studies on diversity of orchid flora in Southern Assam and their conservation
Chapter-3
Review of Literature
3.1 . Historical Baclcground 3.2. Work done Abroad 3.3. Worii done in India (General) 3.4. Contribution of Botanical Survey
of India 3.5. Work done by individuals / institutions 3.6. information on the orchid f iora
from the other s tates of India 3.7. North Eastern India w i t h special
references to Assam including • Southern Assam (Barak Valley)
3.8. Asymbiotic seed germinat io i i {In vitro) through tissue cu l ture te^hnlquo
(
' CHAPTER 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.1. Historical Background:-
Theophrastus first used the Latin Word "Orchis" to some particular group of
plants and observed that the roots of these plants were used in the traditional
Pharmacopoeias of Greece and neighboring Asia minor as antidepressant and
stimulant.The term "Orchis" is now used to describe a particular European genus, and
the name of the entire family - Orchidaceae - is also derived from it.
Olof Swartz (1800) was the first to make a critical review of orchid literature and
to present a classification. He distinguished 25 genera and since he had access to
materials he even commented that many more new genera would be created in
future.He was the first to find the monandrous and diandrous condition in orchids.
L. C. Richard (1817) while working on European orchids introduced the special
terminology for orchids that we use today. Brown (1810), du Petit-Thouars (1809,
1822) and Blumn (1825) who studied tropical orchids in the field refined Swartz's
classification and added many new genera. John Lindly's contribution to the taxonomy
of orchids was great and unparalleled.He studied more materials than any botanist
before him. He was the first to divide orchid family into tribes (Lindley, 1830-1840).
Robert Dressier and Calaway Dodson (1960) presented a classification which for the
first time was made in accordance with the International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (ICBN). Garay (1960) suggested division of the family into 5
subfamilies, a concept introduced for the first time.VermeuIen (1966) proposed 3
families under the order Orchidales. George Bentham (1881) published a new
classification of orchids for use in Bentham & Hooker's "Genera plantarum". Ernst
Pfitzer (1887) proposed his classification utilizing apart from pollinia characters,
vegetative features as well. Dressler's (1981) classification was a milestone in orchid
systematic.
Pamela Burns-Balogh & Vicki Funk (1986) were the first to attempt a large-scale
cladistic assessment of Orchidaceae. Dressler's (1993) revised classification was based
on new character information and significantly influenced by cladistic reasonning. The
most recent complete classification is by Szlachetko (1995) wherein the three family
scheme of Vermeulen is accepted.
29
3.2. Work done Abroad:-
Leon (1946) wrote the family Orchidaceae for the Flora of Cuba in Spanish.
Orchids of United States of America have been reported by D. S. Correll (1950).
Williams (1951) published on the Orchidaceae of Mexico. He later brought out an
enumeration of orchids of Central America, British Honduras and Panama (Williams,
1956). Along with Allen, Walliams also wrote the family Orchidaceae in Flora of
Panama (1946- 1949). Holttum (1957) brought out a large volumn on the orchids of
Malaya. Seidenfaden &. Smitinand (1959-1965) published a preliminary list on the
orchids of Thailand in 6 parts. Seidenfaden later also published several revesionary
papers on the Orchids of Thailand.
Although Orchid flora of some of the South American countries have been
published but a large area still remains untouched. Schweinfurth (1958-1959)
published the book "Orchids of Peru". Dunsterville & Garay (1959-1976) brought out
six volumns of illustrated work on the orchids of Venezeula. Schultez (1960) brought
out a fairly complete flora on the native orchids of Trinidad and Tobago. Nicholls
(1969) published a beautiful book on the "Orchids of Australia". Dockrill (1969) also
published a very good book on the "Australian indigenous orchids". Stewart &
Campbell (1970) brought out a book on the "Orhids of Tropical Africa". Mackawa
(1971) published a beautiful book with excellent painting on the wild Orchids of
Japan. Adams (1972) wrote an updated account of Orchidaceae for "Flora of Jamaica".
C. A. Luer (1972; 1975) published a book entitled "orchids of Florida". Hamar (1974)
published a good account of orchid flora of El. Salvador.
Lin (1975) published on the Native orchids of Taiwan in two volumes. Pabst &
Dungs (1975-1977) published the "Orchids of Brazil" in 2 volumns. Ortiz Valdivieso
(1976) brought out a volumne on the Orchids of Columbia in Spanish. Williamson
(1977) published a good book on the "Orchids of South Central Africa".Renz (1978)
published his treatise on the Orchids of Iran.
Banerji and Thapa (1978) reported the Orchids of Nepal, according to
Schlechter's system. They described 189 monandrous species in 54 genera. This work
gives a general outline of the orchids of the adjoining areas in India such as Sikkim
and North-Westem Himalayas and provides a brief introduction to orchid
30
classification. An exhaustive, annotated checklist of the orchids of Madagascar has
been published by Du Puy, Cribb, Bosser, Johan & Hermans (1999).
Huda (2007) - published an updated enumeration of the family Orchidaceae from
Bangladesh. He reported a total of 177 species and a variety under 70 genera to the
family Orchidaceae from Bangladesh.Out of which 116 are epiphytic and 60 are
terrestrial.
3.3. Work done in India (General):-
Due to its geographical position, so many degrees of latitude and the land often
rising from sea level to heights beyond the limits of vegetation, india harbours a varied
flora comprising both temperate and tropical species. The bordering regions harbor an
admixture of Chinese, Malayan and Sri-Lankan orchid species.
Van Rheede (1678-1693) described over 700 species of flowering plants from
Malabar in 12 volumes in his monumental work "Hortus Malabaricus" (1678-1693).
