Challenges of Multiculturalism
in Europe
Jagellonian University
9 May 2005
Laura Laubeova
Structure of the lecture
• Definitions: multiculturalism, race ethnicity, minority,
• Concepts & theories of MC• State policies vs. Minority requirements• Politics of redistribution / recognition• Ethnocultural justice• Concept of Racisms, discrimination• From assimilation to inclusion• Antidiscrimination in EU, institutional racism in UK
Background
• Amsterdam Treaty (Article 13) • two Directives (2000/43/EC, 2000/78/EC)• European Framework Convention for
protection of national minorities (FCNM)CERD, CRC, CEDAW, ICCPR, ICESCR, etc.
i.e. framework for public policies
promoting positive interethnic relations, elimination of
discrimination and racism.
• Retreat of MC after 9/11
After 9/11
Failure of MCP?
Baubock (2005): 3 elements of MC
• Constitutionally entrenched rights
HR as trumps over majority preferences (Dworkin)
• Accommodationist policies
bilingual edu for immig. General integration not a minority right
• Shared public identity
equal membersip in polity, citizenship
Multiculturalism
• Descriptive
• Normative- see bellow
• Government policy
(Canada, Australia)
• Institutional policies
(UK – racial equality, CERES)
Definitions related to ethnicity
From ethnic category to concepts of ethnic community.
“Ethnie“ isa named human population with myths of common ancestry, shared
historical memories, one or more elements of common culture, a link with a homeland, a sense of solidarity among at least some members. - covers both majority and minority population.
vs multiple identities,
situational (transcending) ethnicities, hybridity
Ethnicity2 basic + 3 complementary approaches:
1. Primordialists focus on primordial ties ( but static naturalist, ethnic id.
overlapping with other types of id.)Sociobiologists - mechanisms of nepotism and inclusive
fitness based on genetic reproductive capacity (reductionism)
2. InstrumentalistsSymbols for political goals, rational choices. Socially
constructed nature of ethnicity. But neglect wider cultural environment, affective and
collective dimensions. Interests only in material terms.
Approaches to ethnicity – cont.
3. Transactionalists Frederick Barth – social boundaries, ascribed ethnicity
4. Social psychological Horowitz, Tajfel
5. Ethno-symbolistsMyths & symbols. nostalgia… AD Smith, Armstrong
(Hutchinson, Smith: Introduction)
See also Cornell, Hartmann:
Circumstantialists vs Primordialists
Race• Biology & natural sciences – no longer since late
70´s (see researches in genetics bellow)• Race remains a legitimate concept for
sociological analysis because social actors treat is as real and organise their lives and practices by reference to it (van den Berghe)
• Robert Miles: race is only an ideological construct that is used by social scientists for legitimising the status quo
• D. Mason : “Clearly there are no such things as races. Yet it is equally clear that large numbers of people behave as if there are”
Race – cont.Mason: „race is a social relationship in which
structural positions and social actions are ordered, justified, and explained by reference to systems of symbols and beliefs which emphasise the social and cultural relevance of biologically rooted characteristics“.
• In other words, the social relationship race presumes the existence of racism and institutional racism.
Rose, Steven, Lewontin, Richard, Kamin, Leon (1990) Not In Our Genes. Biology, ideology and human nature, London: Penguin Books
Stephen Gould (1996) The Mismeasure of Man Ellis Cashmore (1996) Dictionary of race and thnic relations
Preamble of the EU Race Directive
“The European Union rejects theories which attempt to determine the existence of separate human races. The use of the term "racial origin" in this Directive does not imply an acceptance of such theories”.
Race is a social construct, i.e. a category without any biological underpinning
Race vs ethnicity
• Race is often treated as ideology – ethnicity as a real phenomenon.
• Racial refers mainly to physical terms,
– ethnic rather to cultural terms.
• Race refers to them, – ethnicity to us.
• Both concepts always imply social relationship.
Minority
”group of people distinguished by physical or cultural characteristics
subject do different and unequal treatment by the society in which they live
and who regard themselves as victims of collective discrimination“
1945 Louis Wirth
Minority - cont.• must be a 'non dominant' group; • its members must 'possess ethnic, religious or
linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the population‚
• must also 'show, if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity, directed towards preserving their culture, traditions, religion or language'
(Capotorti as quoted from MRG)• Also non dominant groups that may be a
numerical majority in a state, • those who are not necessarily nationals or
citizens of the state where they reside.MRG
Multiculturalism
• Conservative (diversity as a deficit, communit.)
• Left essentialist (Afrocentrism, also communit.)
• Liberal (natural equality, lack of opportunities, decontextualisation, depolitisation)but procedural liberalism vs communitarian liber. – Kis, Taylor, Kymlicka (see also politics of recognition)
• Pluralist - salad bowl (exoticism, affirmation) vs melting pot
Multiculturalism – cont.
• Critical MC (Frankfurt School, power, emancipation, soc. justice, self reflection)
• Antiracist (life chances - CERES)
• Reflexive (Ali Ratansi – Derrida + Giddens)
• Cosmopolitan
• Ethnicity as habitus (Bourdieu)
• Hybridity (H. Bhabha, Paul Gilroy, St. Hall) rooting vs shifting
(see S. May, P. McLaren, etc)
Multiculturalism – cont.
