received much empirical support- other research has failed to confirm that there are
five categories of needs- needs do not have to satisfied in the order
prescribed in the hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory - asserts that there are three basic human needs that are not necessarily activated in any specific orderExistence needs - correspond to Maslow’s physiological and
safety needsRelatedness needs - correspond to Maslow’s social needsGrowth needs - correspond to Maslow’s esteem and self-
actualization needs
Evaluation of the theory - fits better with research evidence
Deficiency Needs
Growth needs
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualization needs• Growth needs
3. Social needs • Relatedness needs
1. Physiological needs
2. Safety needs • Existence needs
Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Alderfer’s ERG theory
Figure 4.4Need Theories: A Comparison
Motivating By Meeting Needs (cont.)
Managerial Applications of Need Theories - makes sense to help peoplesatisfy their needs, especially if self-actualization will bring aboutgreater creativity on the job
Promote a healthy workforce - satisfy employees’ physiologicalneeds by providing incentives for mental and physicalhealth
Provide financial security - an important safety need- go beyond traditional forms of compensation- address issues of job security, including outplacement
Provide opportunities to socialize - organize events that help to satisfy social needs
Recognize employee’s accomplishments - award programs satisfyesteem needs- must clearly link award to desired behavior
Motivating By Setting Goals (Pp. 138-142)
Goal Setting - process of determining specific levels of performance forworkers to attain- one of the most important motivational forces in organizations
Locke and Latham’s Goal-Setting Theory - having a goal serves as a motivator because it influences:
- people’s beliefs about their ability to perform the task- self-efficacy
- the degree to which people invest themselves in the task- goal commitment is determined by the extent to
which an individual desires to attain thegoal and believes that s/he has a reason-able chance of doing so
Figure 4.7Cognitive Summary of the Goal Setting Process
Desire to attain goal Perceived chance of goal attainment
Goal commitment(accept goal as own)
Self-efficacybeliefs
Desire to feel competent
Recognize challengeof higher goal level
Performanceat goal level
Motivating By Setting Goals (cont.)
Managers’ Guidelines for Setting Effective Performance Goals
Assign specific goals - people perform at higher levels when asked to meet a specific, high-performance goal than when askedsimply to “do your best” or when no goal at all is assigned- improve output, reduce absenteeism, decrease accidents
Assign difficult - but acceptable - performance goals - peoplewill internalize the goal if it is perceived as challengingbut attainable- involve employees in the goal setting process
Provide feedback concerning goal attainment - informs individual about how closely s/he is approaching theperformance goal- without feedback, workers do their jobs blindly
Per
cent
age
of M
axim
um W
eigh
tC
arri
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n E
ach
Tri
p
Beforegoal
After goal
Four-Week Periods
50
60
70
80
90
100
1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 SevenYears Later
Figure 4.8Goal Setting: Some Impressive Effects
There was a dramatic improvement in performance after
a goal was set
Performance at the goal levelwas sustained seven years after
the goal was first set
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Goal level
Motivating By Being Fair (Pp. 142-148)
Organizational Justice - people’s perception of fairness in organizations, consisting of perceptions regarding how decisions are madeconcerning the distribution of outcomes Procedural justice - focus is on the process used to resource
allocation decisionsEquity theory - focus is on the perceived fairness of the outcomes
themselves
OrganizationalJustice
ProceduralJustice
EquityTheory
Adams Equity Theory - people strive to maintain a ratio of their own outcomes (rewards) to their own inputs (contributions) equal to theoutcome/input ratio of others with whom they compare themselves Outcomes - the rewards, such as salary and recognition, that
employees receive from their jobsInputs - people’s contributions to their jobs, such as their
experience, qualifications, or amount of time worked
Motivating By Being Fair (cont.)
Overpayment inequity - the condition, resulting in feelings ofguilt, in which the ratio of one’s outcomes to one’s inputsis more than the corresponding ratio of comparison person- individual may raise her inputs or lower his outcomes
Underpayment inequity - the condition, resulting in feelings of anger, in which the ratio of one’s outcomes to one’s inputsis less than the corresponding ratio of comparison person- individual may lower her inputs or raise his outcomes
Perceptual resolution of inequity - change how you think about the situation
SocialComparison
PersonA
PersonB
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
InputsAngry
Guilty
Underpaymentinequity
for Person A Overpaymentinequity
for Person B
LessThan
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
InputsSatisfied Satisfied
Equitablepayment
for Person A
Equitablepayment
for Person B
EqualTo
Figure 4.11Equity Theory
Overpaymentinequity
for Person A
Underpaymentinequity
for Person B
GreaterThan
Outcomes
Inputs
Outcomes
Inputs
Guilty
Angry
Motivating By Being Fair (cont.)
Procedural Justice: Making Decisions Fairly - for the outcome to be fair,the procedures must be fairStructural side of procedural justice - determining how decisions
need to be made for them to be considered fair- give people a say in how decisions are made - voice- provide an opportunity for errors to be corrected - appeal
process- apply rules and policies consistently- make decisions in an unbiased manner
Social side of procedural justice - quality of interpersonal treatmentreceived at the hands of decision makerInteractional justice - perceived fairness of the interpersonal
treatment used to determine organizational outcomes- informational justification - thoroughness of the
information received about a decision- social sensitivity - amount of dignity and respect
demonstrated when presenting an undesirableoutcome
Motivating By Being Fair (cont.)