His work, represents the first impotant scientific account of Indian plants with plates,
which are faithfiil represenation of the plant described in vol. 11 & 12, a total of 16
orchid taxa have been described. Of these, some are drawn without flowers (e.g. Plates
6, 23 and 26 in vol.12), whereas the others represent Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt.
and McC, Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wt., Cleisostoma tenuifolium (L.) Garay,
Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw^Dendrobium ovatum (Willd.) Kranz.,Eulophia
epidendraea (Koen.) Fisch., Geodorum densiflorum (Lamk.) Schltr., Liparis nervosa (
Thunb.) Lindl. Malaxis rheedii Sw., Pholidota pallida Lindl., Rhynchostylis retusa Bl.
and Vanda spathulata Spreng.Roxburgh (1832) recorded in his "Flora Indica" some 57
species of orchids in 8 genera and proposed many new taxa which were later
transferred to other genera. These collections were mainly from Sylhet district of
Assam. Lindley (1830-1840) published "Genera and species of Orchidaceae plants"
and utilized the vast collections made by J. D. Hooker and G.M. Thomson. He first
described 71 species in 21 genera (Lindly,1857), and later dealt with the genera
Dendrobium, Crytochilus, Acanthephippium, Anthogonium & 331 species belonging to
54 genera (Lindly,1858). During the British colonial period scientific study of orchids
was vigorously pursued by Robert Wight, William Griffith, Robert Pantling, Georage
King, J. D. Hooker and many others.
31
Wight (1832) made extensive collections of the flora of Madras Presidency &
together with G. A.Walker - Amott published his work. Subsequently, he published an
illustrated account of Indian plants. His icons (Wight, 1845-1853) contain invaluable
information, including a critical view on the affinities of orchid genera of India &
neighbouring countries.
Griffith (1851) treated the Orchidaceae at length, often providing a very good
account on the general morphology, methods of pollination and affinities of each
taxon. However, the treatment of all Vanilla spp. in a separate family Vanillaceae may
be considered as an anomaly. Altogether he described 147 species of orchids in 49
genera. Some of his described species now belong to the adjacent Asian countries.But
most of his species were recorded from the Khasi hills and its surroundings.
Descriptions of floral characters are very cute and he has provided a good number of
beautifijl illustrations. Both Latin and English languages have been used in the text.
Aitchison (1869) listed Epipactis veratrifolia, Spiranthes australis, Zeiaine
membranacea, and Z sulcata from Punjab and Sindh.
Working with the Indian flora, Drury (1869) listed 275 species of orchids in 74
genera discovered from Augusteer Hill (1500-1800 m) in Travancore Hills, a Lady's
slipper orchid was recorded subsequently and described as Cypripedium druryi Bedd.
[Now known as Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein].Later, Beddome (1874) provided
an excellent drawing and a very accurate description of this taxon. This endemic
species was found in abundance by Beddome on the top of Calicut Hills where it
bloomed during January.
Atkinson (1882) enumerated about 50 species of orchids in 33 genera from
Garhwal alone, whereas as many as 55 species in 35 genera were listed from the region
comprising Kumaon, Nepal & Tibet.
Veitch (1887-1894) has also described some Indian orchids. While a few of these
were illustrated, special emphasis was given to their horticultural aspects. Modes of
cultivation and temperature requirement and some other factors have also been
discussed.
Hooker ( 1888, 1890) who had vast experiences in the field, and had spent 4
years in Meghalaya, Sikkim, Nepal and Bengal collecting plants had undoubtedly
gained deep knowledge of Indian orchids. His collections included 117 genera and
32
1250 species in his account of the Orchidaceae in Vols. 5 «& 6. The drawings / painting
made on the spot in the field helped him to compile "Flora of British India" in Kew,
London. He has also provided description with illustrations of hundred orchids in "A
century of Indian Orchids" in the Annals of the Royal Botanical Garden, Calcutta
(1895).His illustrations on Indian plants were published in Himalayan Journal
(1854).The flora of British India facilitated the publication of many regional flora e.g.
" The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay" by T. Cooke (1901-1908), "Flora of the
Upper Gangetic Plains & the adjacent Siwaliks & Sub- Himalayan Tracts" by J. E.
Duthie ( 1903), Bengal plants by D. Prain ( 1903), Botany of Bihar and Orissa by H.
Haines ( 1924) & "Flora of Presidency of Madras" by J. S. Gamble, where the family
Orchidaceae has been treated along with many families.
After Hooker, the most important accounts of orchids from regions treatment of
this country were also published by G. King and R. Pantling (1898), "Orchids of
Sikkim Himalayas" with beautiful illustrations. In the years that followed, many
regional treatments of orchids appeared. Collett (1902) in his "Flora Simlensis"
described 38 species under 18 genera from Shimla and its neighbourhood, where key
characters and distributional details are provided for each taxon, illustrations are given
for some of the taxa only. The next important publication is of Grammie (1905), who
wrote on "The Orchids of Bombay Presidency".Cooke (1901-1908) provided an
accurate diagnosis and described 74 species in 31 genera from the erstwhile Presidency
of Bombay, which included Maharashtra, Gujrat, Sindh &. N. Kanara. He described the
endemic taxa. Eulophia ochreata & E. ramentacea.T>\\i\\\Q (1903) published an
illustrated account entitled "Orchids of North-Western Himalayas", In this work, 173
species belonging to 45 genera have been described. He has also provided a good
number of illustrations. The works of Hooker, King and Pantling and Duthie are
considered as the "Monumental treatments on Indian orchids".
While botanists of North-western India were seriously engaged in taxonomic work
in the early part of this century, practically no work was done for the southernmost
states of India. One expectation is the work of Rama Rao (1914) from Travancore who
enumerated some 171 species of orchids with medicinal value occuring.
Fyson (1914) published his work in 3 volumes; in his work, the Orchidaceae was
mentioned a little. He provided a few line drawings. Lateron, he brought out a 2-
33
volume work, one containing the text and the other with the illustrations (Fyson,
1932).In the refined version of his 1914 work, many of the former descriptions have
been rewritten, new generic keys constructed, and new localities were given for the
species. In all 58 species belonging to 24 genera were described. Of these, 46 are
illustrated. In the genus Sccolabium (p.581.), he has given two varieties i.e. S.filiforme
(Wt.) Lindl. as var. nilagirica and van pulneyemis .These belong to the present-day
SchoenorchisfiUformis (Wt.) Schltr.
Fischer (1921 & 1928) enumerated 42 species in 23 genera from the Annamalai
Hills. Taking a major task of completing J. S. Gamble's work on Flora of Presidency
of Madres he brought out a volume on the Orchidaceae (Fischer, 1928). It contains
excellent description of 199 species belonging to 60 genera from the eastwhile
Presidency of Madras. No comprehensive work has appeared since then. His new
species Rhynchostylis latifolia is con-specific with the earlier Saccolabium smeeanum
Reichb. f because of its strange admixture of characters.Bruhl (1926) published a book
named "Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim Himalayan" wherein 461 species belonging to
92 genera were described.
