CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Problem
Food is one of the basic necessities of human being along with
air and water. Population as a paradigm plays a decisive role in the
human endeavour to attain food. Availability and accessibility to food
circumscribe the quality of human population. On the other hand,
population growth accounts for the food requirements. Ensured
access to food still eludes poverty striken people of the developing
world. More than 800 million people throughout the world do not have
enough food to meet their basic requirements. l And most of them live
in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where the high popUlation
growth is also causing environmental degradation. This compounds
the problem further since most of these countries are agrarian
economies. It leads to the prime question whether the expansion of
food production can keep pace with population growth in the
degrading natural environment?
In the recent years, the answer is in the affirmative. At the
global level and to a certain extent, at the regional levels also increase
in food production has been satisfying. Then, the most significant
question is whether every individual is in a position to buy the
required food? Here, arises an important aspect of food insecurity.
This would reflect the quality of life of the people.
Rome Declaration on World Food Security, Population and Development Review, Vol. 22, no. 4, December, 1996, p. 808.
Basically, throughout the world and especially in the South
Asian countries, population growth has been regarded as vital
parameters in the process of development. This region, despite coping
with the food production, continue to suffer from food insecurity and
nutritional gap. A country like Bangladesh, which is yet to achieve the
level of self-sufficiency in good production, is facing two kinds of basic
problems. First, the availability and accessibility to food and second,
the fluctuation in food production. These problems are further
aggravated by in-built population momentum, poverty and
environmental degradation.
Despite sigp.ificant economic and social progress over the past
20 years, Bangladesh remains among the poorest countries in the
world.2 According to the Human Development Report 1999,3 it is
ranked 150 among the nations of the world with its external debt
covering 35.1percnet of its GNP. Its daily per capita supply has rather
declined since 1970. It was 2177 calorie in 1970 and 2105 calorie in
1996. 46 percent of its population lives below poverty line.4
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the
world, suppor~ng 800 people per square kilometre. At the current
2 FAa, The State of Food and Agriculture, Rome, 1998, p. 128.
3 UNDP, Human Development Report, Oxford, 1999, p.195 and p. 213.
4 Human Development in South Asia, Oxford, 1998, pp. 177-178.
2
rate of population growth (2.2 percent), it is estimated that the total
population could reach 175 million within 25 years from now. 5
Incidence of poverty, environmental degradation and high
population growth are affecting the developmental efforts. Natural
resources are depleting and the available resources are unable to
meet the growing demand. The prevalence of poverty mainly stems
from over population and limited resources. More than 62 percent of
the population is illiterate. Infant mortality rates are still high, 83.846
per cent of children under the age of five are still considered
malnourished.
Depletion of natural resources and its impact on food insecurity
IS tremendous. High density of population has depleted forests,
affected fisheries and land. It seems to be closely interlinked with soil
erosion and loss of soil fertility. To meet the growing demand for food,
the pressure on the system is maximum.
Frequent natural calamities further compound and magnify the
grief of this country. Floods and droughts are common phenomena in
Bangladesh. Some parts of the country are affected by natural
calamities almost every year. Floods and drought cause fluctuations
in food availability, employment and prices. Abnormal increase in
5 FAO (1998), op. cit., f.n.2
6 op. cit., f.n. 4
3
foodgrain prices and non-availability of jobs affects the food
entitlement of the poor and thereby creates food security problems.7
These devastating floods are adding to the woe of the
Bangladesh people. The flood of 1998 affected even the
macroeconomic performance in 1999. Devastating floods swept the
country from July to September 1998. The continuous and heavy
monsoon rains along with a tidal surge in the Bay of Bengal caused
flooding in 51 of Bangladesh's 64 districts. 8 These floods make people
vulnerable and also degrade the environment. There seems to be no
respite from these natural calamities. The country has been
vulnerable to sudden floods, cyclones and even drought. Vulnerability
to natural disasters and economic vulnerability of its people make the
situation worst. Despite all these, the country is trying to increase its
food production.
Statistically, the food production in Bangladesh has increased
manifold. For many years, Bangladesh heavily depended on food aid,
but recently it has emerged as a country approaching self-sufficiency
in rice, the main staple food of its population.9 In the South Asian
7 Mahbub Hossain, (1990) "Natural Calamities, Instability in Production and Food Policy in Bangladesh", in The Bangladesh Development Studies, Dakha, vol. 18, no. 4, p. 33.
8 Asian Development outlook (1999) by Asian Development Bank, Oxford, New York, p. 125.
9 Francesco Goletti IEPRI Research Report 98 The Changing Public Role in a Rice Economy Approaching self-sufficiency: The Case of Bangladesh. 1994.
4
region, the concern over the high rate of growth of population cannot
be ignored and this has compelled policy makers to recognize the
importance of demographic variables in development planning
exercise. As for as developmental planning is concerned, in
Bangladesh 'Poverty' is supposedly a stumbling block. Due to poverty
and malnutrition millions of women and children suffer from several
kinds of diseases. All these problems point towards the entire food
and nutritional security systems.
Is rapid population growth in all the countries of the South
Asian region the root cause of food insecurity and· malnutrition? In
other words, do the population food imbalances exist? If the answer is
yes, then, to cover up these imbalances, countries,like Bangladesh
have to depend on 'food aid'. But the credibility and utility of food aid
come under cloud. Several other questions come up. Whether food aid
is justified at all? Does food aid play any significant role in relieving
hunger and malnutrition? Is not its main purpose more political than
social or nutritional?
Given these conditions what kind of politics of food is involved
in a country like Bangladesh its implications need to eXanlined. The
role of international agencies, NGOs and MNCs comes under close
scrutiny. The role of international agencies vis-a.-vis international
trade may have direct or indirect impact on food and nutritional
security system. Dealing with the problem of food security vis-a.-vis
population dynanlics, the dimensions of poverty and hunger would
5
need a detailed analysis. Penetrating deeper into the problem of
exposing the population and food security nexus, one would obviously
feel that malnutrition is fundamentally a manifestation of
underdevelopment, poverty and inadequate food supply. With rapid
population growth and growing poverty and unemployment, the
extent of malnutrition has got further aggravated in this country. The
geographical analysis of this problem is the need of the hour giving
emphasis on food supply, population growth, environmental
constraints and politics.
1.2 Conceptual Framework:
Population growth and food insecurity in their varied
dimensions are closely interlinked since the beginning of the
civilization, thought it has been acquiring distinct elements from time
to time. But it never lost its significance. despite technological
advancements. And, that is why it attracted various scholars to
approach these problems from various angles. These approaches
explain the problems and causes behind food insecurity.
