1
5 DataLink Layer 5-1
Chapter 5 The Data Link LayerOur goals
understand principles behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressingreliable data transfer flow control done
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
5 DataLink Layer 5-2
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
2
5 DataLink Layer 5-3
Link Layer IntroductionSome terminology
hosts and routers are nodescommunication channels that connect adjacent nodes along communication path are links
wired linkswireless linksLANs
layer-2 packet is a frameencapsulates datagram
ldquolinkrdquo
data-link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to adjacent node over a link
5 DataLink Layer 5-4
Link layer contextDatagram transferred by different link protocols over different links
eg Ethernet on first link frame relay on intermediate links 80211 on last link
Each link protocol provides different services
eg may or may not provide rdt over link
transportation analogytrip from Princeton to Lausanne
limo Princeton to JFKplane JFK to Genevatrain Geneva to Lausanne
tourist = datagramtransport segment = communication linktransportation mode = link layer protocoltravel agent = routing algorithm
3
5 DataLink Layer 5-5
Link Layer ServicesFraming link access
encapsulate datagram into frame adding header trailerchannel access if shared mediumldquoMACrdquo addresses used in frame headers to identify source dest
bull different from IP addressReliable delivery between adjacent nodes
we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)seldom used on low bit error link (fiber some twisted pair)wireless links high error rates
bull Q why both link-level and end-end reliability
5 DataLink Layer 5-6
Link Layer Services (more)
Flow Controlpacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
Error Detectionerrors caused by signal attenuation noise receiver detects presence of errors
bull signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
Error Correctionreceiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to retransmission
Half-duplex and full-duplexwith half duplex nodes at both ends of link can transmit but not at same time
4
5 DataLink Layer 5-7
Adaptors Communicating
link layer implemented in ldquoadaptorrdquo (aka NIC)
Ethernet card PCMCI card 80211 card
sending sideencapsulates datagram in a frameadds error checking bits rdt flow control etc
receiving sidelooks for errors rdt flow control etcextracts datagram passes to rcving node
adapter is semi-autonomouslink amp physical layers
sendingnode
frame
rcvingnode
datagram
frame
adapter adapter
link layer protocol
5 DataLink Layer 5-8
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5
5 DataLink Layer 5-9
Error DetectionEDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)D = Data protected by error checking may include header fields
bull Error detection not 100 reliablebull protocol may miss some errors but rarelybull larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
5 DataLink Layer 5-10
Parity CheckingSingle Bit ParityDetect single bit errors
Two Dimensional Bit ParityDetect and correct single bit errors
0 0
6
5 DataLink Layer 5-11
Internet checksum
Sendertreat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integerschecksum addition (1rsquos complement sum) of segment contentssender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
Receivercompute checksum of received segmentcheck if computed checksum equals checksum field value
NO - error detectedYES - no error detected But maybe errors nonethelessMore later hellip
Goal detect ldquoerrorsrdquo (eg flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note used at transport layer only)
5 DataLink Layer 5-12
Checksumming Cyclic Redundancy Checkview data bits D as a binary numberchoose r+1 bit pattern (generator) Ggoal choose r CRC bits R such that
ltDRgt exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) receiver knows G divides ltDRgt by G If non-zero remainder error detectedcan detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (ATM HDCL)
7
5 DataLink Layer 5-13
CRC ExampleWant
D2r XOR R = nGequivalently
D2r = nG XOR R equivalently
if we divide D2r by G want remainder R
R = remainder[ ]D2r
G
5 DataLink Layer 5-14
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
2
5 DataLink Layer 5-3
Link Layer IntroductionSome terminology
hosts and routers are nodescommunication channels that connect adjacent nodes along communication path are links
wired linkswireless linksLANs
layer-2 packet is a frameencapsulates datagram
ldquolinkrdquo
data-link layer has responsibility of transferring datagram from one node to adjacent node over a link
5 DataLink Layer 5-4
Link layer contextDatagram transferred by different link protocols over different links
eg Ethernet on first link frame relay on intermediate links 80211 on last link
Each link protocol provides different services
eg may or may not provide rdt over link
transportation analogytrip from Princeton to Lausanne
limo Princeton to JFKplane JFK to Genevatrain Geneva to Lausanne
tourist = datagramtransport segment = communication linktransportation mode = link layer protocoltravel agent = routing algorithm
3
5 DataLink Layer 5-5
Link Layer ServicesFraming link access
encapsulate datagram into frame adding header trailerchannel access if shared mediumldquoMACrdquo addresses used in frame headers to identify source dest
bull different from IP addressReliable delivery between adjacent nodes
we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)seldom used on low bit error link (fiber some twisted pair)wireless links high error rates
bull Q why both link-level and end-end reliability
5 DataLink Layer 5-6
Link Layer Services (more)
Flow Controlpacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
Error Detectionerrors caused by signal attenuation noise receiver detects presence of errors
bull signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