Blatter (1928) published an enumeration of the orchids collected from the High
Wavy Mountains of Madurai District, Tamil Nadu.This include some interesting new
species such as Odontochilus rotundifolius (now made into a new genus called
Aenhenrya), Eria pseudoclavicaulis and Disperis monophylla. Later, he co-authered
with C. McCann and published a series of papers including reports, on a number of
new orchid species (Blatter & McCann's, 1931,1932) in the Journal of Bombay
Natural History Society.
Mayuranathan (1929) described Eulophia epidendraea, Habenaria platyphylla,
H.viridiflora and Vanda tessellate in his work on the flowering plants of Madras with
short description.
3.4. Contribution of Botanical Survey of India:-
Orchid studies in the post-independent era have been mainly done by the scientists
of the Botanical Survey of India since 1956. This has resulted in the publication of
innumerable papers & some popular booklets (Hara,1966 ; Kataki, 1962, 1984a, 1976 ;
Panigrahi &. Joseph, 1966; Rao & Verma, 1969 ; Rao, 1979 ; Rao 8c Deori, 1980 ;
Arora, 1968; 1969a, b, c, d, 1972a, b; Rao & Hajra, 1974, 1984, 1987, 2001 ; Hajra et
34
al., 1983, 1984; De & Hajra 2001, 2004; Bhattacharjee, 1976 ; Nair 1966, 1978 ; Das
& Jain, 1978, 1979, 1980 ; Ansari, 1995).
Santapau (1953, 1957) listed about 19 species of orchids belonging to 7 genera
from Purandhar and suggested Habenaria hollandiana Sant. as a new name for H.
affmis Wt. non Don.
Subsequently, Santapau & Kapadia (1966) published the book entitled"Orchids of
Bombay" (Ph.D. thesis of Z. Kapadia).
Das & Jain (1980) published a book on "The revision of the Orchidaceae. Genus:
Coelogyne". Joseph (1982b) described an account of some 116 species in 49 genera
from the area. All the species are supported by illustrations. He also described one new
variety collected from the Nilgiris, viz., Thrixspermum muscaejlorum Rao and Joseph
var. nilagiricum Joseph and Vajravelu.
Jain &. Mahrotra (1984) have published a preliminary "Inventory of Orchidaceae
in India". They have listed 144 genera belonging to 925 species of orchids with
original citation, correct nomenclature and distribution in India with the mention about
their endemism in India.
Kataki et al, (1984b) published a plant conservation bulletin on the "Distribution
of Orchids of Sikkim &. North - East India" & described 690 species belonging to 128
genera from Sikkim and N.E. India.
Subsequently, Kataki (1986) wrote a book entitled "Orchids of Meghalaya". In
this book he has listed 280 species of orchids with their distribution, 84 colour
photographs with line drawings & Key to the genus & species for identification.
Kataki & Hynniewta (1986) also reported 238 species and 4 varieties under 59
genera from Nagaland.
Chawngthantluage (1996) reported 253 species in the book entitled "Orchids of
Mizoram".
Chowdhery & Pal (1997) published a checklist of Orchidaceae from Arunachal
Pradesh while Chowdhery (1998) published a book on the"Orchid Flora of Arunachal
Pradesh" in which 545 species belonging to 123 genera of Orchids known from
Arunachal Pradesh, key to genera and species along with the history of the genus,
deviation of its name, distribution, flowering and fruiting times etc are described.
35
Hynniewta et al, (2000) reported 241 species, 63 genera & 4 varieties in the work
entitled "Orchids of Nagaland".
3.5. Work done by individuals / institutions:-
Ghosh (1953) a famous Orchid grower in Darjeeling for the first time published a
popular book "Beautiful Indian Orchids" along with the methods of cultivation and
propagation under Indian conditions. He altogether described 150 species belonging to
27 genera of beautiful Indian orchids.
Tuyama (1975) published a book entitled "Orchids of Eastern Himalayas".
Saldanha and Nicholson (1976) enumerated 95 species in 45 genera from Hassan
District of Kamataka State. This fairly well - documented account includes one new
genus Smithsonia and four new species i.e. S. straminea, Eulophia emilianae,
Oberonia josephii and Phalaenopsis mysorensis. He also proposed the new
contribution Gastrochilus flabelliformis (Blatter & McCann) Saldanha based on
Saccobiumflabelliforme.
Three books on Indian flora appered in the year 1976.Dealing with the Delhi flora,
Maheshwari (1976) reported only one orchid species, viz., Zeiaine strateumatica (L.)
Schltr. from the area. Further, Srivastava (1976) reported 2 species of orchids, viz.
Oberonia falconeri and Zeuxine strateumatica. As a supplement to Duthie's work
(1911-1926), Raizada (1976) reported 7 species of orchids belonging to 4 genera, of
which Eulophia graminea was a new distributional record for the area.
Pradhan (1976 & 1979), a nurseryman trained in Jordel Laboratory on Orchid
culture, described a total of 810 Indian species of orchids in 130 genera. His work
seems to be the only exhaustive work on an all-India basis since the time of Hooker
(1888, 1890), althrough in noway comparable to the latter. Pradhan discussed orchid
cultivation and major orchid habitats of the country. Besides providing keys for easy
identification, a number of black and white and colour photographs were also
provided. This work is profusely illustrated by drawings as well, which are often
adapted from those of earlier workers.
Rao (1979) brought out a publication on orchids for popular use, which contains
descriptions of 180 native species in 50 genera in the form of a book "Orchids of
India". In this book he has also mentioned the commonly cultivated exotic species. A
36
rather general account of culture, classification and nomenclature is provided. Colour
plates and black and white photographs of the important species are also given.
Working with Nilgiri orchids Abraham & Vatsala (1981) described about 150
Southern Indian Orchids, providing line drawings of individual species in almost all
the cases. It gives the History of Orchidology, geographical distribution and ecology,
morphology, classification of Orchids, cytology and phylogeny, hybridization, seed
culture and meristem culture, disease and pests of Orchids etc.
Raizada et al, (1981) reported about 89 species in 35 genera from Mussoorie, in
Western Himalayas, as a sequel to the work of Duthie (1906) and included a fuller
description, distribution and flowering periods of the native orchids.
Rao and Razi (1981) described 62 species belonging to 31 genera from Mysore
District. New records for the area include Eria pauciflora Wt. and Cheirostylis
flabellata Wt. Arora et al., (1981) listed 4 species from South Canara District.