Although, the fears of Malthus lO (1798) has been kept at bay till
date, still, his basic concept of the growing gap between food
production and requirements is still taken into account. For a given
set of human population which is growing fast, it is a real challenge to
meet its requirements, given the agrarian characteristics of the
10 T.R. Malthus 1798), An Essay on the Principle of Population, London, Dent, 1973.
6
economy. So, availability of food forms the basis {or the food crisis
research.
There is another approach, which advocates the inaccessibility
to food as the prime reason behind hunger and food insecurity. This
approach, also known as 'food entitlement', is led by the Nobel
laureate Prof. Amartya Sen. II The Basic consideration of this
approach is that the population is losing entitlement to food due to
bad crop, high price, etc, and has lost the purchasing power which is
necessary to buy food. Therefore, this approach also takes care of food
production and structural poverty. Even this approach does not take
cognizance of several other aspects, which are explained below.
Crisis and conflict approach deals with 'structural crisis'. Watts
(1989) suggested the food crisis against the backdrop of development
of the global economic system, where, the rural areas of the
developing world bear the global policies. If we view this approach
along with the World System Approach of Wallerstien, it will clearly
reflect the concept of development interests of major power vis-d.-vis
food insecurity.
Modern social science has many stage models of development.
All assume that the new states of the post World War II era as well as
"can follow a path of development essentially the same as that by
11 A.K. Sen (1981), Poverty and Famines, An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation.
7
current 'advanced' states".12 Here, "Wallerstein's basic point is that
states and countries are inappropriate units for studying change.
They are not self-contained systems developing separately from one
another but are all parts of a larger whole"13 Therefore, it becomes
essential to study the problem of food insecurity in any developing
country within an integrated approach comprising the above
mentioned approaches. And this integrated approach has been shown
with the help of a model (Figure 1).
This integrated approach takes into account the question of
availability, accessibility, development and involvement of politics.
As we approach the much-awaited twenty-first century, hunger
and malnutrition remain the most devastating problems facing the
world's poor, and improving food security in the developing countries
is a widely debated issue. In the large number of low-income
countries, in transition from planned to market oriented economy,
food policies may be especially at risk.. Which is due to their narrow
set of administrative-intensive instruments for food security rather
than employing a comprehensive portfolio of policies.
12
13
Peter J. Taylor, (1985) Political Geography: World Economy, Nation-State and Locality, Longman; London, p. 6.
ibid.
8
FIGUREl.l Conceptual Framework For Food Insecurity Research
POWERFUL DEVELOPED ECONOMY
FOOD AID
Given due
Moral Obligation Geo-economic Interest Geo-political Interest
WORLD SYSTEM
Emergency Help Temporary Devt. Help Like FFWetc
9
ENTITLEMENT DECLThffi GRO~G WEAK
AGRARIAN ECONOMY
Result
Poverty & Hunger Chronic &Transitory Insecurity Malnutrition& Undernutrition
FOOD GAP
High population Growth High Density of Population Environmental Constraints Fluctuating Production
Hunger and undernutrition continue to be serious problems for many
people in many countries. Persistent hunger is a condition brought
about by not having enough to eat. Undernutrition results from
insufficient intake of specific nutrients in a diet and mayor may not
co-exist with hunger. However, both are closely related to poverty.
Sufficient food is a basic human right.
The concept of food self-sufficiency and food-security is related
to the existing population. Food security is defined, in its most basic
form, as 'access by all people at all times to the food required for a
healthy life.' The food security concept addresses people's risks of not
having access to the needed food. Food production, availability and
access to food are three essential determinants of food security.
Food ·.production is a major determinant in the developing
nations of South and East Asia. Food security in this most populous
region is fragile. Availability of food does not ensure the accessibility
to food. However, adequate national or local food availability remains
a pre-requisite for household food security. In many famine prone
African countries a close relationship is observed between domestic
food production and regional and local food availability. At the same
time, high levels of food self-sufficiency tend to coincide with low
levels of food security in many African countries.
10
In theory, two kinds of food insecurity-chronic and
transitory--can be distinguished. But in reality they are closely
intertwined. Chronic food insecurity is a persistently inadequate diet
caused by the continual inability of households to acquire needed
food, either through market or through purchase. It is rooted in
poverty.
Transitory food insecurity, on the other hand, is a temporary
decline in a household's access to food due to factors such as,
instability in food prices, production, or incomes. In South Asian
countries chronic as well as transitory insecurity exist. That is why
the situation there, is considered fragile. While dealing with the
fragility of the situation it would be useful to understand food security
at· three different levels: global food security, food security for the
nation, and food security for the poor.
At the international level, the world as a whole must produce
enough food to meet its growing requirements and there must be
unhindered trade in food products at reliable prices so that nations
can supplement their own production with necessary imports. The
concept of national food security at the national level does not mean
food self-sufficiency. It requires that each country must produce
enough food for its own expanding needs or, in cases where its
comparative advantage lies elsewhere, to have sufficient foreign
II
exchange earnings. Many of the low-income countries, notably in
Africa, did not have adequate foreign exchange resources to import
the food they needed and had to depend mostly on food aid to meet
these needs. The third important level is food security for the poor
people. While food security at the national level is a necessary
condition, it is not sufficient to ensure automatically that all the
people have enough to eat. With increasing population pressure those
marginalised farmers cultivate their land more intensively, get their
pastures over-graze their pastures and create further pressures on
their fragile land and arid soils. Non-farm employment is difficult to
find, particularly for workers without skills. There are also cultural
and ethnic factors which often accentuate the poverty of certain group
of people.
And since poverty is taken as the root cause of food insecurity
and malnutrition, one has to analyze the relationship between poverty
and malnutrition. Fundamentally, malnutrition is a problem of
poverty. Its roots are social, economic and political. It is a problem of
insufficient effective demands: people are too poor to eat. Therefore,
malnutrition is a reflection of lack of equitable distribution. It is
inextricably interwined with the problem of poverty and insufficient
effective demand. Hunger is the out of this phenomenon. Hunger is
due to structural poverty. This is man-made, socio-economic,
political, structure and institutional in nature.
12
To make things clearer, one can say that the decisive factor in
overcoming poverty and malnutrition is not the quantity of available
food supply but that of equitable distribution through the
transformation of mass oriented socio-economic political structure.