Error Correctionreceiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to retransmission
Half-duplex and full-duplexwith half duplex nodes at both ends of link can transmit but not at same time
4
5 DataLink Layer 5-7
Adaptors Communicating
link layer implemented in ldquoadaptorrdquo (aka NIC)
Ethernet card PCMCI card 80211 card
sending sideencapsulates datagram in a frameadds error checking bits rdt flow control etc
receiving sidelooks for errors rdt flow control etcextracts datagram passes to rcving node
adapter is semi-autonomouslink amp physical layers
sendingnode
frame
rcvingnode
datagram
frame
adapter adapter
link layer protocol
5 DataLink Layer 5-8
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5
5 DataLink Layer 5-9
Error DetectionEDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)D = Data protected by error checking may include header fields
bull Error detection not 100 reliablebull protocol may miss some errors but rarelybull larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
5 DataLink Layer 5-10
Parity CheckingSingle Bit ParityDetect single bit errors
Two Dimensional Bit ParityDetect and correct single bit errors
0 0
6
5 DataLink Layer 5-11
Internet checksum
Sendertreat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integerschecksum addition (1rsquos complement sum) of segment contentssender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
Receivercompute checksum of received segmentcheck if computed checksum equals checksum field value
NO - error detectedYES - no error detected But maybe errors nonethelessMore later hellip
Goal detect ldquoerrorsrdquo (eg flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note used at transport layer only)
5 DataLink Layer 5-12
Checksumming Cyclic Redundancy Checkview data bits D as a binary numberchoose r+1 bit pattern (generator) Ggoal choose r CRC bits R such that
ltDRgt exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) receiver knows G divides ltDRgt by G If non-zero remainder error detectedcan detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (ATM HDCL)
7
5 DataLink Layer 5-13
CRC ExampleWant
D2r XOR R = nGequivalently
D2r = nG XOR R equivalently
if we divide D2r by G want remainder R
R = remainder[ ]D2r
G
5 DataLink Layer 5-14
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
3
5 DataLink Layer 5-5
Link Layer ServicesFraming link access
encapsulate datagram into frame adding header trailerchannel access if shared mediumldquoMACrdquo addresses used in frame headers to identify source dest
bull different from IP addressReliable delivery between adjacent nodes
we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)seldom used on low bit error link (fiber some twisted pair)wireless links high error rates
bull Q why both link-level and end-end reliability
5 DataLink Layer 5-6
Link Layer Services (more)
Flow Controlpacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
Error Detectionerrors caused by signal attenuation noise receiver detects presence of errors
bull signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
Error Correctionreceiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to retransmission
Half-duplex and full-duplexwith half duplex nodes at both ends of link can transmit but not at same time
4
5 DataLink Layer 5-7
Adaptors Communicating
link layer implemented in ldquoadaptorrdquo (aka NIC)
Ethernet card PCMCI card 80211 card
sending sideencapsulates datagram in a frameadds error checking bits rdt flow control etc
receiving sidelooks for errors rdt flow control etcextracts datagram passes to rcving node
adapter is semi-autonomouslink amp physical layers
sendingnode
frame
rcvingnode
datagram
frame
adapter adapter
link layer protocol
5 DataLink Layer 5-8
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5
5 DataLink Layer 5-9
Error DetectionEDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)D = Data protected by error checking may include header fields
bull Error detection not 100 reliablebull protocol may miss some errors but rarelybull larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
5 DataLink Layer 5-10
Parity CheckingSingle Bit ParityDetect single bit errors
Two Dimensional Bit ParityDetect and correct single bit errors
0 0
6
5 DataLink Layer 5-11
Internet checksum
Sendertreat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integerschecksum addition (1rsquos complement sum) of segment contentssender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
Receivercompute checksum of received segmentcheck if computed checksum equals checksum field value
NO - error detectedYES - no error detected But maybe errors nonethelessMore later hellip
Goal detect ldquoerrorsrdquo (eg flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note used at transport layer only)
5 DataLink Layer 5-12
Checksumming Cyclic Redundancy Checkview data bits D as a binary numberchoose r+1 bit pattern (generator) Ggoal choose r CRC bits R such that
ltDRgt exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) receiver knows G divides ltDRgt by G If non-zero remainder error detectedcan detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (ATM HDCL)
7
5 DataLink Layer 5-13
CRC ExampleWant
D2r XOR R = nGequivalently
D2r = nG XOR R equivalently
if we divide D2r by G want remainder R
R = remainder[ ]D2r
G
5 DataLink Layer 5-14
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
4
5 DataLink Layer 5-7
Adaptors Communicating
link layer implemented in ldquoadaptorrdquo (aka NIC)
Ethernet card PCMCI card 80211 card
sending sideencapsulates datagram in a frameadds error checking bits rdt flow control etc
receiving sidelooks for errors rdt flow control etcextracts datagram passes to rcving node
adapter is semi-autonomouslink amp physical layers
sendingnode
frame
rcvingnode
datagram
frame
adapter adapter
link layer protocol
5 DataLink Layer 5-8