Yoganarasimhan et al, (1981) reported 38 species of orchids belonging to 26
genera from Chickmangalur District of Kamataka. New records for this area include
Dendrobium wightii Hawkes and Heller, Goodyera procera (Ker.- Gawl.) Hook, and
Saccolabium jerdonianum Wt. (now called Schoenorchis jerdoniana (Wt.) Garay.
However, the floral character in this report has been vaguely written.
Manilal and Sivarajan (1982) reported 10 species of orchids belonging to 9 genera
occurring wild in Calicut, with short description & notes on their ecology.
Seidenfaden and Arora (1982) enumerated the orchids of the North - Western
Himalayas. This work provides a fuller account of all the known orchids of the area
numbering about 250 species with 24 new records, whereas the classic work of Duthie
(1903) contained only 173 species.Two new species viz. Eria occidentalis Seidenf and
Flickingeria hesperis Seidenf are proposed.A new combination of Aorchis roborovskii
(Maxim.) Seidenf. based on Orchis roborovskii is suggested.
Vij et al, (1982b, c) recorded 54 species under 23 orchid genera from Shimla and
adjacent hills in the North - Western Himalayas, of which 6 species represented first
time records from the region.
He further (Vij et al, 1983) listed 112 orchid species from Nainital and adjacent
hills in the Central Himalayas, 15 of these species were classified as rare and
endangered due to habitat destruction.
37
Singh (1983) listed two species, viz., Aerides crispa and Zeuxine strateumatica
from Banswara, Rajasthan.
Mukherjee (1983) wrote a popular booklet on Orchids. He mentioned about 1250
species from India.
Deb (1983) has recorded some 33 species in 22 genera froni Tripura State, where
the largest genus seems to be Dendrobium represented by 6 spQcies.Pomatocalpa
mannii Reichb. f. is recorded by him for the first time from this State.
Seidenfaden (1983) described 73 species belonging to 36 genera from Tamil
Nadu, based on the collections made by K. M. Mathew and others. He has clarified
some of the taxonomic problems of South Indian orc\{\ds.Gastrochilus acaulis (Lindl.)
O. Ktze. and Taeniophyllum alwisii Lindl.,both Sri Lankan elements, are reported for
the first time fi-om India. Anoectochilus elatus Lindl. earlier known from the Western
Ghats, seems to be a new record for Eastern Ghats. He attributed the authority of
Dendrobium wightii to Balakrishnan; in fact, Hawkes and Heller (1957) had suggested
the same nomenclature for D. graminifolium Wt. a few years earlier.
Sharma et al. (1984) enumerated 173 species of orchids in 51 genera from the
whole of Karnataka State. However, no description is provided. Old names as
Saccolabium, Sarcanthus and Ephemerantha are still used.
Hedge (1984) published "Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh". In the book he has
listed 368 species of orchids with their morphology, distribution, cultivation,
classification, breeding, along with 34 black and white and 84 colour photographs.
Ghatak &. Devi (1986) wrote a book on the "Orchids of Manipur". As per the
report Manipur hosts as many as 250 species of orchids.
Somdeva and Naithani (1987) wrote a book entitled "Orchid Flora of the North
Western Himalaya". They re-examined all those specimens on which Duthie's original
flora was based and also checked all those which have been described as new since
then and many identification in Duthie's Flora have been changed and corrected, six
new species have been added. In total 240 species of the orchids are described in this
book.
Singh et al, (1990) published a book on the "Orchids of Mizoram". Rao (1991a)
described 63 species in the form of a book entitled "Post independence additions to the
orchid flora of india".
38
Pangtey et ah, (1991) published a book entitled"Orchids of Kumaun Himalayas",
where he described a total of 61 genera spreaded over 192 species with variety & Sub-
families.The nomenclature, phytography, flowering time, distribution have been
reported in the book.
Kumar and Manilal (1994) brought out a "Catalogue of Indian Orchids". This
catalogue provides altogether 1141 species of orchids in 166 genera including a new
genus Seiden-fadeniella and many other novelties. Of these, 657 species in 86 genera
are epiphytes & 484 species in 82 genera are terrestrial and are estimated to occur
within the present boundaries of India. The book contains 17 line drawings including 4
maps &. colour photographs of 64 species of Indian Orchids.
Sundriyal & Sharma (1995) edited a book on the "Cultivation of Medicinal plants
and Orchids in Sikkim Himalaya". This book is the outcome of the proceeding of the
"Workshop on cultivation of Medicinal plants & Orchids of Sikkim" held in Sikkim
which had deliberations on specific themes of Orchids, which includes Orchid Wealth,
commercial Orchid growing. Orchid cooperative Societies, Status, Cultivation &
Propagration of Orchids.
Maheswari et al, (1995) edited a book on "Orchids in India". This book contains
13 papers on Orchids & it includes census of Indian Orchids, especially, North East
India with special references to Arunachal Pradesh.
Sharma (1996) published a book on "Orchids of India: Commercialization and
Conservation".This book gives us the idea for in vivo and in vitro conservation of
orchids.
Bose & Bhattacharjee (1999, revised edition) described 834 species in 127 genera
and outlined the cultural procedures for many of them. Photographs were provided for
some of the species. Several species and their synonyms are described separately under
different taxonomic identities.For example, Pecteilis gigantea (J. E. Sm.) Rafin is
repeatedly described under three names as Platanthera susannae, Pecteilis susannae
and Habenaria susannae. The same is the case with Nervilia, species of which are also
treated under the genus Pogonia.
39
Hedge (2001b) edited a book on "Orchids: Conservation, Culture, Farming &
Trade". This book is the outcome of the proceedings of workshop & Orchid show on
the "International festival of Orchids" held in Itanagar, in which deliberations were
done on the specific themes - Diversity, ethnobotanical interest, conservation,
micropropagation, post-harvest technology, commercial export potential etc. A total of
31 full papers and 11 abstracts with recommendations are included in the book.
Augustine et ah, (2001) have written a book entitled "Orchids of India: II;
Biodiversity and Status of Bulbophyllum Thou". This book provided the present status
and Biodiversity of Bulbophyllum Thou, and allied genera of India in general and
Northeast in particular with keys to these genera, sections and species.A total of 80
species of Bulbophyllum Thou. & allied genera are included in the book.