Organizational Justice: Some Tips for Managers - implications of equitytheory for motivating people
Avoid overpayment - managers should strive to treat all employeesequitably- be open and honest about outcomes and inputs
Give people a voice in decisions that affect them - give people asay in matters that pertain to their jobs
Present information about outcomes in a thorough, socially sensitive manner - take sting out of undesirable outcomes
Avoid underpayment - employees may attempt to “even the score”Two-tier wage structures - payment systems in which
newer employees are paid less than employeeshired at earlier times who do the same work
Motivating By Altering Expectations (Pp. 149-153)
Expectancy Theory - characterizes people as rational beings who think aboutwhat they must do to be rewarded and how much that reward meansto them before they actually perform their jobs
Basic elements - three different types of beliefsExpectancy - belief that one’s effort will influence one’s
performance positivelyInstrumentality - beliefs regarding the likelihood of being
rewarded according to her/his own level of performance
Valence - value a person places on the rewards s/he expectsto receive from an organization
Combining all three components - motivation is a multiplicativefunction of the three components- if any component is zero, overall level of motivation is also
zero
Motivating By Altering Expectations (cont.)
Expectancy Theory (cont.)Other determinants of job performance - motivation is only one of
several important determinantsSkills and abilities - determine person/job fitRole perceptions - what employees believe their jobs
duties to beOpportunities - chance to perform the job
Managerial Applications of Expectancy TheoryClarify people’s expectancies that effort leads to performance
- train, make desired performance attainable, and helpemployee to attain level of performance
Administer rewards with a positive valence - “carrot must be tasty”Cafeteria-style benefit plan - incentive system in which
worker can select the fringe benefits s/he wants froma menu of available alternatives
Clearly link valued rewards and performance - enhance beliefsabout instrumentality by specifying what behaviorleads to what rewards
Skills andabilities
Role perceptionsand opportunities
JobPerformance
Effort
Performance
Expectancy
Instrumentality
Rewards
Figure 4.14Expectancy Theory: An Overview
Motivation
Valence ofRewards
X
X
Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting(Pp. 153-160)
Job Design - suggests that jobs can be structured to enhcance people’s interest in doing them
Job enrichment - gives employees a high degree of control overtheir work, from planning and organization throughimplementation and evaluation- employees determine how to do their jobs
- vertical job loading- although successful in many organizations, popularity is
limited by difficulty in implementation and lack ofemployee acceptance
Job enlargement - expansion of the content of a job to include more variety and more tasks at the same level- does not increase responsibility nor skills needed to do job
- horizontal job loading- may help to improve job performance, but its effects may
not be lasting
Task1
Task2L
evel
of
Res
pon
sib
ilit
y(v
erti
cal j
ob lo
adin
g)
(high)
(low)
Number of Tasks(horizontal job loading)
(high)(low)
Figure 4.15Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment: A Comparison
Enlarged Job
Task3
Task4
Job enlargement adds more tasks at the same level of responsibility.
Lev
el o
f R
esp
onsi
bil
ity
(ver
tica
l job
load
ing)
(high)
(low)
Number of Tasks(horizontal job loading)
Standard Job
(high)(low)
Task1
Task2
(low)
Number of Tasks(horizontal job loading)
Lev
el o
f R
esp
onsi
bil
ity
(ver
tica
l job
load
ing)
(high)
(high)(low)
Task1
Task2
Task1
Task2
Enriched JobJob enrichment addsmore responsibilityto the same number
of tasks.
Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)
Job Characteristics Model - specifies that enriching certain elements of jobsalters people’s psychological states in a manner that enhances theirwork effectiveness
Components of the Model - affect motivation, satisfaction, and performanceCore job dimensions
Skill variety - extent to which a job requires worker to usedifferent skills and talents
Task identity - extent to which an entire piece of work iscompleted from beginning to end
Task significance - impact of job on othersAutonomy - amount of discretion to do job as desiredFeedback - information about performance effectiveness
Critical psychological states - beliefs engendered by core dimensionsExperienced meaningfulness - importance and value of job
- stems from skill variety, task identity and significancePersonal responsibility and accountability - stems from
autonomyKnowledge of results - stems from feedback
Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)
Job Characteristics Model (cont.)Does model apply to everyone? - model is especially effective in
describing behavior of people who are high in growth needstrength
Putting it all together Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - questionnaire used to
measure the core dimensions present in a given job Motivating Potential Score (MPS) - mathematical index
describing the degree to which a job is designed to motivate people
MPS = Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance X Autonomy X Feedback
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Evidence for the model - most empirical tests have supported manyaspects of the model
CORE JOBDIMENSIONS
Skill varietyTask variety
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGI-ICAL STATES
Experiencedmeaningfulness
of the work
Experiencedresponsibilityfor outcomesof the work
Knowledge ofthe actual
results of thework activities
Employee growthneed strength
PERSONAL AND WORKOUTCOMES
High internalwork motivation
High-qualitywork performance
High satisfactionwith the work
Low absenteeismand turnover
Figure 4.16Job Characteristics Model
Motivating by Structuring Jobs to Make Them Interesting (cont.)
Techniques for Designing Jobs that Motivate
Combine tasks - instead of having several workers performseparate parts of a whole job, have each person performthe entire job
Open feedback channels
Establish client relationships - person performing a job comes intocontact with the recipient of that service
Load jobs vertically - give people greater responsibility for the job