Malnutrition results from the poverty of a large section of the
population. People are too poor to afford foodstuff. There are countries
which have widespread malnutrition and also have food deficiency in
absolute terms.
In fact, population and food problem are merely symptoms, and
we must dig deeper to find their common causes. The examination of
these underlying causes will take us into a wide range of disciplines
and often complex analyses that are at times apparently distant from
the issues of population and food supply.
1.3 Literature Review
The relationship between population growth, environment and
agricultural development is complex. Even the relation between
population and food supply, on which attention is usually
concentrated, has several distinct aspects.
13
Sen (1989)14 feels that the problem is gradually gaining
attention and people are beginning to concede that it must be
attacked from both the ends, food supply and fertility.
Swaminathan (1987) 15 has examined food security system in
the Indian context. He solidly focusses on having production
exceeding demand and, therefore, on having a national reserve in case
of any emergency.
Hossain (1977)16 emphesises on changing farm size and its
impact on land productivity. While explaining land productivity, he
wants to switch ~ver to the latest technology and high yielding
varieties. His book is one of the most important literature available on
the changing agrarian structure of Bangladesh.
Valdes and other (1981)17 have discussed the need for having
food reserve in order to have food security. They f~er opine that
food security has been one of the dominant themes related to poverty
and hunger in the Third World since the World Food Conference
14 Rathindra, P. Sen (1989), "Demographic Change and Levels of living", Daya Publishers, Delhi, p. 77.
15 M.S. Swaminathan (1987), "Building A National Food Security SysteIn", Indian Environment Society, New Delhi.
16 M. Hossain (1977) "Agrarian structure and Land productivity in Bangladesh". Cambridge University.
17 Alberto Valdes et.al. (1981), "Assessing Food Insecurity Based on Aggregate in Developing Countries" in Albert Valds (ed.) Food Security for Developing Countries, Westview, Press, pp. 25-51.
14
convened in Rome in 1974, which discussed the possibility of
establishing an international coordinated food reserve system.
Mannan (1989) 18 in his paper, has examined the socio-
economic and cultural conditions under which a large family
represents a rational economic goal for their parents. He adds that the
rural child provides valuable labour services to the parental
household. Under the socio-economic and political setting prevailing
in rural Bangladesh, number means safety and prosperity. This
explains the continuing high fertility and consequently demand for
more food.
Demeny (1988) 19 in his article tries to relate the' dimensions of
population, especially its size and growth rate, with the available
natural resources. Generally, the carrying capacity of land resources
comes into picture against the growing demand.
Nobel Laureate Prof. Amartya Sen has established a
relatio~ship between poverty and entitlement. The earlier concept that
food insecurity is caused by shortfalls in domestic production has
been broadened to include the lack of purchasing power of
18 M.A. Mannan "Family, Society, Economy and Fertility in Bangladesh", The Bangladesh Development Studies, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 67-99.
19 P. Demney (1988), "Demography and the Limits to growth" in Population and Development Review, vol. 14, pp. 213-244.
15
households or nations, known as the exchange entitlement
mapping.2o
Some other studies focus on the need for combining increased
food trade between surplus and deficit countries by "raising the
purchasing power of the low income groups in developing countries
through accelerated agricultural growth. "21 Fonseen (1983) also
stresseds the need for employment. "Food-grain is the accepted
hypothesis ... the creation of the employment and purchasing power
through employment as the principle instrument in the struggle
against hunger. It' is obvious that the two alternatives and the
divergent appro.aches, to which they have given rise in regard to food
problem, are not mutually exclusive. "22
Chaudhury (1987)23, in his articles, comments on fluctuations
in the foodgrain prices that depend on seasons. On this basis the
procurement of foodgrain is done, which is sometimes overestimated
20 A.K. Sen, "Poverty and Entitlement" in J, Price Gottinger, Joanne Leslie and Casoline Hoisingten, (eds.) Food Policy, The World Bank, The John Hopkins University Press, 1987, p. 200.
21 John W . Meller, "Food and Development The Critical Nexus" in Economic impact, no. 61, 1987.
22 A.J.. Fonseea, Food Aid For Relief and Development, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi, 1983, pp. 6-7.
23 Mrimuddin Chaudhury (1987) "Seasonality of Foodgrain Prices and Procurement Progranuns in Bangladesh since Liberation: An Exploratory Study", Bangladesh Development Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 1-32.
16
and act as disincentives for crop production due to low market price.
This historical profile is very useful in understanding price
mechanism.
Osmani (1987)24 agrees that the results of IRDP in Bangladesh,
which was earlier introduced to reduce poverty have been generally
disappointing. He then shifts his focus on the role of 'non-farm credit'
in poverty alleviation. Credits from 'Grameen Bank' which is more
attractive, have· their own limits and are no magic sticks. He has also
identified several constraints which are bound to come.
Rosirgent and others (1996)25 fear that the diminishing
economic growth invan.ous Asian countries may lead to aggravating
poverty levels. On the basis of trade deficit and foodgrain fluctuation
they have concluded that this crisis is expected to have its most
devastating effect on food security.
Francesco Goletti (1994)26 gives emphasis on long term
investments. The growth of agricultural productivity and the
24 S.R. Qsmani (1989) "Linits to the Alleriation of Poverty Through Non-farm credit" in Bangladesh Development studies, vol. 17, No.4, pp.1-19.
25 Mark, W. Rosirgent et al. (1996) "Economic Crisis in Asia: A Future of Diminishing Growth and Increasing Poverty" Ul IFPRI-uision 2020 initiative, Washington.
26 Francesco Goletti, Changing Public Role In A Rice Economy Approaching Self-Sufficiency: The Case Of Bangladesh." Research Report 98, IFPRI, Washington D.C. 1994. P. 77.
17
performance of the marketing system will depend on long term
investments such as those related to road infrastructure, development
and extension of new high-yielding varieties and modern technology,
and irrigation technology.
Grigg (1985) has found population growth and other. factors
equally responsible. He says, "the hunger of much of world has been
seen due to bewildering varieties of causes; excessive population
growth remains the most popular, but there is no shortage of other
explanations". 27
Norse (1994)28 comes out with a different perspective. As he
says, "there is a conjunction of the environmental, economic,
population and climate change threats as determinants of regional
food security, but they do not come together in a spatially or
temporally consistent manner. Sub-Saharan Africa is the region most
at risk, yet its present food insecurity is largely a food purchasing
power and political problem, whereas the potential climate change
impacts are part of the scientific uncertainties of the mid 21 st century.