Pathak et al, (2001) edited a book entitled"Orchids Science &. Commerce".This
book contains 32 papers on Orchids.
Barua (2001) published a book on the "Orchid Flora of Kamrup District, Assam
(with illustrations)". This book has explored orchid species of three major Districts viz.
Barpeta, Nalbari & Kamrup District of the Lower Brahmaputra Valley including the
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary. It has detailed the subject in some major aspects as the
embryological, ethnobotany, distribution, phytogeography and phenological
characteristics of the taxa and the key characters of Orchids of the districts.
Misra (2004) published a book entitled "Orchids of Orissa".In this book he
provided details on the morphological description, geography, distribution, habitats &
growth habits of 130 species of orchids with flowering and fruiting period, taxonomic
notes, field notes & distribution of the species in Orissa, India and outside India.
Phukan (2006) reported the Genus Micropera Lindl.(Orchidaceae) in India. Misra
(2007) published a book entitled "Orchids of India". This book provided details on the
history, ecology, morphology, evolution, flowering period, behavior and systematic
elaborates of the orchid family with a key to the subfamilies in India. The generic
classification provides subdivision of the subfamilies into tribes and subtribes
providing under each genus, the number of species in the world and India have also
been provided. A key to the 185 genera in India followed with the brief generic
description is provided. A new species under a new genus has been established.
40
Enumeration lists 1331 orchid taxa recorded to-date in India within the three major
geographical regions.
3.6. Information on the orchid flora from-f^other states of India:-
The pioneering studies by Lindley, Hooker.King &. Pantling, Duthie and many
others in the late 19 and early 20 th centuries served a great purpose of putting India
in the world map as an emerging country with a lot of potential for the studies on
orchids.
Floristically very different from the mainland flora, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
present an interesting orchid flora as revealed in many papers by Balakrishnan and his
associates (1976 & 1979). Mathew (1999) reported extended distribution of
Dendrobium macrostachyum Lindl. on the Mount Harrier hills in South Andamans in
the Bay of Bengal. Diwakar, et a/.,(2005) has described Acampe rigida (Buch.-Ham.
ex J. Sm.) P. F. Hunt from Kalpong Hydro Electric Project site, North Adaman.
In Andra Pradesh, Some of the papers and enumerations have been described by
Rao (1958, 1964). Ellis (1990) brought out the Flora of Nallamalais wherein
Orchidaceae was briefly treated (15 spp. and 5 genera). Singh et al, (2004) reported
Dendrobium crumenatum as an ornamental significant orchid on this state.
Orchid flora of the Bihar state was observed mainly from the early works by
Hains (1924) and Mooney (1950).
Maheshwari's (1976) book on "Delhi flora" contains only one species Zeuxine
strateumatica (L.) Schlf
Shah (1978) in his Flora of Gujrat state treated Orchidaceae very briefly giving
key characters of 26 species in 10 genera.
Vij & Varma (2005) reported a new species Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr.-
from Harayana.
Vij et al, (1982) reported 54 species in 23 genera as occurring in Shimla and
adjacent hills in the North - Western Himalayas & brough out their specificity.
Chowdhery & Wadhwa (1984) listed 52 spp. in 23 genera from Himachal Pradesh.
Subsequently, Vij and Verma (2007a, b) reported Gastrochilus D.Don & Peristylus
comtricus (Lindl.) Lindl.- as new record from this state.
Blatter (1928) in his book "Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir" included 17 species of
orchids in 7 genera. District flora project operated at Jammu may through some light
41
on the number of species available in the state. Dhar & Kachroo (1983) in the "Alpine
flora of Kashmir Himalayas" treated Orchidaceae very briefly & described one species
each from 7 genera such as Cephalanthera, Corollorhiza, Cypripediumbing,
Dactylorrhiza, Goodyera, Gymnadenia and Spiranthes.
Saldanha & Nicholson (1976) brought out the Orchidaceae of Hassan District
describing 95 spp. in 41 genera, while Sharma et ai, (1984) listed 173 species
belonging to 51 genera. Rao (1998) described 67 species from Kodagu District. Hedge
(2007a), reported 283 species spreaded over 79 genera in Uttar kannda district,
Kamataka & their conservation.Rao (2007) recorded some important ethnobotanical
data on the wild orchids with medicinal value as practiced by the tribals of Kudermukh
National Park in Kamataka. Hedge (2007) reported an interesting OTchid-Gastrochilus
dalzellianus (Sant.) Sant. &. Kapadia from Uttara Kannada district, Kamataka.
The first Indian orchids to be familiarized to the outside world were from Kerala
by Rheede (1678-1693) through his celebrated book "Hortus Malabaricus". The British
Collectors of the 19'*' century provided maerials to J.D.Hooker, who described many
novelties from Kerala (Hooker, 1888,1890).Fischer (1928) included many collections
from Travancore and Malabar in Gamble's Flora. Sathish Kumar studied the taxonomy
of orchids of Kerala under the guidance of Prof. Manilal in 1991.A current estimate is
that, altogether 252 species, 3 subspecies and a solitary variety of orchid belonging to
79 genera are available in the state of Kerala (Kumar &. Manilal, 2004).Subsequently,
Kumar & Sequiera (1999) has collected & described Liparis walakkademis Muktesh
& Stephen - a new species from Kerala.
Tiwari & Maheswari (1963) described the important species of the state of
Madhya Pradesh. Indications are that the states orchid flora is rich and diverse with
many potential species.
Dalzell & Gibson (1861), Graham (1893), Geammie (1905), Blatter & McCann
(1931, 1932) and Santapau & Kapadia (1966) worked on the orchids of the state of
Maharshtra. The last work is particularly significant as it contains very detailed and
accurate description of species.
In Orissa, Hains (1924) in his book entitled "Botany of Bihar and Orissa" partially
covered the state and reported many orchids. Misra (1980, 1981, 1986, 1988, 1997) in
a series of papers reported many discoveries, new to science and new to orissa.Misra
42
(2006), recorded 36 orchid species from Niyamgiri hill ranges in Orissa. Out of these,
23 are from epiphytic habitat and 13 are terrestrial.