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5
5 DataLink Layer 5-9
Error DetectionEDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)D = Data protected by error checking may include header fields
bull Error detection not 100 reliablebull protocol may miss some errors but rarelybull larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
5 DataLink Layer 5-10
Parity CheckingSingle Bit ParityDetect single bit errors
Two Dimensional Bit ParityDetect and correct single bit errors
0 0
6
5 DataLink Layer 5-11
Internet checksum
Sendertreat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integerschecksum addition (1rsquos complement sum) of segment contentssender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
Receivercompute checksum of received segmentcheck if computed checksum equals checksum field value
NO - error detectedYES - no error detected But maybe errors nonethelessMore later hellip
Goal detect ldquoerrorsrdquo (eg flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note used at transport layer only)
5 DataLink Layer 5-12
Checksumming Cyclic Redundancy Checkview data bits D as a binary numberchoose r+1 bit pattern (generator) Ggoal choose r CRC bits R such that
ltDRgt exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) receiver knows G divides ltDRgt by G If non-zero remainder error detectedcan detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (ATM HDCL)
7
5 DataLink Layer 5-13
CRC ExampleWant
D2r XOR R = nGequivalently
D2r = nG XOR R equivalently
if we divide D2r by G want remainder R
R = remainder[ ]D2r
G
5 DataLink Layer 5-14
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
5
5 DataLink Layer 5-9
Error DetectionEDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)D = Data protected by error checking may include header fields
bull Error detection not 100 reliablebull protocol may miss some errors but rarelybull larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
5 DataLink Layer 5-10
Parity CheckingSingle Bit ParityDetect single bit errors
Two Dimensional Bit ParityDetect and correct single bit errors
0 0
6
5 DataLink Layer 5-11
Internet checksum
Sendertreat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integerschecksum addition (1rsquos complement sum) of segment contentssender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
Receivercompute checksum of received segmentcheck if computed checksum equals checksum field value
NO - error detectedYES - no error detected But maybe errors nonethelessMore later hellip
Goal detect ldquoerrorsrdquo (eg flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note used at transport layer only)
5 DataLink Layer 5-12
Checksumming Cyclic Redundancy Checkview data bits D as a binary numberchoose r+1 bit pattern (generator) Ggoal choose r CRC bits R such that
ltDRgt exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) receiver knows G divides ltDRgt by G If non-zero remainder error detectedcan detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (ATM HDCL)
7
5 DataLink Layer 5-13
CRC ExampleWant
D2r XOR R = nGequivalently
D2r = nG XOR R equivalently
if we divide D2r by G want remainder R
R = remainder[ ]D2r
G
5 DataLink Layer 5-14
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
6
5 DataLink Layer 5-11
Internet checksum
Sendertreat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integerschecksum addition (1rsquos complement sum) of segment contentssender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
Receivercompute checksum of received segmentcheck if computed checksum equals checksum field value
NO - error detectedYES - no error detected But maybe errors nonethelessMore later hellip
Goal detect ldquoerrorsrdquo (eg flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note used at transport layer only)
5 DataLink Layer 5-12
Checksumming Cyclic Redundancy Checkview data bits D as a binary numberchoose r+1 bit pattern (generator) Ggoal choose r CRC bits R such that
ltDRgt exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) receiver knows G divides ltDRgt by G If non-zero remainder error detectedcan detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (ATM HDCL)
7
5 DataLink Layer 5-13
CRC ExampleWant
D2r XOR R = nGequivalently
D2r = nG XOR R equivalently
if we divide D2r by G want remainder R
R = remainder[ ]D2r
G
5 DataLink Layer 5-14
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
7
5 DataLink Layer 5-13
CRC ExampleWant
D2r XOR R = nGequivalently
D2r = nG XOR R equivalently
if we divide D2r by G want remainder R
R = remainder[ ]D2r
G
5 DataLink Layer 5-14
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
8
5 DataLink Layer 5-15
Multiple Access Links and ProtocolsTwo types of ldquolinksrdquo
point-to-pointPPP for dial-up accesspoint-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)traditional Ethernetupstream HFC80211 wireless LAN
5 DataLink Layer 5-16
Multiple Access protocolssingle shared broadcast channel two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same timemultiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel ie determine when node can transmitcommunication about channel sharing must use channel itself
no out-of-band channel for coordination
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
9
5 DataLink Layer 5-17
Ideal Mulitple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps1 When one node wants to transmit it can send at
rate R2 When M nodes want to transmit each can send at
average rate RM3 Fully decentralized
no special node to coordinate transmissionsno synchronization of clocks slots
4 Simple
5 DataLink Layer 5-18
MAC Protocols a taxonomyThree broad classes
Channel Partitioningdivide channel into smaller ldquopiecesrdquo (time slots frequency code)allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Accesschannel not divided allow collisionsldquorecoverrdquo from collisions
ldquoTaking turnsrdquoNodes take turns but nodes with more to send can take longer turns