Similarly, the current food surplus of the Asia region simply masks
27 David Grigg, The World Food Problem, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. 1985.P.3.
28 David Norse, "Multiple Threats to Regional Food production: Environment, Economy, Population." Food Policy, vol. 19. no. 2, 1994, P.146.
18
the unmet needs of its vulnerable groups, which lack the land or the
money to ensure food security."
Further, "there is no doubt that growth in population, mcome,
and food production are all driving forces for climatic change.
Moreover, population growth can lower regional food security. But it
can also be a positive force for enhancing food production and
safeguarding the environment.29
Population growth introduces or strengthens a number of
positive feedback loops that reduce regional food security, notably by
lowering the resilience of food production systems to shocks and to
longer term structural changes.3o
The dominant positive feedback loop is population pressure
against finite land resources, which is the strongest in Asia and the
least in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America.31
Report of the Committee on World Food Security32 suggests the
crucial role played by various non-food factors to food security. This,
29 Ibid. P. 144.
30 Ibid. P. 145.
31 Ibid. p. 145.
32 UN, FAO, 'Council' 107th Edition. 'Report of the 19th Session of the Committee on World Food Security'. Rome, Italy, 22-25 March, 1994. P.4.
19
In addition to improved seeds and fertilizers, factors such as
education, population programmes, safe drinking water and
infrastructure development, were also considered essential
components for enhancing and sustaining national and household
food security.
The Uruguay Round could result in a greater need for food aid
to help offset higher food import bills of the net food importing
developing and least developing countries.33
Simon et al. (1991)34 analyze the natural resource-
element in the theory of population growth over very long run. In the . context of the stock of land and Malthusian crisis in earlier times, the
model shows how resources have become more available rather than
more scarce, even as population and income have increased. The
authors finally conclude that population growth creates new problems
but in the short run constitute additional burdens in the longer run,
lead to new developments that leave people better off.
33 ibid., p. 5.
34 Simon, J.L. and Steinmann Gunter, "Population growth, farmland and the long run standard of living." Journal of Population Economics, vol.4, no. 1 37-51, New York, 1991.
20
l .~
Brown (1988)35 reviews the world food situation and the
prospects for its future. He notes that the world's food resource have
deceased over the past two years primarily because of a rise in
demand due to population growth and a decline in supply caused by a
monsoon failure in India and drought reduced harvests in China and
North America.
Gill (1996)36 is concerned about South Asia's food requirements
in the next 20 years since its natural resource base is shrinking.
While showing land use category for each country in South Asia, there
is an attempt to prove that the Bangladesh does not have any scope
for further expansion in the favourable areas. Need for proper
management of natural resources in favoured area has been stressed.
Zohir37 (1993) explains why Bangladesh cannot diversify its
crops. He examines the profitability analysis and its associated risks.
Considering the land characteristic, it has favoured cereal production.
He stresses that in order to achieve greater diversification in the crop
sector, future policies need to facilitate exports and promote ~.~ ""].i ~.s ~,...--. (; '\
YjSK-C\X'ICT::>'».4WI,V ~(, "~) .. ~. P .. u")ft
-0 ~L ~ . ~ '-....,...,,, ......
35 Brown, The changing world food prospect: the nineteen and belfSll:ltib.;:::::::;' World Watch Paper, no. 85, 1988. Washington.
36 Gerard. J. Gill (1996) Managing Agriculture for sustainable Agriculture in South Asian. IFPRI- 2020 Vision Brief-33.
37 Sajjad. Zohir (1993) "Problems and Prospects of crop Diversification in Bangladesh", The Bangladesh Development Studies. Vol. 21, No.3 Dhaka, pp. 73-93
THESIS 304.62095492 J559 Po
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processing industries. But considering the limited land resources this
would affect the foodgrain production.
Ezekiel (1988)38 advocates development as an intergral part of
food aid. According to him, rates of population growth in many
developing countries are high. Efforts at development result in some
increase in per capita income in many of them inspite of the growth of
population. Given their low levels of food consumption, their income
elasticities of demand for food tend to be high.
Apart from these complicated issues, "the immediate problem in
the relation between population and food is whether the actual
production of food, as opposed to the potential, can satisfy the
requirements and effective demand for it created by a rapidly growing
population. "39
The food problem created by rapid population growth is part of
the general problem of over all agricultural underdevelopment.4o
It is generally recognized by the United Nations that population
and food are closely interrelated, even to the extent that the
38 Hannan Ezekiel, "An Approach to a Food Aid Strategy" World Development Vol. 16, no. 11. 1988. pp. 1378.
39 United Nations, "The Determinants And Consequences of Population Trends" vo,. 1. New York. p. 398.
40 ibid.
22
population problem has been identified as a food problem.41 Progress
in food production and agricultural development are the essential
conditions, together with lower population growth. 42
Mellor (1988) examines the question of accessibility of food. He
makes it clear that the present food security situation is one of acute
structural imbalances and more complicated than scarcity amidst
plenty. In most of Asia Africa and even in Latin America, improving
food security requires both increasing purchasing power of the poor
and boosting overall food production.43
To achieve the policy objectives of food security it will require
complex time-consuming development of national and international
institutions.44
Braun et al (1992) stress the need for effective policies and
programmes for the poor people. Therefore, the aim of an effect we
food security policy should be to ensure that all households have an
adequate dietary intake and can acquire it without being subjected to
excessive risks. A country and its people are food secure when
41 ibid., p. 398.
42 ibid., p. 402.
43 John W. Mellor, "Global Food Balances and Food Security", World Development, vol. 16, no. 9. pp. 997-1011, 1988.
44 ibid., p. 998
23
production, markets, and social systems work In such a way that
good consumption needs are always met.45
Sen, T.P. (1989) further argues for having sufficient availability
because without enough food, incorporating its quality and
distribution among all the developing countries characterized by their
acute hunger, occasional famine and explosive population growth,
hope for human welfare, achieving social justice and securing
democracy will become almost an impossible attainment. 46
The demographic helplessness of the people in the Third World
countries is revealed by the stark reality that people do not have
enough food to· keep them healthy. No one will deny that continued
population growth at the present rate has been a major contributor to
this world's hunger.47 Rapid population growth increases income-
inequality by decreasing the rate of return to labour relative factors of
production. Poverty is the universal cause of hunger.48
Swarninathan (1987) suggests confronting this problem at two
levels enough production and purchasing power. In many developing
45 Jochim. Von Braun, Howarth Bonis Shubh Kumar, Rajul Pandya-Losch, "Improving Food Security of the Poor: Concept, Policy and Programs:. IFPRI. Washington. D.C. 1992. p.6.
