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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Wheel
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 9.1 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and
grain wear and fracture patterns.
TABLE 9.1 Knoop hardness range for
various materials and abrasives.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Superabrasive Wheels
FIGURE 9.3 Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The rim consists of superabrasives
and the wheel itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. Note that the basic numberingof wheel types (such as 1, 2, and 11) is the same as that shown in Fig. 9.2. The bonding materials
for the superabrasives are: (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified; (b) metal; (c) vitrified; and (f)
resinoid.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Wheel Marking System
FIGURE 9.4 Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Diamond and cBN Marking System
FIGURE 9.5 Standard marking system for diamond and cubic-boron-nitride bonded abrasives.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Abrasive Grains
FIGURE 9.6 The grinding surface of an
abrasive wheel (A46-J8V), showing grains,
porosity, wear flats on grains (see also Fig.
9.7b), and metal chips from the workpiece
adhering to the grains. Note the randomdistribution and shape of the abrasive
grains.
FIGURE 9.7 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single
abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain.
Source: After M.E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip
formation by an abrasive grain. Note the negative rake angle,the small shear angle, and the wear flat on the grain.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Variables
FIGURE 9.8 Basic variables in surface
grinding. In actual grinding operations, the
wheel depth of cut, d, and contact length, l,
are much smaller than the wheel diameter,
D. The dimension tis called the grain depthof cut.
Chip length, external grinding
Chip length, internal grinding
Chip length, surface grinding
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding Parameters
FIGURE 9.9 Chip formation and plowing
(plastic deformation without chip removal)
of the workpiece surface by an abrasive
grain.
TABLE 9.2 Typical ranges of speeds and feeds for abrasive
processes.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Specific Energy in Grinding
TABLE 9.3 Approximate Specific-Energy Requirements for Surface
Grinding.
Temperature rise:
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Residual Stresses
FIGURE 9.10 Residual stresses developed on the workpiece surface in grinding tungsten: (a) effect of wheel
speed and (b) effect of type of grinding fluid. Tensile residual stresses on a surface are detrimental to the
fatigue life of ground components. The variables in grinding can be controlled to minimize residual stresses, a
process known as low-stress grinding. Source:After N. Zlatin.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Dressing
FIGURE 9.11 (a) Methods of grinding wheel
dressing. (b) Shaping the grinding face of awheel by dressing it with computer-controlled
shaping features. Note that the diamond
dressing tool is normal to the wheel surface
at point of contact. Source:OKUMA America
Corporation.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Surface Grinding
FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustrations of surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the
workpiece. (c) Vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder (also known as the Blanchard-typegrinder).
FIGURE 9.12 Schematic illustration of a
horizontal-spindle surface grinder.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Thread and Internal Grinding
FIGURE 9.14 Threads produced by (a)
traverse and (b) plunge grinding.
FIGURE 9.15 Schematic illustrations of internal-grinding operations.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Centerless Grinding
FIGURE 9.16 (a-c) Schematic illustrations
of centerless-grinding operations. (d) Acomputer-numerical-control centerless
grinding machine. Source: Cincinnati
Milacron, Inc.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Creep-Feed Grinding
FIGURE 9.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel
depth of cut. (b) A groove produced on a flat surface in one pass by creep-feed grinding using a
shaped wheel. Groove depth can be on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed
grinding with a shaped wheel. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc. and Society of Manufacturing
Engineers.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Finishing Operations
FIGURE 9.18 Schematic illustration of the structure ofa coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th
century, and emery cloth are common examples of
coated abrasives.
FIGURE 9.19 Schematic illustration of a honing tool to
improve the surface finish of bored or ground holes.
FIGURE 9.20 Schematic illustration of thesuperfinishing process for a cylindrical part: (a)
cylindrical microhoning; (b) centerless microhoning.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Lapping
FIGURE 9.21 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b)
Production lapping on flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindricalsurfaces.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical-Mechanical Polishing
FIGURE 9.22 Schematic illustration of the chemical-mechanical polishing process. This
process is widely used in the manufacture of silicon wafers and integrated circuits, where it
is known as chemical-mechanical planarization. Additional carriers and more disks percarrier also are possible.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Polishing Using Magnetic Fields
FIGURE 9.23 Schematic illustration of the use of magnetic fields to polish balls and rollers: (a)
magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls and (b) magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers.Source:After R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
chip dimensions in grinding operations
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
material removal rate in surface grinding
9.61 (Textbook
) Derive a formula for the materialremoval rate in surface grinding in terms of
process parameters. Use the same terminology as
in the text.
The Metal Removal Rate is
MRR = Volume of material removed/time
In surface grinding, the situation is similar to the metal removal rate in slab milling
(see Section 8.10.1). Therefore,
MRR = lwd / t = vwd
where w is the width of the grinding wheel.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
workpiece strength and impact on depth of cut
9.59(Textbook) If the workpiece strength in grinding is in-
creased by 50%, what should be the percentagedecreases in the wheel depth of cut, d, in order to
maintain the same grain force, all other variables being
the same?