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
10
5 DataLink Layer 5-19
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols TDMA
TDMA time division multiple accessaccess to channel in rounds each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in each round unused slots go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt slots 256 idle
5 DataLink Layer 5-20
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols FDMA
FDMA frequency division multiple accesschannel spectrum divided into frequency bandseach station assigned fixed frequency bandunused transmission time in frequency bands go idle example 6-station LAN 134 have pkt frequency bands 256 idle
freq
uenc
y ba
nds
time
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
11
5 DataLink Layer 5-21
Random Access Protocols
When node has packet to sendtransmit at full channel data rate Rno a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes ldquocollisionrdquorandom access MAC protocol specifies
how to detect collisionshow to recover from collisions (eg via delayed retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocolsslotted ALOHAALOHACSMA CSMACD CSMACA
5 DataLink Layer 5-22
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptionsall frames same sizetime is divided into equal size slots time to transmit 1 framenodes start to transmit frames only at beginning of slotsnodes are synchronizedif 2 or more nodes transmit in slot all nodes detect collision
Operationwhen node obtains fresh frame it transmits in next slotno collision node can send new frame in next slotif collision node retransmits frame in each subsequent slot with prob p until success
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
12
5 DataLink Layer 5-23
Slotted ALOHA
Prossingle active node can continuously transmit at full rate of channelhighly decentralized only slots in nodes need to be in syncsimple
Conscollisions wasting slotsidle slotsnodes may be able to detect collision in less than time to transmit packetclock synchronization
5 DataLink Layer 5-24
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Suppose N nodes with many frames to send each transmits in slot with probability pprob that node 1 has success in a slot= p(1-p)N-1
prob that any node has a success = Np(1-p)N-1
For max efficiency with N nodes find p that maximizes Np(1-p)N-1
For many nodes take limit of Np(1-p)N-1
as N goes to infinity gives 1e = 37
Efficiency is the long-run fraction of successful slots when there are many nodes each with many frames to send
At best channelused for useful transmissions 37of time
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
13
5 DataLink Layer 5-25
Pure (unslotted) ALOHAunslotted Aloha simpler no synchronizationwhen frame first arrives
transmit immediately collision probability increases
frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1t0+1]
5 DataLink Layer 5-26
Pure Aloha efficiencyP(success by given node) = P(node transmits)
P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0] P(no other node transmits in [p0-1p0]
= p (1-p)N-1 (1-p)N-1
= p (1-p)2(N-1)
hellip choosing optimum p and then letting n -gt infty
= 1(2e) = 18 Even worse
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
14
5 DataLink Layer 5-27
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA listen before transmitIf channel sensed idle transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy defer transmission
Human analogy donrsquot interrupt others
5 DataLink Layer 5-28
CSMA collisionscollisions can still occurpropagation delay means two nodes may not heareach otherrsquos transmission
collisionentire packet transmission time wasted
spatial layout of nodes
noterole of distance amp propagation delay in determining collision probability
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
15
5 DataLink Layer 5-29
CSMACD (Collision Detection)CSMACD carrier sensing deferral as in CSMA
collisions detected within short timecolliding transmissions aborted reducing channel wastage
collision detectioneasy in wired LANs measure signal strengths compare transmitted received signalsdifficult in wireless LANs receiver shut off while transmitting
human analogy the polite conversationalist
5 DataLink Layer 5-30
CSMACD collision detection
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
16
5 DataLink Layer 5-31
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocolsshare channel efficiently and fairly at high loadinefficient at low load delay in channel access 1N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node
Random access MAC protocolsefficient at low load single node can fully utilize channelhigh load collision overhead
ldquotaking turnsrdquo protocolslook for best of both worlds
5 DataLink Layer 5-32
ldquoTaking Turnsrdquo MAC protocolsPolling
master node ldquoinvitesrdquo slave nodes to transmit in turnconcerns
polling overhead latencysingle point of failure (master)
Token passingcontrol token passed from one node to next sequentiallytoken messageconcerns
token overhead latencysingle point of failure (token)
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
17
5 DataLink Layer 5-33
Summary of MAC protocols
What do you do with a shared mediaChannel Partitioning by time frequency or code
bull Time Division Frequency DivisionRandom partitioning (dynamic)
bull ALOHA S-ALOHA CSMA CSMACDbull carrier sensing easy in some technologies (wire) hard
in others (wireless)bull CSMACD used in Ethernetbull CSMACA used in 80211
Taking Turnsbull polling from a central site token passing
5 DataLink Layer 5-34
LAN technologiesData link layer so far
services error detectioncorrection multiple access
Next LAN technologiesaddressingEthernethubs switchesPPP
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
18
5 DataLink Layer 5-35
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-36
MAC Addresses and ARP