46 Rathindra P. Sen. op. cit., p. 77.
47 ibid p. 81.
48 ibid.
24
countries, grain surplus and widespread hunger tend to co-exist.
Even when there is food in the market, the lack of purchasing power
leads to under-nutrition and malnutrition.49
Therefore, in countries where agricultural production keeps
ahead of population growth, the food and nutritional problem could
be better stated in terms of man-days of employment rather than in
metric tonnes of food grains. 50
Right to work should hence become an integral part of the plan
for food security. This is why the integration of employment
generation as an explicit aim in land and water use plans assumes
relevance. 51
Acharya (1987) indicates towards having a huge reserve for a
large country with a high population growth. According to him, food
security would have different connotation-though not different
meanings--in times of plenty and in conditions of shortages and
scarcities. 52 In times of plenty, nutrition, blanced diets, setting apart a
reserve as an insurance against a probable lean year and planning for
49
50
51
52
M.S. Swaminathan, Building A National Food Security System. Indian Environmental Society, New Delhi. 1987. p. 124.
ibid p. 124
ibid. p. 124-125.
K.C.S. Acharya, Food Security System of India, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1983. p.3.
25
future world be the problems that would receive attention. But in
times of scarcity, the situation is one of grave emergency .... The only
priority is that of mustering food-grain stocks and reaching them to
the places where they are needed.53
Khanam (1993) consider' poverty as the root cause of
everything. Malnutrition, undernutrition hunger and food insecurity
are the different faces of one problem, that is, 'poverty'. The best
publicized solution to the crisis is the need for population control. But
popUlation will never decline until better distribution of resources is
achieved. In most of the developing countries it is found that while
family planning efforts itself failed to reduce the birth rate, improved
living standard succeeded.54 He goes on to add that food and nutrition
problem is not due to population growth but rather due to poverty of
the majority of the masses in the Third World countries.55
Bhatia (1985) covers several aspects of food security including
food-grain production to population. He is quite optimistic despite the
odds. South Asia presents a complex picture in respect of food
security for the people of the region. The scenario is at once one of
desperation as well as of great hope. In the immediate perspective, the
53 ibid. pA.
54 Rashid Khanam, "A Focus on Food And Nutrition on the Developing Counttries. Asian Profile vol. 21. no. 4. Aug 1993. pp. 349-361.
55 ibid. p. 355
situation looks dismal; the region suffers from overpopulation as well
as high demographic death rates, high incidence of poverty and
widespread undernutrition even in the normal years among its
people.56
The gap between grain production and consumption in South
Asia as a percentage share of world grain production and
consumption has not widened significantly in spite of the fact that the
region has nearly maintained its shares in world grain consumption
over the periods. 57
According to FA058 report (1995), "So long as the essence of the . :
world food problem is high incidence of food insecurity and
undernutrition precisely in the countries with low per capita food
supplies and high dependence on agriculture, there can be no
appropriate policy responses to it which do not include a hefty dose of
measures to accelerate food production in those countries.
The continuous decline of agricultural resources per capita
following population growth is one of the major reasons why concern
56 B.M.Bhatia, Food Securty In South Asia, Oxford and IBH Publishing Company. New Delhi. 1985 p. 16
57 ibid. p, 27.
58 UN, FAO, WFS 96/Teach 1. Food Agriculture and Food Security, The Global Dimension. 1995. p. 1.
27
is expressed in relation to the population-food supply balance.59 With
population growth, more and more countries will be shifting closer to
values of the land/person ratios typical of those encountered
currently in the land scarce countries.6o
Further, the declining land/person ratios do matter for per
capita food supplies in two senses. In the global context and for
countries with high actual or potential dependence on food imports
they matter mainly if the declines threaten to push the global ratio
below critical values, even often allowing for the reprieve to be had
from land-augmenting technologies.61
While the UN looks at the global and regional level maintenance
of food production and availability, keeping in mind land-man ratio is
very important. Murshid62 (1987) has examined the magnitude of
instability in food-grain production. For that, food-grain crops and
their performance has been taken in to account. He has also come out
with national aggregates during 1960/61 to 1979/80. Trends in
instability during the same period have also been shown. It was found
59 ibid. p. 18.
60 ibid. p. 19.
61 ibid. p. 19.
62 K.A.S Murshid (1987), "Instability in Food grains Producation in Bangladesh: Nature, Levels and Trends" In The Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 15. No.1. pp. 33-73.
28
that production fluctuations were relatively greater for the Boro crops
(rice and wheat). Instability seems to have occurred only for certain
periods and to be precise, in the early seventies.
Rahman63 (1986) in his paper, has estimated supply response
parameter for major agricultural crops in Bangladesh. He says that
price policy is a major lever for influencing the growth of agriculture
sector. There has been impressive growth in rice production. Equally
impressive has been wheat, whereas importance of jute has declined.
This study provides the most detailed analysis of supply-price
response of agricultural commodities available for Bangladesh.
Islam64 (1991) has investigated the impact of agricultural
growth on food production and price stability. Further, he has also
ventured into rmding out whether there was any impact on reducing
the poverty levels. He maintains that agricultural and population
growth has been going on together. Therefore, in the 1980s there was
less fluctuation in production and that helped to reduce the percent of
people below poverty line but not absolute poverty.
63 Sultan H.Rahman (1986), "Supply Respouse in Bangladesh Agriculture" in The Bangladesh Development Studie$, vol. no. 1, pp. 57-100.
64 N. Isalm (1991), "Bangladesh Agriculture: Growth, Stability and Poverty Alleviation." Journal of International Development, vol. 3, no. 5. pp. 447-465.
29
Hossain65 et al (1992) have examined the trends and
determinants of rural poverty in Bangladesh. They have gone deep
inside the problem of unemployment and dependence on agriculture.
Socio-economic and cultural factors have also been taken into
consideration.
Chaudhary66 (1983) in his article, has tried to know the proflle
of workers engaged in Food-for-Work programmes. This was done in
order to know their background, gender aspect, and its social
composition.
Tyagi and Vyas find out the commonality of problems in the
South Asian countries. They also stress the need to have sufficient
supply.