Studies on the orchids of Punjab have been done by Prof. S. P. Vij in his Orchid
laboratory. Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh. The laboratory is
actively involved in assessing the in vitro regeneration potential of a variety of
Himalayan orchids besides analyzing cytological fidelity of the regenerants. Studies on
mycorrhiza, developmental biology and systematic of north Indian orchids are also
being conducted. Additionally, efforts are made to standardize techniques for synthetic
seed production.Several species including Acampe papillosa, Aerides multiflora,
Cymbidium aloifolium, C. pendulum, Dactylorhiza hatageria, Epipactis veratrifolia,
Eulophia dabia, Gastrodia orobanchoides, Goodyera biflora, G.repens, Habenaria
clavigera, Hedgeworthii, H.intermedia,H.latilabris,H.pectinata, Herminium lanceum,
Liparis ovate, Malaxis acuminate,M.muscifera,Pholidota articulata, Zeuxine
strateumatica and some commercially significant hybrids have been added to the live
collections of the orchidarium. Nair (1966, 1978) listed the orchids of Punjab plains.
In Rajasthan, Singh (1983) reported only 2 species viz. Aerides crispa & Zexixine
strateumatica from Banswara.
In Tamil nadu, Fischer (1921) reported 42 species of orchids in 23 genera from
Anamalai.Richard (1841) published a lengthy paper on the orchids of Nilgiris which
included several novelties. This was based on the materials collected and sent by
George Samuel Perrottet, while Joseph (1982b) illustrated an account on the orchids of
Nilgiris. Joseph & Ansari (1989) presented a list of orchids reported to occur in Tamil
Nadu.This included 192 species in 60 genera.
Gupta (1968) described the orchids found in Nainital. Arora (1969a, b, c, d;
1972a, b,1980), Deva (1978) and Deva & Naithani (1986) worked on the Orchid flora
of Western Himalaya. Raizada (1776) brought out a supplement to Duthie's work.
Raizada et al, (1981) reported 89 species of orchids in 35 genera from Western
Himalayas. Seidenfaden & Arora (1982) enumerating all the orchids of North Western
Himalaya included 250 species with 24 new records and 2 new species i.e. Eria
occidentalis Seidenf and Flickingeria hesperis Seidenf Hajra & Kothari (1983)
reported the occurrence of Acampa rigida & Vandopsis undulata in Pithoragarh district
of Uttar Pradesh.
43
In West Bengal, Griffith (1845) described much novelty of orchids from Howarh
Botanic Garden itself including the genus Didymoplexis. Mathex (1966) provided a list
of plants including orchids from Kurseong. Mukherjee (1972) published a list of
orchids found in the plains of North Bengal. Krishna & Das (1975) reported 5 species
as new to the State from northern districts of West Bengal. Guha Bakshi (1984)
reported 6 species from Murshidabad District. Darjeeling campus is a collaboration of
"National centre for Orchids" has been created for protection, cultivation and
conservation of orchid germplasm. Over 160 species of orchids have been collected
and maintained at the campus. The collected species represented various genera
Q.g.Cymbidium, Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Eria, Calanthe, Paphiopedilum &
Bulbophyllum etc.
3.7. North Eastern India with special references to Assam including Southern Assam (Barak valley):-
North East region comprised states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. The region is endowed with
diverse climatic conditions and area covered under varied topography starting from
plains to snow covered mountains. The physiography spread from the tropical to
temperate climate, experiences varied agro ecological conditions. The vast area with
undulated topography with varied climatic conditions permits cultivation of variety of
floricultural crops. The region has for long been recognized as God's gift to the
country in view of the wealth of ornamental plants. The availability of native flora
wealth in this region has considerable potential for floriculture development.Till date
very less concerted efforts has been made to exploit the tremendous potential that
exists. Unscrupulous collection of plants from forests and their clandestine trading in
the country and aborad resulted in tremendous erosion of the natural wealth.
Prominently the region is rich with large number of species of orchids, however till
recent past very little attention has been paid in using the wealth for their commercial
exploitation.
Curiously enough Orchid wealth of Assam has not received the detailed
botanical attention.it deserves. Till date a detailed account has not been brought out on
the orchids of erstwhile Assam. Earlier collections made by the distinguished plant
explorers / collectors are still lodged either at the eastern circle of Botanical Survey of
India, Shillong or in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta. Noteworthy
44
contributions were made to enrich the knowledge of orchid flora of Assam along with
other floristic elements by the personals like Buchanan- Hamilton, Francis Jenkins, W.
Griffith, N. Wallich, Mcclelland, Masters, Kennan, Gustav Mann, G. Watt, C.B.
Clarke, Peel, Collect, G. A. Gammie and a few others. Most of these collections were
referred to by Sir J. D. Hooker (1988, 1890) in his Flora of British India, Vols. 5 & 6.
The localities they referred to are mentioned as Upper Assam, Lower Assam, Assam,
Assam Plains, Brahmaputra Valley and Surma Valley.
The establishment of the Botanical Survey of India on 13* February, 1890 under
the leadership of G. King as the first Director, activated the exploration work in the
whole of India including Assam. The plant explores like Meebold, Carter & Carter,
made collections during the early part of 20"' Century. Later at the initiative of Sir
Archdale Earle, the chief Commissioner of Assam, forest officer U. N. Kanjilal (1906-
1916) himself started collecting plants from the vast expanses of erstwhile Assam and
also engaged all the forest staff members spreaded over Assam for collections of plant
specimens with a view to publishing the Flora of Assam. Other plant collectors during
the period are Kingdon Ward, N. L. Bor, S. R. Sharma, G. K. Deka, S. Chowdhury, A.
S. Rao, G. Panigrahi, S. K. Jain, D. B. Deb, P. K. Hajra, S. K. Kataki and several
others who helped to enhance our knowledge of the orchid flora of Assam.However
few researcher of Botanical Survey of India, Shillong Viz. Kataki & Panigarhi (1963),
Rao & Hajra (1974a), Jain & Hajra (1976), Borthakur & Hajra (1976), Rao & Deori
(1976), Barua &. Barua (1997) have made contributions to the orchid flora of Assam at
large.