32-bit IP address network-layer addressused to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address
used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface (same network)48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
19
5 DataLink Layer 5-37
LAN Addresses and ARPEach adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
Broadcast address =FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
= adapter
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN(wired orwireless)
5 DataLink Layer 5-38
LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEEmanufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness)Analogy
(a) MAC address like Social Security Number(b) IP address like postal address
MAC flat address portability can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portabledepends on IP subnet to which node is attached
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
20
5 DataLink Layer 5-39
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
Each IP node (Host Router) on LAN has ARP tableARP Table IPMAC address mappings for some LAN nodes
lt IP address MAC address TTLgtTTL (Time To Live) time after which address mapping will be forgotten (typically 20 min)
Question how to determineMAC address of Bknowing Brsquos IP address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
LAN
237196723
237196778
237196714
237196788
5 DataLink Layer 5-40
ARP protocol Same LAN (network)
A wants to send datagram to B and Brsquos MAC address not in Arsquos ARP tableA broadcasts ARP query packet containing Bs IP address
Dest MAC address = FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FFall machines on LAN receive ARP query
B receives ARP packet replies to A with its (Bs) MAC address
frame sent to Arsquos MAC address (unicast)
A caches (saves) IP-to-MAC address pair in its ARP table until information becomes old (times out)
soft state information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed
ARP is ldquoplug-and-playrdquonodes create their ARP tables without intervention from net administrator
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
21
5 DataLink Layer 5-41
Routing to another LANwalkthrough send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knowrsquos B IP address
Two ARP tables in router R one for each IP network (LAN)
A
RB
5 DataLink Layer 5-42
A creates datagram with source A destination B A uses ARP to get Rrsquos MAC address for 111111111110A creates link-layer frame with Rs MAC address as dest frame contains A-to-B IP datagramArsquos adapter sends frame Rrsquos adapter receives frame R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame sees its destined to BR uses ARP to get Brsquos MAC address R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
A
RB
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
22
5 DataLink Layer 5-43
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-44
Ethernetldquodominantrdquo wired LAN technology
cheap $20 for 100Mbsfirst widely used LAN technologySimpler cheaper than token LANs and ATMKept up with speed race 10 Mbps ndash 10 Gbps
Metcalfersquos Ethernetsketch
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
23
5 DataLink Layer 5-45
Star topologyBus topology popular through mid 90sNow star topology prevailsConnection choices hub or switch (more later)
hub orswitch
5 DataLink Layer 5-46
Ethernet Frame StructureSending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern 10101011used to synchronize receiver sender clock rates
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
24
5 DataLink Layer 5-47
Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Addresses 6 bytesif adapter receives frame with matching destination address or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet) it passes data in frame to net-layer protocolotherwise adapter discards frame
Type indicates the higher layer protocol (mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)CRC checked at receiver if error is detected the frame is simply dropped
5 DataLink Layer 5-48
Unreliable connectionless service
Connectionless No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter Unreliable receiving adapter doesnrsquot send acks or nacks to sending adapter
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gapsgaps will be filled if app is using TCPotherwise app will see the gaps
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
25
5 DataLink Layer 5-49
Ethernet uses CSMACD
No slotsadapter doesnrsquot transmit if it senses that some other adapter is transmitting that is carrier sensetransmitting adapter aborts when it senses that another adapter is transmitting that is collision detection
Before attempting a retransmission adapter waits a random time that is random access
5 DataLink Layer 5-50
Ethernet CSMACD algorithm1 Adaptor receives
datagram from net layer amp creates frame
2 If adapter senses channel idle it starts to transmit frame If it senses channel busy waits until channel idle and then transmits
3 If adapter transmits entire frame without detecting another transmission the adapter is done with frame
4 If adapter detects another transmission while transmitting aborts and sends jam signal
5 After aborting adapter enters exponential backoff after the mthcollision adapter chooses a K at random from 012hellip2m-1 Adapter waits K512 bit times and returns to Step 2
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
26
5 DataLink Layer 5-51
Ethernetrsquos CSMACD (more)Jam Signal make sure all
other transmitters are aware of collision 48 bits
Bit time 1 microsec for 10 Mbps Ethernet for K=1023 wait time is about 50 msec
Exponential BackoffGoal adapt retransmission attempts to estimated current load
heavy load random wait will be longer
first collision choose K from 01 delay is K 512 bit transmission timesafter second collision choose K from 0123hellipafter ten collisions choose K from 01234hellip1023