They state, "Their common history as much geo-political
realities suggest vast possibilities of sharing development experiences
and coordinating policies and programmes in various fields
particularly in the area of food and agriculture.67 They further add
65 M. Hossain and B. Sen (1992) "Rural Poverty in Bangladesh: Trends and Determinants", Asian Development Review, vol. 10, No.1, pp. 1-34.
66 O.H. Chaudhary (1983) "Profile of workers in Food-for-work Programme in Bangladesh", in Bangladesh Development studies, vol. 11, pp-111-134.
67 D.S. Tyagi and V.S. Vyas, Increasing Access to Food: The Asian Experience, Sage Publications, New Delhi. p. 431.
30
that a large majority of the world's poor households are located in
these countries. A reasonable, adequate and assured food supply for
their population could make a very important contribution to
alleviating world poverty.68
Sanderson69 (1984) is not much optimistic about the world's
food prospects. The dark side of the otherwise encouraging prospect is
the continuing problem of undernutrition among the poorest of the
poor. Hunger is not likely to be eradicated in the remainder of this
century solely on the basis of projected rates of economic and
agricultural production growth. Hopes for improving the nutritional
status of the . poor will rest on increased food assistance and
employment-oriented development programmes.
Durham70 (1988) examines the disjunction between market
surpluses of food and worldwide shortfalls that appears to be
symptomatic of underlying vulnerabilities, raising questions about the
sustainability of agricultural production. He asserts that the need to
maintain the earth's camping capacity entails the limiting of
population growth.
68 ibid.
69 Sanderson, Fred H., "World Food Prospect to the Year 2000." Food Policy, vol. 9 1984, no. 6, p. 373
70 Durham, David and Fandrem, Jim C., "The Food Surplus: a stapple illusion of economics, a cruel illusion for population." Population and Environment, vol. 10, no/2, New York, 1988, pp. 115-121.
31
Ehrlich 71 (1991) discusses the effects of population growth,
global warning and agricultural production on the world's food
supply. She describes a model that tests the impact of global climatic
change on world food security and stresses the need to reduce the
number ~f births as a means of preventing deaths from hunger and
poverty.
Rates of population growth in many developing countries are
high. Efforts at development result in some increase in per capita
income 'in many of them inspite of the growth of population. Given
their existing low levels of food consumption, their income elasticities
of demand for fpod tend to be high. Their per capita demand for food,
therefore, tends to increase. Total food demand thus increases at a
rapid pace.72
Hannan also talks about 'widening food gap'. It has been noted
earlier that a wasteful use of development funds or a neglect of
agriculture in general may lead to an alarming widening of food gap. It
now appears that the adoption of a powerful employment - oriented
strategy of development with the support of food aid could have the
same effect, at least in the initial years.
71 Anne H. Ehrlich, "People and Food", Population and Environment, vol. 12, no. 3, New York, 1991, pp. 221-229.
72 Hannan Ezekiel, "An Approach to a Food Aid Strategy: World Development, vol. 16, no. 11, Washington D. C., 1988, p. 1378.
32
Finally, he says that "food aid in a development resource, if it is
used, as it should be, to support an employment oriented strategy of
development. Not only the development from the programme food aid,
but all other resources should also be used to promote rapid increase
in employment and income.
While looking at the future, " ... set forth the crucial relationship
between food availability and population growth. Note that the
equation is made more complex by concerns about environmental
sustainability. Expected technological advances in agriculture
notwithstanding, some 730 million people in developing countries are
likely to remain undernourished in the year 2010 unless concerted
action is taken". 73
A. J. Fonseca74 (1983) touches the highly controversial issue of
food aid in the Indian context and examines on the basis of extensive
data the significance of food aid and its social, economic and political
implications. In this systematic discussion of the benefits and
damaging consequences of food imports and food aid for the domestic
economic.
73 FAO Council, Elements For Possible Inclusion in a Draft Policy Document And Plan of Action on Universal Food Security. Rome, 5-15, June, 1995, p.3.
74 Fonseca A. J. Food Aid For Relief And Development: An EValuation, Indian Social Institute, New Delhi, 1983.
33
At the receiver's end food aid as a means to combat poverty and
malnutrition cannot be considered in isolation from the other
economic variables at work within the national economy. Food aid is
an expedient emerging from the desire to assist hungry populations
out of a surplus country's abundance.
He questions the relevance of food aid so far as solution is
concerned and gives stress on self-sufficiency "It is realised that self-
sufficiency in food is a crucial element in the development of the
country and if this is not possible at the individual national level, it
should be an achievable objective at least at the regional level. "75
Further, it is not only food aid that is being called in into
question today, but the very concept of food aid. Sometimes food aid
may promote dependence and foster inefficiency. Dependency has a
much wider connotation than just the reliance of the dependent
country for occasional assistance from the self sufficient donor
country.
Hopkins (1990) believes that food aid could be a crucial
intervention in achieving a continuation of this laudable trend, yet the
75 ibid. p. 113.
34
prospects for enhanced food aid to meet the demands forecast for the
1990s appear dim Political motivation among donors has weakened.76
Estimating future needs for food aid is difficult for both
methodological and political reasons. The current level of food aid, at
about half of the near term stabilisation needs reflects 'political
priorities' on the part of the industrial countries. With great
uncertainty surrounding the political willingness of donor countries to
increase food aid to these levels, innovative and more creative uses of
such aid to help vulnerable groups in society are necessary.
"In many respects, food aid may be more useful as a temporary
support during ·the adjustment crisis than as a long term development
resource. Dependency is less likely to be endangered by short run
assistance." 77
Mellor78 (1987) has positive thoughts about short term food aid.
"Food aid c~,· and has made an important contribution to food
security and economic development in the third World. In recent
decades the food security problem of the poor has been the product of
76 Hopkins, Raymond, R. "Increasing food Aid: Prospects for the 1990s." Food Policy. vol. 15. no. 4, 1990, p. 326.
77 Brown University Faculty, "Overcoming Hunger: Promising Progranunes and Policies." Food Policy. vol. 15, no. 4., p. 298.
78 Mellor, John W. "Food Aid For Food Security and Economic Development". Reprinted from "Poverty, Development and Food" (eds.) by Edward Clay and John Shaw, Washington" 1987. p. 187.