However, a perusal of literature has revealed that during the second half of the
twentieth century, several workers namely Rao and Panigrahi (1959 & 1961), Barua &
Deori (1988) published reports on the orchids fi-om different specific sites of the state
but no systematic taxonomical works were done.Baruah (1978) for the first time made
a systematic taxonomical study of orchids of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam and
recorded about 114 species and 4 varieties under 50 genera for his Ph. D. work. Later
on, Barua (2001) published the first ever district flora of Kamrup district of Assam &
recorded 62 species and 3 varieties under 31 genera, before publication in his book, he
gave a new report on the Bulbophyllum forrestii Siedenf. of India (Barua & Barua,
1991). Baruah (1992) got his Ph. D. in 1992 on ornamental plants with particular
45
references to Landscape of Assam. Basumatary (2004) recorded 46 species of orchids
under 26 genera from Chirang Reserve Forest under Haltuagaon Forest Division of
Kolcrajhar District for his Ph. D. work. Gogoi (2005) recorded 35 species including 7
that belong to genus Dendrobium in Dibru-Saikhowa National Park & Biosphere
Reserve Forest. Sharma et al, (2006) reported 287 specific & intraspecific taxa
belonging to 88 genera in Assam while Dey et al, (2007) reported a list of 21 orchid
species from Manas National Park, out of which 16 were epiphytes & 5 terrestrial.
The floristic studies of Assam {semu stricto) were initiated by Prof.
S. Chowdhury. He has stimulated the Research work on Orchids of Assam in
particular. He has made a notable contribution towards the knowledge of Orchids.He
has published a number paper's in National and international journals individually
during the year i.e. 1982, 1987 1988, 1990, 1993, 1993a, 1998 and with associates
during 1968, 1971, 1976, 1991 & 2002. A good number of new records and new
species of Orchids are described including Dendrobium assamicum Chowdhury,
Eulophia kamarupa Chowdhury, Zewcine debrajiana Chowdhury and also Zeiixine
assamica Iswar Barua & Kuntala Barua. Prof Chowdhury has published a book
entitled "Assam's Flora" (2005) including detailed information regarding the Orchids
of Assam & their present status.
After separation from the erstwhile Assam, the entire sister states of northeast
India, paid their sincere efforts to publish the orchid flora of their states and during the
subsequent years, orchid flora of all the neighboring states of Assam have been
published (Singh, 2001). There are altogether sixteen (16) reserve forests within the
territory of Barak Valley (old Cachar district, which has been divided into 3 districts
i.e. Cachar, Karimganj & Hailakandi). They are having well distributed hillocks, river
system and forests, varying habitats ranging from tropical and subtropical regions and
suitable climatic factors.Old Cachar district (presently Barak Valley) is one of the
richest orchid growing areas of our country (Hunter, 1982).But no systematic
taxonomic effort were made to inventorize the whole orchid flora of Southern Assam
(Barak Valley), except a few contributions i.e. Mazumdar et al, (2002), Bhattacharjee
et al, (2005, 2006, 2007 & 2009a, b, c). Deb Roy (2000) worked for his Ph.D. on the
Genetical variation studies of the five selected orchids of Cachar district of Assam.
46
Detailed study on the various aspects on orciiids of Southern Assam (Baralc Valley) is
lacking and therefore has been taken up in the present work.
For North Eastern Region of India, Arunachal Pradesh is the "Hot spot" of the
Orchid diversity.Study on the Orchid diversity of Arunachal Pradesh was initiated by
Dr. S. N. Hedge. He has intiated the Research work on Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh
in particular with the involvement of "Tippi Orchid Research Centre". He has made a
notable contribution towards the knowledge of various aspects like flora, cultivation,
trade & commercialization of Orchids from Arunachal Pradesh and has published a
number of papers in the National and international journals i.e. (1980, 1980a, 1983.
1981a, 1981b, 1984, 1987, 1987a, 1987b, 1987c, 1990, 1990a, 1991,199 la, 1993, 1993a,
1994, 1995, 1995b, 1996,1996a, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001a, 2001b,200Ic, with Roa,
1982, 1982a, 1982b, 1982c, 1983,1983a, 1984b, 1984c, 1985a, 1985b, 1985d, 1985e,
with others 1988, 1989, 1992, 1997 & 2001).A.N. Rao, another orchidologist also
contributed excellent works, published a number of papers in National and
international journals i.e. 1977, 1983, 1986,1988, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c, 1990, 1991,
1991a, 199 lb, 1992,1992a, 1992b, 1992c, 1994, 1994a, 1995, 1997,2001,2004,2004a
with others 1991c, 1991d, 2001a. A good number of new records and new species of
Orchids are described including Epipogium sessanum Hegde et Rao, Herminium
longilobatum Hegde et Rao, Clesisostoma tricallosum Hegde et Rao, Biermannia
jainiana Hegde et Nageswara Rao, Gastrodia arunachalensis Hegde et Rao,
Bulbophyllum sarcophyllum var. minor (King & Pantl.) Hegde et Rao, Eria lohitemis
Nageswara Rao, Haridasan & Hegde, Eria jengingensis Hegde and Porpax
Seidenfadenii Nageswara Rao. Hedge (1984) published a book entitled "Orchids of
Arunachal Pradesh" with detailed information regarding the orchids of Arunachal
Pradesh & their ex-situ & in-situ conservation. Rao & Deori (1980) described orchids
of West Kameng District while Deori et al., (2006) has reported Dendrobium
arunachalanse sp. nov.- a new species from the state.
Hooker (1890) described 49 species in 24 genera as occurring in Nagaland.
Hynniewta (1986) summarized his findings and reported 238 species and 4 varieties of
orchids belong to 59 genera from Nagaland. Clarke (1889) made a small collection of
orchids from Kohima while Phukan & Odyuo (2006) reported the new addition to
orchid f\ora-Cleiststoma duplicilobum (J. J. Sm.) Garay from Nagaland. Deb et al.
47
(2003, 2006) recorded six new additional orchid species with diversity from this state.
Deb et al., 2007) has reported Epipogium indicum Chowdhery - a new addition to
orchid flora of Nagaland."
Despite frequented by many pionner collectors like- Watt (1881-82), Clarke
(1952), Meebold (1906-1907), Kingdon-Ward (1952) who explored orchids from
Manipur. Mukherjee (1953) who explored Manipur along with Kingdon-Ward in his
last trip brought out an enumeration of orchids of Ukhurul district. Deb (1961) made
large collections during his long stint in Manipur as a teacher. Sathish Kumar made a
flash survey of Manipur in 1966 and made interesting collections including novelties
and new records. A total of 195 species in 64 genera has been reported from Manipur
by him.Mao (1999) reported 64 species of orchids belonging to 27 genera from
Senapati district and surrounding hills.
Deb (1983) reported 33 species of orchids in 22 genera from Tripura.