Seeinteract with Javaapplet on AWL Web sitehighly recommended
5 DataLink Layer 5-52
CSMACD efficiency
Tprop = max prop between 2 nodes in LANttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
Efficiency goes to 1 as tprop goes to 0Goes to 1 as ttrans goes to infinityMuch better than ALOHA but still decentralized simple and cheap
transprop tt 511efficiency
+=
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
27
5 DataLink Layer 5-53
10BaseT and 100BaseT10100 Mbps rate latter called ldquofast ethernetrdquoT stands for Twisted PairNodes connect to a hub ldquostar topologyrdquo 100 m max distance between nodes and hub
twisted pair
hub
5 DataLink Layer 5-54
HubsHubs are essentially physical-layer repeaters
bits coming from one link go out all other linksat the same rateno frame bufferingno CSMACD at hub adapters detect collisionsprovides net management functionality
twisted pair
hub
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
28
5 DataLink Layer 5-55
Manchester encoding
Used in 10BaseTEach bit has a transitionAllows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized global clock among nodesHey this is physical-layer stuff
5 DataLink Layer 5-56
Gbit Ethernet
uses standard Ethernet frame formatallows for point-to-point links and shared broadcast channelsin shared mode CSMACD is used short distances between nodes required for efficiencyuses hubs called here ldquoBuffered DistributorsrdquoFull-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links10 Gbps now
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
29
5 DataLink Layer 5-57
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Interconnections Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-58
Interconnecting with hubsBackbone hub interconnects LAN segmentsExtends max distance between nodesBut individual segment collision domains become one large collision domainCanrsquot interconnect 10BaseT amp 100BaseT
hub hub hub
hub
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
30
5 DataLink Layer 5-59
SwitchLink layer device
stores and forwards Ethernet framesexamines frame header and selectivelyforwards frame based on MAC dest addresswhen frame is to be forwarded on segment uses CSMACD to access segment
transparenthosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play self-learningswitches do not need to be configured
5 DataLink Layer 5-60
Forwarding
bull How do determine onto which LAN segment to forward framebull Looks like a routing problem
hub hubhub
switch1
2 3
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
31
5 DataLink Layer 5-61
Self learning
A switch has a switch tableentry in switch table
(MAC Address Interface Time Stamp)stale entries in table dropped (TTL can be 60 min)
switch learns which hosts can be reached through which interfaces
when frame received switch ldquolearnsrdquo location of sender incoming LAN segmentrecords senderlocation pair in switch table
5 DataLink Layer 5-62
FilteringForwardingWhen switch receives a frame
index switch table using MAC dest addressif entry found for destination
thenif dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frameelse forward the frame on interface indicated
else flood
forward on all but the interface on which the frame arrived
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
32
5 DataLink Layer 5-63
Switch exampleSuppose C sends frame to D
Switch receives frame from from Cnotes in bridge table that C is on interface 1because D is not in table switch forwards frame into interfaces 2 and 3
frame received by D
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEG
1123
12 3
5 DataLink Layer 5-64
Switch exampleSuppose D replies back with frame to C
Switch receives frame from from Dnotes in bridge table that D is on interface 2because C is in table switch forwards frame only to interface 1
frame received by C
hub hub hub
switch
A
B CD
EF G H
I
address interfaceABEGC
11231
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
33
5 DataLink Layer 5-65
Switch traffic isolationswitch installation breaks subnet into LAN segmentsswitch filters packets
same-LAN-segment frames not usually forwarded onto other LAN segmentssegments become separate collision domains
hub hub hub
switch
collision domain collision domain
collision domain
5 DataLink Layer 5-66
Switches dedicated accessSwitch with many interfacesHosts have direct connection to switchNo collisions full duplex
Switching A-to-Arsquo and B-to-Brsquo simultaneously no collisions
switch
A
Arsquo
B
Brsquo
C
Crsquo
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
34
5 DataLink Layer 5-67
More on Switches
cut-through switching frame forwarded from input to output port without first collecting entire frame
slight reduction in latencycombinations of shareddedicated 101001000 Mbps interfaces
5 DataLink Layer 5-68
Institutional network
hub hubhub
switch
to externalnetwork
router
IP subnet
mail server
web server
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
35
5 DataLink Layer 5-69
Switches vs Routersboth store-and-forward devices
routers network layer devices (examine network layer headers)switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables implement routing algorithmsswitches maintain switch tables implement filtering learning algorithms
5 DataLink Layer 5-70
Summary comparison
hubs routers switches
traffic isolation
no yes yes
plug amp play yes no yes
optimal routing
no yes no
cut through
yes no yes
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
36
5 DataLink Layer 5-71
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM
5 DataLink Layer 5-72
Point to Point Data Link Controlone sender one receiver one link easier than broadcast link
no Media Access Controlno need for explicit MAC addressingeg dialup link ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocolsPPP (point-to-point protocol)HDLC High level data link control (Data link used to be considered ldquohigh layerrdquo in protocol stack