35
two important forces: Chronic food insecurity in most developing
countries and widespread fluctuation in annual food production in
many other developing countries.19
Ballenger and Zen080 (1992) evaluate food aid at the GATT and
confirm that changes are going to take place but at the same time
they are not so optimistic. "The guarantee of food security for all
individuals depends on many factors affecting both food supply and
demand, and the willingness of the international community, national
governments and local communities to allocate food in accordance
with heeds. This guarantee is well beyond the control of single a
institution. "
Taylor~n (1992) determines the proportion of food aid that would
be re-allocated assuming an agricultural agreement is reached by
contracting parties of the GATT. The consensus from the USA, EC and
Cairns Group's negotiating proposals is that food aid should be
utilized to alleviate the possible negative effects of the reform on the
disciplines of food aid and concessional sales.
79
80
81
ibid. p. 177.
Ballenger, Nicole and Carl Mabbs-Zeno, "Treating Food Aid issues at the GATT." Food Policy, vol. 17, no. 4, 1992, p. 276.
Taylor, Daphnes. "Implications of the Uruguay Round of Food Aid.» Food Policy. vol. 17, no. 2,1992, p. 141.
36
It.is recognised that the right to adequate food and nutrition,
just like other economic, social and cultural rights cannot be
implemented overnight in a resource--poor society. Nevertheless any
effort towards the ope rationalisation of the right may payoff in the
long run, and provide a free human face to development, without
compromising its economic and financial objectives and
determinants.82
Among the significant phenomena of the 1960s was the
emergence of population matters of a paramount importance in the
writings of social scientists and in the deliberations of Governments.
Because . of the close interrelationships between demographic,
economic and social characteristics and changes, the formulation of
government policies in any of these areas need to. be based on
understanding of the, probable effects on other factors.83
Aziz (1990) feeds that apart from having a population policy, the
developing countring should also have agricultural or food policy.
While developing countries must intensify their efforts to take
advantage of recent technological progress to increase their per capita
82 Arne Oshang, Wenche Barth Eide, and Ashjorn Eide "Human Rights: A normative basis for food and nutrition-relevant policies." Food Policy. vol. 19, p, 515. 1994.
83 United Nations, "The Determinants And Consequences of popUlation Trends: Population Studies, no. 50, New York, 1973, p. 653.
37
food production, the international community must create a more
favourable environment for agricultural trade and food security.84
During the 1980s, fundamental changes in thinking about
economic development laid foundation for major adjustments in the
methods used in agricultural policy analysis and programming. The
actual impact of any particular policy measures, and the resulting
gains and losses to different socio-economic groups depends
ultimately upon the individual decisions of millions of farmers,
consumers and businessmen. An improved understanding of their
behaviour is, therefore, invaluable for effective policy making. 85
Karim86 et al (1979) in their article, have tried to point towards
some missing links in the food and nutritional policy in Bangladesh.
They have asked for an altogether different approach to the rural
poverty problem. When resources are scarce, the poor come last,
regardless of the original intent of the development activity. Straight
away, they advocate assisting low income groups through the
promotion of foods, or indigenous resources in general.?
84
85
86
Sartaj Aziz, "Agricultural Policies For the 1990s." Development Centre Studies. 1990, p. 34.
United Nations, "Farom And Community Information Use For Agricultural Programmes And Policies". FAO Farm System Management Series, Rome, 1994, p. 85.
Rezaul Karim. and F. James Levinson ( 1979) "A Missing Dimension of Food and Nutrition Policy in Bangladesh", in The Bangladesh Development Studies, vol. 7, No.1, pp. 99-106.
38
Hossain87 (1990), in his paper, assesses the impact of natural
disasters on food-grain production at the national and regional levels
during the 1973-90 period. He also evaluates the policy response to
natural disasters. He further adds that the government responds to a
natural disaster by importing food-grains more than what is needed to
mitigate the adverse effects, which inflates the public stocks and
depresses prices in subsequent seasons.
Zeller and Sharma (2000)88, discussed the linkages between
access to credit, savings and insurance services and household food security. They have presented a conceptual framework that addresses
various questions, and provide or synthesis of the empirical results of a multi-country research programme in ten African and Asian
countries. They~ fmally conclude that insurance can be considered as
the missing third of micro-finance during the 1990s. Applied research
on the poor's prefere~ce as well as bold experimentation with new
financial products appear to be particularly promising in making
process towards that goal.
Maxwell and others89 (1999) consider the measurement of food security problems as a major challenge not only for research, but particularly targeting, programme management, monitoring and evaluation. They have constructed a series of alternative food-security indicators based on the frequency and severity. of consumption-related coping strategies. These alternative indicators are then compared with more standard measures, including a consumption benchmark, a
87 op. cit, f.n. 7. 88 Manfred Zeller and Manohar shanna, "Many Borrow, More save, and All Insure: Implications for Food and Macro- Finance Policy", Food Policy, Vol. 25, 2000, PP. 143-167.
39
poverty benchmark, and a nutritional benchmark using data from the
1997 Accra Urban Food and Nutrition Study.
The comparative analysis of conventional benchmarks with the
coping strategies indicator reveals some shortcomings with the
benchmark indicators as well--a sign that perhaps the indicators of
food security proposed here are both alternative and complementary
measures.
Share and others90 (2000) focus on the feasibility of individuals
that are food insecure to about 700 million by 2015. Here, a sufficient
statistics to characterize the level and distribution of income in 134
countries is developed and regressed on variables hypothesized to be
its major determinants. A global general eqUilibrium model is then
calebrated to data and experiments performed that changes the levels
of these variables. Further, growth in economy-wide total factor
productivity, agricultural productivity and labour productivity is
analysed. They conclude that the scenarios are more optimistic than
realistic.
Sarris91 (2000) discusses the cereal price and the market
instability of food grains. The paper argues that world cereal prices
are good indicators of the state of world cereal markets. It tests whether real prices for wheat, rice and maize exhibit deterministic or
stochastic trends, concluding that the underlying trends are most
likely deterministic. Discussion of recent changes in the pattern of world cereal production and trade suggests that conclusions are not contrary to observed trends.
19 Daniel Mazwell et. aI., "Alternative Food Security Indicators: Revisiting the Frequency and Severity 'Coping Strategies'" Food Policy, Vol. 24, 1999, PP.411-429. 90 Mathew Shane et. aI., "Economic Growth and World Food Insecurity: A Parametric Approach", Food Policy, Vol. 25, 2000, PP. 297-115. 91 Alexander H. Sarris, "Has World Cereal Market Instability Increased"? Food Policy, Vol. 25, 2000, PP. 337-350.