A large tract of the Meghalaya state was botanically explored by Hooker,
Thomson and many British naturalists in the 19th century, when it was part of
erstwhile Assam (Upper Assam). With the establishment of Eastern Circle of Botanical
Survey of India at Shillong collection activity was rejuvenated. Rao (1971) studied the
orchids of Khasia and Jaintia Hills. Trias pusilla- A new species of orchid from Khasi
& Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya. Kataki (1986) published the orchid flora of the State,
where 324 species were dscribed.Balakrishnan (1983) published the "Flora of Jowai"
wherein 145 species of orchids in 50 genera were described while Deori et al., (2006)
has recorded Dendrobium aurantiacum Reichb. f from Jowai (Jaintia hills).
Scientists of Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle made stray collections from
Mizoram. Singh et al, (1990) provided a conspectus of orchids of Mizoram.
Chawngthanlluanga (1996) published a book on the "Orchids of Mizoram, Vol-1".
Pioneering studies were done by Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911), a great
botanist of all times, who visited Sikkim during 1848 -1849 and made elaborate notes
on the plant wealth, culture and tradition and collected seeds of all the promising
plants. He made a vast collection of plants including orchids which were later studied
and utilized for his "Flora of British India". Hooker reported many novelties from
Sikkim- Bulbophyllum kingie J. D. Hook., B. thomsonii J. D. Hook., Coelogyne
treutleri J. D. Hook.[now called Epigeneium treutleri (J.D.Hook.)Ormerod],
48
Habenaria pachycaulon J. D. Hook., Liparis gamblei J.D.Hook., Zeuxine longifolia
(Benth.) J. D. Hook., etc. Dr. George King & Robert Pantling's (1898) classic book
"Orchids of Sikkim Himalaya" depicts descriptions and illustrations of 448 species in
91 genera. This includes many new genera like Didiciea, Biermannia, Risleya and
several new species. The book is 112 years old, still the best available publication till
today. Prof Paulus Johannes Bruhl (1926) published a small guide to the orchids of
Sikkim. In this book, he proposed the genus Cleisocentron.KfiQX the publication of the
three important works, collection activities and studies on Sikkim orchids subsided by
J.C.White,W.W.Smith, G.H.Cave, K.Biswas and many others occasionally contributed
to our knowledge on Sikkim plants. Rao (1963) briefly mentioned a few species from
the state, while Mehra & Vij (1974) published an account of ecological adaptations
and distribution pattern of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayan orchids. National
Research Centre for Orchids (NRC) is located at Pakyong, East Sikkim. The main aim
of this Centre is collection, characterization, evalution, improvement through
systematic breeding, production of quality / commercial / varieties and hybrids of
superior qualities of orchids for National & International trade. Centre already
deposited 450 species belonging to 98 genera collected from the North Eastern Region,
Darjeeling district of West Bengal and others parts of India. Among the orchid traits
Cymbidium, Cattleya, Paphiopedilum, Dendrobium, Vanda, Phalaenopsis, Oncidium
are commercially important genera. In addition, hybrids of Cymbidium (60), Aranda
(2) and Vanda (1) have also been procured & maintained.
3.8. Asymbiotic seed germination {in vitro) through tissue culture technique:-
Presently many economically important and spectacular orchid species of the
N. E. India are facing the danger of extinction owing to lack of public awareness,
reckless destruction of habitat for other developmental programmes, over exploitation
and illicit trade of highly ornamental species. Chandha (1992) reported that the USA
alone imports nearly 50,000 plants of Lady's Slipper orchids annually; the number is
increasing every year and nearly 70% of these plants are illegally exported from
tropical countries like Thailand, India etc. Now most of the orchid species of the N. E.
India may be categorized as the 'threatened species'.Some of the states have
established orchid sanctuaries in the N. E. region e.g. Sikkim at Singtam and Deorali
and Arunachal Pradesh at Sessa and Dirang. Therefore, the urgent need for rapid
49
multiplication and conservation of orchid species of this region has been felt by the
plant scientists.
Orchid seeds are light (between 0.3-14 ^g, Burgeff, 1936), microscopic in
size and produce 1,300 - 4, 00, 000 seeds per capsule (Rolfe and Hurst, 1909).The
seeds contain an undifferentiated embryo possessing little or no stored food
materials.Only a very few of these (0.2% - 0.3%) non-endospermous seeds germinate
in nature (Singh, 1992).Bernard (1899) and Burgeff (1909) observed that mycorrhizal
association of fungus leads to germination of seeds in nature. But the requirements for
the germinating seeds can be met culturing them in nutrient solution (Knudson, 1922)
However, many seeds during maturation accumulate inhibitors of germination
(Burgeff, 1954; Withner, 1955). On the other hand, a very high percentage of seed
germination could be achieved asymbiotically in flasks or test tubes. Asymbiotic
techniques of orchid seed culture are usefial in tracing the seedling development from
the undifferentiated embryos.Seed culture can be applied not only to several artificial
and natural hybrids, but also to certain desirable species and forms, which are not
available in quantity. Seedling production in vitro and further development is also an
effective means of saving many orchid species from extinction. Using different
nutrients and cultural conditions, seed germination in large number of orchid species
has been accomplished. However, the methods and procedures for in vitro germination
of one species are not always applicable to others and might vary from one to other
(Arditti, 1982).Therefore, many investigators have used immature seeds from unripe
pods for germination in aseptic cuhure (Withner, 1955; Ito 1955; Nimoto and Sagawa,
1961; Rao and Avadhani, 1964; Teo and Teo, 1976; Mitra et ai, 1976; Vij et al.,
1981; Bopaiah and Jorapur, 1986; Vij etal, 1986).
Many orchid species were propagated in the N. E. India by using seeds.In North
Eastern Hill University, Sharma and Tandon (1986, 1987, 1990);Kumaria and Tandon
(1991,); Kumaria (1991); Sharma (1993) ; Sharma and Chauhan (1995). In Gauhati
University, Roy and Sarma (1992); Hazarika and Sarma (1995); Sarma (1998); Sarma and
Sarma (1997a, b); Kaur and Sarma (1995, 1996, 1997 a, b); Kalita and Sarma (1996);
Bazarbaruah and Sarma (1997) and in Assam Agricultural University Devi et al., (1990)
propagated many endangered and rare orchid species in N. E. India.
50