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
37
5 DataLink Layer 5-73
PPP Design Requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing encapsulation of network-layer datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer protocol (not just IP) at same timeability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency must carry any bit pattern in the data fielderror detection (no correction)connection liveness detect signal link failure to network layernetwork layer address negotiation endpoint can learnconfigure each otherrsquos network address
5 DataLink Layer 5-74
PPP non-requirements
no error correctionrecoveryno flow controlout of order delivery OK no need to support multipoint links (eg polling)
Error recovery flow control data re-ordering all relegated to higher layers
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
38
5 DataLink Layer 5-75
PPP Data Frame
Flag delimiter (framing)Address does nothing (only one option)Control does nothing in the future possible multiple control fieldsProtocol upper layer protocol to which frame delivered (eg PPP-LCP IP IPCP etc)
5 DataLink Layer 5-76
PPP Data Frame
info upper layer data being carriedcheck cyclic redundancy check for error detection
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
39
5 DataLink Layer 5-77
Byte Stuffingldquodata transparencyrdquo requirement data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern lt01111110gtQ is received lt01111110gt data or flag
Sender adds (ldquostuffsrdquo) extra lt 01111110gt byte after each lt 01111110gt data byteReceiver
two 01111110 bytes in a row discard first byte continue data receptionsingle 01111110 flag byte
5 DataLink Layer 5-78
Byte Stuffing
flag bytepatternin datato send
flag byte pattern plusstuffed byte in transmitted data
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
40
5 DataLink Layer 5-79
PPP Data Control ProtocolBefore exchanging network-
layer data data link peers mustconfigure PPP link (max frame length authentication)learnconfigure networklayer information
for IP carry IP Control Protocol (IPCP) msgs (protocol field 8021) to configurelearn IP address
5 DataLink Layer 5-80
Link Layer
51 Introduction and services52 Error detection and correction 53Multiple access protocols54 Link-Layer Addressing55 Ethernet
56 Hubs and switches57 PPP58 Link Virtualization ATM and MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
41
5 DataLink Layer 5-81
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources a powerful abstraction in systems engineeringcomputing examples virtual memory virtual devices
Virtual machines eg javaIBM VM os from 1960rsquos70rsquos
layering of abstractions donrsquot sweat the details of the lower layer only deal with lower layers abstractly
5 DataLink Layer 5-82
The Internet virtualizing networks
1974 multiple unconnected nets
ARPAnetdata-over-cable networkspacket satellite network (Aloha)packet radio network
hellip differing inaddressing conventionspacket formatserror recoveryrouting
ARPAnet satellite netA Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication V Cerf R Kahn IEEE Transactions on CommunicationsMay 1974 pp 637-648
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
42
5 DataLink Layer 5-83
The Internet virtualizing networks
ARPAnet satellite net
gateway
Internetwork layer (IP) addressing internetwork appears as a single uniform entity despite underlying local network heterogeneitynetwork of networks
Gateway ldquoembed internetwork packets in local packet format or extract themrdquoroute (at internetwork level) to next gateway
5 DataLink Layer 5-84
Cerf amp Kahnrsquos Internetwork Architecture
What is virtualizedtwo layers of addressing internetwork and local networknew layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at internetwork layerunderlying local network technology
cablesatellite56K telephone modemtoday ATM MPLS
hellip ldquoinvisiblerdquo at internetwork layer Looks like a link layer technology to IP
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
43
5 DataLink Layer 5-85
ATM and MPLS
ATM MPLS separate networks in their own right
different service models addressing routing from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate network (telephone network)
ATM MPSL of technical interest in their own right
5 DataLink Layer 5-86
Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM1990rsquos00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to 622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated Service Digital Network architectureGoal integrated end-end transport of carry voice video data
meeting timingQoS requirements of voice video (versus Internet best-effort model)ldquonext generationrdquo telephony technical roots in telephone worldpacket-switching (fixed length packets called ldquocellsrdquo) using virtual circuits
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
44
5 DataLink Layer 5-87
ATM architecture
adaptation layer only at edge of ATM networkdata segmentationreassemblyroughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer ldquonetworkrdquo layercell switching routing
physical layer
5 DataLink Layer 5-88
ATM network or link layerVision end-to-end
transport ldquoATM from desktop to desktoprdquo
ATM is a network technology
Reality used to connect IP backbone routers
ldquoIP over ATMrdquoATM as switched link layer connecting IP routers
ATMnetwork
IPnetwork
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
45
5 DataLink Layer 5-89
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) ldquoadaptsrdquo upper layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM layer belowAAL present only in end systems not in switchesAAL layer segment (headertrailer fields data) fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy TCP segment in many IP packets
5 DataLink Layer 5-90