40
Ravallion92 (2000) has done time series study for over 40 years relating food price, wages and existing poverty. According to her the
higher relative prices of food in India have typically been associated with high poverty incidence and lower real agricultural wages. The correlation between food prices and wages can be explained by
changes in farm yields and inflation. But he quickly adds that the data which have been used here to support the view that higher food
prices due to policy reform will, on, their own, reduce rural poverty.
Abalu and Hassan93 ( 1999) examine the natural resources of
Southern Mrica and analysis the critical linkages between the
performance of Southern African agriculture and natural resource use
patterns. The implications of on-going natural resource use trends on
poverty, food insecurity, and environmental degradation is also
analysed. The challenges that must be addressed, including, how best
to intensify agricultural production, the types of technologies to
promote and the imperatives of production efficiency and intra-regional trade are examined.
Paarlberg94 (2000) suggests that changing conditions in world
grain markets are not directly linked transitory food insecurity in poor
countries. The explanation advanced for this disconnection is that the reliance of genuinely poor developing countries on grain imports in usually low, and generally lower today than it was several decades ago, even when food aid is taken into account. The most conspicuous non-markets source 0 f food insecurity include violent internal
92 Martin Ravallion, "Prices, Wages and Poverty in Rural India: What Lesson do the Time Series Data Hold for Policy", Food Policy, Vol. 25,2000, PP.351-364. 93 George Abalu and Pashid Hassan, "Agricultural Productivity and Natural Resources Use in Southern Africa", Food Policy, Vol. 24, 1999, PP. 477-490. 94 Robert Paarlberg, "The »leak Link Between World Food Markets and World Food Security", Food Policy, Vol. 25, 2000, PP. 317-335.
·41
conflict, non-accountable governments and natural disasters such as
drought.
Schuh95 (2000) examines the impact of agricultural
modernisation and increased food production on the food security at
the household level. The author has acknowledged the failure to
recognise the general equilibrium effects of agricultural
modernisations in alleviating poverty in the general economy. He concludes by saying that it are truly to alleviate poverty by means of
agriculture research we need to broaden our concept of agricultural
research to include the rural social science so as we understand the
plight of the poor and what can be done to help them improve their lot
The literature review clearly shows that the wide range of studies have been done earlier on food security, popUlation pricing, etc. separately.· In the recent past, these studies in isolation really
lacked a pragmatic approach. Therefore, it is the need of the hour to
come out with comprehensive programmes and policies taking care of
population andofood problem. Yet, the available literature more or less
helped to understand the basic problem.
9S G. Edward Schuh, "The Household: the Neglected Link in Research and Programs for Poverty Alleviation", Food Policy, Vol. 25, 2000, PP. 233-2410
42
1.4 Objectives
The objectives of the present research study are: -
(1) To analyze the existing food security system in Bangladesh.
(2) To examine the demographic trends, increasing ecological
unsustainabilty and food-insecurity in Bangladesh.
(3) To critically review the existing population and food policies in
Bangladesh.
(4) To assess ~e relevance of food aid in Bangladesh and to see its
implication within the regional frame.
1.5 Hypotheses:
The basic hypotheses are:
(a) The higher the population growth and magnitude of poverty, the
greater will be the degree of food insecurity.
(b) The more the degree of ecological degradation (e.g., deforestation,
soil erosion, etc.), the greater will be the dimension of food crisis.
43
(c) The greater the dependency on external food aid and more
prevalent the conditions of underdevelopment, the more the
chances of continued and enhanced food insecurity.
1.6 Sources of Information and Methodology
As mentioned earlier, the present study aims at analyzing the
basic human problem of food insecurity vis-a-vis population and
ecology. An attempt has been made to see this problem in totality.
Hence, efforts have been made to substantiate the above mentioned
hypotheses by data and infOI;mation collected from various sources.
The present study is based on both primary and secondary
sources. It depends on a great extent on the publication of the
government, United Nations, Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) , International Food Policy Resources Institute (IFPRI), National
Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT), Dhaka,
country Monograph Series, UNDP, United Nations Population Fund
(UNFPA), etc. its secondary sources, books, relevant journals and
research reports were consulted.
Methodology adopted for this research is mainly analytical. All
the relevant data were analyzed within the conceptual framework of
the problem. Statistical techniques such as regression and correlation
have been used to establish a relationship between variables. These
44
techniques have been done using E-views software. Regression
analysis is based on "Ordinary Least Square" Method. Microsoft Excel
software has been used for diagrams and MS Powerpoint is used for
drawing models and flow charts.
Software used Purpose
E-Views Statistical Techniques
MS E~cel Dia~ams
MS Powerpoint Flow Charts
Data on population and food has been seen through bar, pie
and proportionate pie diagrams. Other information has been
discussed qualitatively. So, qualitative analyzes form the core of the
adopted methodology, adopted.
1.7 Organization of the Study
In the developing countries where population pressure is
enormous, the most important challenges for the coming two decades
is to sustain the progress in agriculture sector along with
demographic sustainability. The present work is organized into six
chapters.
Chapter One introduces the problem and discusses this
problem within the conceptual framework. This section explains the
various associated problems in their totality. It also has a review of
literature on food, popUlation, poverty, pricing mechanism, food and
45
environment and related topics. Then the objectives of the study are
made clear followed by the hypotheses. Sources of information and
the methodology are spelt out clearly.
Chapter Two examines population growth trends, food
production and consumption. This has been done to assess the quest
for food self-sufficiency and supply-stability. This chapter also reveals
the magnitude of food and nutritional insecurity. Here, the main
thrust is to show the existing population food imbalances.
Chapter Three explains the vicious circle of poverty. The
relationship between poverty, environment and health is the basic
concern. How the fragile ecology of Bangladesh is coping up with
stress and hazards is another link. Role of various NGO's and
government institutions in poverty alleviation has also been
discussed.
Chapters Four and Five throw light on the existing nature of
food security system, food aid and its geopolitical implications. The
focus of the fourth chapter is to see the effectiveness of the public
food distribution system and other programmes in Bangladesh in the
light of continued poverty and how vulnerable groups are being taken
care of. The fifth chapter reflects long term consequences of food aid
and geopolitical and geo-economic interest of donors. While
discussing the future of food aid and its impact on development the
46
regional cooperation for food security in South Asia has also been
analyzed.
Chapter Six evaluates the population and food policies of
Bangladesh. While doing that, it shows the positive and negative
aspects, in dealing with the basic question of reducing population,
and improving food security. Impact of these policies on poverty,
vulnerable groups and welfare of common people has been critically
examined. It also tries to suggest an integrated policy framework.
Recommendations and suggestions have also been made in the end.
47
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