From Section 9.4.1, it is apparent that if the workpiece-materialstrength is doubled, the grain force will be doubled. Since the grain
force is dependent on the square root of the depth of cut, the new
depth of cut would be one-fourth the original depth of cut. Thus, the
reduction in the wheel depth of cut would be 75%.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Temperature increase in surface-grinding
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
power dissipated in surface grinding
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Ultrasonic Machining
FIGURE 9.24 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic-machining process; material is removed
through microchipping and erosion. (b) and (c) Typical examples of cavities produced by ultrasonic
machining. Note the dimensions of cut and the types of workpiece materials.
Contact time:Contact force:
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
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2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
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2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
d
Machinin
gProcesse
s
TABLE 9.4 General
characteristics of advanced
machining processes.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical Milling
FIGURE 9.25 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the
stiffness-to-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical
milling of aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have first
been formed into shape, such as by roll forming or stretch forming. Source:ASM International.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical Machining
FIGURE 9.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces are
involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Roughness and Tolerance
Capabilities
FIGURE 9.27 Surface roughness and dimensional tolerance capabilities of various machining processes. Note the wide
range within each process. (See also Fig. 8.26.) Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed., 1980. Used by permission
of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Chemical Blanking
FIGURE 9.28 Typical parts made by chemical blanking; note the fine detail.
Source:Courtesy of Buckabee-Mears St. Paul.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electrochemical Machining
FIGURE 9.29 Schematic illustration of the
electrochemical-machining process. This processis the reverse of electroplating, described in
Section 4.5.1.
FIGURE 9.30 Typical parts made by electrochemical
machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy,360 HB; the part on the right is the shaped electrode.
Source:ASM International. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-
steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a
compressor disk.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electrochemical Grinding
FIGURE 9.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical grinding process. (b) Thin slotproduced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
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Electrical Discharge Machining
FIGURE 9.32 Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge-machining process.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
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EDM Examples
FIGURE 9.33 (a) Examples of shapes produced by the electrical-
discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. The two
round parts in the rear are a set of dies for extruding the aluminum
piece shown in front; see also Section 6.4. Source:Courtesy of AGIE
USA Ltd. (b) A spiral cavity produced using a shaped rotating
electrode. Source: American Machinist. (c) Holes in a fuel-injection
nozzle produced by electrical-discharge machining.
FIGURE 9.34 Stepped cavities
produced with a square electrode
by EDM. In this operation, the
workpiece moves in the two
principal horizontal directions, and
its motion is synchronized with the
downward movement of the
electrode to produce thesecavities. Also shown is a round
electrode capable of producing
round or elliptical cavities. Source:
Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
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Wire EDM
FIGURE 9.35 Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining
can be performed with one reel of wire, which is then recycled.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Laser Machining
FIGURE 9.36 (a) Schematic illustration of the
laser-beam machining process. (b) Cutting
sheet metal with a laser beam. Source: (b)
Courtesy of Rofin-Sinat, Inc.
TABLE 9.5 General applications of lasers in
manufacturing.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electron-Beam Machining
FIGURE 9.37 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM,
this process requires a vacuum, and hence workpiece size is limited by the chamber size.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Water-Jet Machining
FIGURE 9.38 (a) Schematic
illustration of water-jet machining.
(b) A computer-controlled water-jet
cutting machine. (c) Examples of
various nonmetallic parts machined
by the water-jet cutting process.Source: Courtesy of OMAX
Corporation.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Abrasive-Jet Machining
FIGURE 9.39 (a) Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process. (b) Examples of
parts produced by abrasive-jet machining; the parts are 50 mm (2 in.) thick and are made of 304
stainless steel. Source:Courtesy of OMAX Corporation.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Design Considerations
FIGURE 9.40 Design guidelines for internal features, especially as applied to holes. (a) Guidelines for
grinding the internal surfaces of holes. These guidelines generally hold for honing as well. (b) The use of a
backing plate for producing high-quality through-holes by ultrasonic machining. Source:After J. Bralla.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson EducationISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Economic Considerations
FIGURE 9.41 Increase in the cost of machining and finishing operations as a function of the surface finish
required. Note the rapid increase associated with finishing operations.
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Case Study: Stent Manufacture
FIGURE 9.42 The Guidant MULTI-LINK TETRATM
coronary stent system.
FIGURE 9.43 Detail of
the 3-3-3 MULTI-LINKTETRATM pattern.
FIGURE 9.44 Evolution of the stent surface. (a)
MULTI-LINK TETRATM after lasing. Note that a
metal slug is still attached. (b) After removal of
slug. (c) After electropolishing.
Recommended