V. Parrillo: three models of minority integration:
• Assimilation (majority- comformity)• Amalgamation (melting pot)• Accommodation (pluralism) (multiculturalism)
Multiculturalism = diversity + cooperation
Parillo, 1997
State policies incl. MCP
Eva Sobotka: policies twds the Roma in CEE:
• Exclusion• Assimilation• Co-existence• Multiculturalism
Sobotka 2003
MCP target groups (minorities)/claims and expectations
1. Indigenous (Nunavat, Sami)National minorities (Can., Eur.) Autonomy
2. Legal immigrants, gastarbeiters,refugees Fair terms of integrationIrregular & illegal immigrants (denizens/metics)
3. AfroAmericans Inclusion4. Roma Positive action5. Ch. Jews, Amish, etc Difficult case
Kymlicka – stages: communitarian, liberal, nation building
Liberal position
• Dworkin: substantial and procedural rights
• Rawls: individual autonomy supplemented by non-discrimination provisions should always carry more importance than collective rights
Arguments against ethnocultural neutrality of the state
• Education• Legal system• Diffusion of language• Relation to different ethnical/ethical questions:
slavery, polygamy, polyandry, incest, euthanasia, suicide, capital punishment, abortion, coerced marriages, divorce on demand, gay and lesbian marriages, etc.
Ethnocultural justice (Kymlicka)
Two main ideas:
• Minorities are also entitled to various degrees of nation-building
• Minority rights are a supplement not a substitute for human rights
Multiculturalism – cont.
Integration, inclusion, inclusive education
Intercultural vs multiculrural
Politics of redistribution,
of recognition (Frazer) –• politics of equal dignity (Autonomy)• politics of difference (Authenticity) (Taylor)
Racism & isms
……… sexism, disableism, ageism, homophobiaNeil Thompson
Racism can be defined as an attitude (ideology) or action (behaviour) that disadvantages individuals or groups on the basis of their “racial” inferiority[1], mainly by means of limiting their access to scarce resources.1] Racial difference or racial inferiority is often perceived or constructed in terms of different culture, ethnicity, religion, language, etc.
Explanations of racism:
1. Psychological ”Some people are like that” 2. Lack of knowledge, ignorance
„To know is to love“3. Intergroup relations ”Birds of a feather”4. Individuals are racists because the structures,
practices, and values of our society are racist. ”Its the system”
Discrimination/isms:Personal – Cultural - Structural
Neil Thompson
P
C
S
Racisms – cont.
• from violent attacks or scapegoating • to paternalistic crypto-racist assistance to m.• tendency to deny racism (unacceptable)
two main meanings: 1) ideology (beliefs) about racial superiority2) “the whole complex of factors which produce
racial discrimination” and sometimes also “those which produce racial disadvantage”
Cashmore
Racism as ideology1. the so called “scientific racism of the 19th century”,
manifested for example in the publication by Herrnstein, Murray, 1995
2. “popular” racism or “common sense” racism that is based on ethnocentrism, a tendency to believe that one´s own cultural paradigm is universal, neutral and superior to any other culture
In other words…
Racism
1. denies all difference in the name of universality of the human nature, but unconsciously it takes back this universality to the dominant model;
2. uses the obvious differences to turn them into instruments of domination, exploitation, condemnation, exclusion, or extermination.
Racisms- cont.
PrejudicePrejudice DiscriminationDiscrimination InequalityInequality
„„RRacism, in short,acism, in short, involves involves (a)(a)stereotypes about difference and inferiority stereotypes about difference and inferiority (b)(b)use of power to exclude, discriminate, subjugateuse of power to exclude, discriminate, subjugate““
The Parekh Report, 2000The Parekh Report, 2000
AttitudesAttitudesBehaviourBehaviourStructuresStructures
Racisms – cont.
ExclusionExclusionDiscriminationDiscrimination
PrejudicePrejudice
Assimilation and Racism (Bauböck)
assimilation is possible
yes no
assimilation is required
yes compulsory assimilation
racist double-bind
no pluralism segregation
assimilationist policies
inclusiveness
Assimilationist model
DIFFERENCE DEFICIT
ASSIMILATION
COMPENSATORY PROGRAMMESDoes the individual fit
into the System or ‘Institution’?
ASSIMILATIONASSIMILATION
Curriculum (Multiculturalism) model
Cultural Effects
CULTURES
LIFESTYLES ATTITUDES
PLURALIST
TOLERANCE AND HARMONY Does the organisation of this ‘institution’
recognise Diversity ?
PLURALISTPLURALIST
Equity/Rights Model
Social and Political Effects
EQUITY PARTICIPATION
ANTIDISCRIMINATORY
LIFE CHANCESAre people enabled in this ‘institution’?
Do the structures allow for
achievement, growth and opportunities?
ANTIDISCRIMINATORYANTIDISCRIMINATORY
Enlarged Europe – May 2004
Green paper on Equality and non-discrimination in an enlarged European Union:
http://www.stop-discrimination.info
http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/fundamental_rights/greenpaper_en.htm
http://www.enar-eu.org/en/info/fact18.shtml
Institutional racism
1999 – The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry: Report of an Inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny, also at
www.official-documents.co.uk/document/cm42/4262/4262.htm; mainly chapter 6, pp. 26-28
„Institutional Racism defined as: The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantages minority ethnic people.“