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) [more]
Different versions of AAL layers depending on ATM service classAAL1 for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services eg circuit emulationAAL2 for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services eg MPEG videoAAL5 for data (eg IP datagrams)
AAL PDU
ATM cell
User data
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
46
5 DataLink Layer 5-91
ATM LayerService transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layervery different services than IP network layer
NetworkArchitecture
Internet
ATM
ATM
ATM
ATM
ServiceModel
best effort
CBR
VBR
ABR
UBR
Bandwidth
none
constantrateguaranteedrateguaranteed minimumnone
Loss
no
yes
yes
no
no
Order
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
Timing
no
yes
yes
no
no
Congestionfeedback
no (inferredvia loss)nocongestionnocongestionyes
no
Guarantees
5 DataLink Layer 5-92
ATM Layer Virtual CircuitsVC transport cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup teardown for each call before data can floweach packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)every switch on source-dest path maintain ldquostaterdquo for each passing connectionlinkswitch resources (bandwidth buffers) may be allocated to VC to get circuit-like perf
Permanent VCs (PVCs)long lasting connectionstypically ldquopermanentrdquo route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC)dynamically set up on per-call basis
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
47
5 DataLink Layer 5-93
ATM VCsAdvantages of ATM VC approach
QoS performance guarantee for connection mapped to VC (bandwidth delay delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approachInefficient support of datagram trafficone PVC between each sourcedest pair) does not scale (N2 connections needed) SVC introduces call setup latency processing overhead for short lived connections
5 DataLink Layer 5-94
ATM Layer ATM cell5-byte ATM cell header48-byte payload
Why small payload -gt short cell-creation delay for digitized voicehalfway between 32 and 64 (compromise)
Cell header
Cell format
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
48
5 DataLink Layer 5-95
ATM cell headerVCI virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru netPT Payload type (eg RM cell versus data cell) CLP Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell can be discarded if congestion
HEC Header Error Checksumcyclic redundancy check
5 DataLink Layer 5-96
ATM Physical Layer (more)
Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layerTransmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS) adapts ATM layer above to PMD sublayer belowPhysical Medium Dependent depends on physical medium being used
TCS FunctionsHeader checksum generation 8 bits CRC Cell delineationWith ldquounstructuredrdquo PMD sublayer transmission of idle cells when no data cells to send
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
49
5 DataLink Layer 5-97
ATM Physical Layer
Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayerSONETSDH transmission frame structure (like a container carrying bits)
bit synchronization bandwidth partitions (TDM) several speeds OC3 = 15552 Mbps OC12 = 62208 Mbps OC48 = 245 Gbps OC192 = 96 Gbps
TIT3 transmission frame structure (old telephone hierarchy) 15 Mbps 45 Mbpsunstructured just cells (busyidle)
5 DataLink Layer 5-98
IP-Over-ATMClassic IP only
3 ldquonetworksrdquo (eg LAN segments)MAC (8023) and IP addresses
IP over ATMreplace ldquonetworkrdquo (eg LAN segment) with ATM networkATM addresses IP addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
EthernetLANs
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
50
5 DataLink Layer 5-99
IP-Over-ATM
AALATMphyphy
EthIP
ATMphy
ATMphy
apptransport
IPAALATMphy
apptransport
IPEthphy
5 DataLink Layer 5-100
Datagram Journey in IP-over-ATM Network
at Source HostIP layer maps between IP ATM dest address (using ARP)passes datagram to AAL5AAL5 encapsulates data segments cells passes to ATM layer
ATM network moves cell along VC to destinationat Destination Host
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagramif CRC OK datagram is passed to IP
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
51
5 DataLink Layer 5-101
IP-Over-ATM
IssuesIP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUsfrom IP addresses to ATM addresses
just like IP addresses to 8023 MAC addresses
ATMnetwork
EthernetLANs
5 DataLink Layer 5-102
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal speed up IP forwarding by using fixed length label (instead of IP address) to do forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approachbut IP datagram still keeps IP address
PPP or Ethernet header
IP header remainder of link-layer frameMPLS header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
52
5 DataLink Layer 5-103
MPLS capable routers
aka label-switched routerforwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value (donrsquot inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwardingRSVP-TEforwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow (eg source-specific routing) use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
5 DataLink Layer 5-104
R1R2
DR3R4
R50
100
A
R6
in out outlabel label dest interface
6 - A 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 6 A 112 9 D 0
in out outlabel label dest interface
10 A 012 D 0
1
in out outlabel label dest interface
8 6 A 0
0
8 A 1
MPLS forwarding tables
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
53
5 DataLink Layer 5-105
Chapter 5 Summaryprinciples behind data link layer services
error detection correctionsharing a broadcast channel multiple accesslink layer addressing
instantiation and implementation of various link layer technologies
Ethernetswitched LANSPPPvirtualized networks as a link layer ATM MPLS
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