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The Development of Contemporary
heoretical Cartography
3 0
rras
.
Tositomo KANAKUBO*
Abstract The seeds of modern-day theoretical cartography sprouted in the latter
alf of the nineteenth century. Since then it has passed through three developing
stages. Among them, theoretical cartography of the post-World War Two era has
several qualities that have never been seen before. The author has attempted to
relate the process of the development of contemporary theoretical cartography by
collecting literature on theoretical cartography from as many countries as possible.
Upon classifying the literature, he has analyzed the presentation, discussion, develop-
ment, and consolidation of each theory. Furthermore, the author intends to explore
the directions in which the new cartography' advocated by contemporary cartogra-
phy is headed.
he latter half of the nineteenth century was the period in which theoretical
cartography began to flourish. The beginning of the twentieth century to the pre-
War era saw the German geographic world grasp international power over cartogra-
phy. It was in this time period that cartography began its fight to establish its
theoretical side as an independent science.
he post-War cartography thrived in the Fifties to the beginning of the Sixties,
and cartographic associations from all over the world were first united in the form of
the ICA. The ICA became an international forum for the presentation of theories
and the exchange of news and technological advances.
any scholars persevered in establishing a theoretical system of cartography as
a science in the early half of the nineteen-sixties. The cartographic communication
theory was developed, and there were attempts to link it to the information theory.
In addition there were attempts to introduce semiology, modelling theory, and cogni-
tion theory to cartography.
he Commission on Cartographic Information organized in the ICA and became
a forum for international discusson due to the aggressive efforts of chairman Ratajski.
Especially in the early half of the nineteen-seventies, numerous cartographers
attempted to construct a model of the transmission of cartographic information.
alichtchev who advocated the modelling theory, criticized the cartographic
communication theory formed mainly by Ratajski and Morrison. To counter it,
Morrison pointed out faults in Salichtchev's explanation and, applying the technique
of set theory, explained the structure of cartographic communication to prove his
point. This debate sparked many analysis of the communication theory and the
epistemological theory of cartography, and the early half of the nineteen-seventies
served as period in which such debates flourished.
he ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was kept busy in the early
THE SCIENCE REPORTS OF THE TOHOKU UNIVERSITY, 7TH
Vol. 40 No. 1, June 1990. 1-19.
* Dr
. Sc., Managing Director, The Japan Map Center, Tokyo.
SERIES (GEOGRAPHY)
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2
T. KANAKUBO
Seventies dealing with the possibilities of the standardization of international
hematic maps. Generally speaking, cartographers of socialist countries were quite
greeable to the idea, while cartographers of the capitalistic countries tended to be
keptical.
The late Seventies and early Eighties were the era in which movements to
ystematize theoretical cartography became conspicuous. Although there were
any essays presented which expressed the author's own opinion with the history of
ifferent views of a theory, there was also a trend of integrating the various theories.
n addition, geographic and cartographic societies, which until then had enjoyed a
lose relationship, terminated their practice of holding international conferences in
he same place, thereafter slowly growing apart.
he amazing progress made in computer technology has also greatly influenced
artography. The concepts of cartogrpahy has changed, and there have been calls
or altering the definition of cartography. The need to organize genealogically the
oncepts and methodology of cartography has arisen. At the same time, preparation
or the systematization of the theoretical angle has been hastened due to the develop-
ent of the new cartography. All these advancements have made essential the
-'cooperation of cartographers from all countries.
ey words : theoreticalcartography,historical review,activities of the ICA
,inter-
r ,-W.---
national debate, new cartography
1 Preface
It is said that the history of maps is as old as that of mankind. However, the
development of cartography as a science has been a relatively new occurrence,
especially in the area involving theoretical cartography. There are several reasons
for its late development. One is that research in cartography has always tended to
focus more upon technical or technological factors. Another reason is that attention
was turned more toward the esthetic or artistic elements. Still another reason is that
in most countries, surveying and mapping was often the responsibility of the military
,
which was more concerned with the military value of maps. Scientific research of
cartography, therefore, was left as an afterthought.
he seeds of modern-day theoretical cartography sprouted in the latter-half of the
nineteenth century. Since then it has passed through three developing stages
. In the
first stage, priority was given to the technical or practical aspects of mapmaking ;
mapmaking focused on surveying technology and military topography to suit military
purposes. The pioneers of geography followed with the development of a geographi-
cal research system ; the establishment of cartography as a science is due to their
tremendous efforts. In its third stage, which continues at the present, cartography has
struggled to establish itself as an independent discipline.
heoretical cartography of the post-World War Two era has several qualities
that have never been seen before. There has been much research done on the concept
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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography
3
of cartography, and many aggressive attempts to integrate or apply the concepts and
theories of related sciences. The establishment of the International Cartographic
Association (ICA) has led to international discussion of the theoretical problems of
cartography. Developing new fields growing from advancements in computer technol-
ogy have necessitated the construction of related new theories. One problem of
contemporary theoretical cartogrpahy is that of systematically and concretely clarify-
ing these characteristics.
he author has attempted to relate the process of the development of contempo-
rary theoretical cartography by collecting literature on theoretical cartography from
as many countries as possible. Upon classifying the literature by author and by era
in which it was written, he has analyzed the presentation, discussion, development, and
consolidation of each theory. Furthermore, the author intends to explore the direc-
tions in which the new cartography advocated by contemporary cartography is
headed.
2 Theoretical cartography and its genealogy
ompared to the pre-War era, the post-World War Two era has seen remarkable
progress in the various fields of cartography. The increase in map usage and the
demand for new types of maps has led to great strides in cartographic technology,
which in turn has elicited a need to educate cartographers. It has also produced
expectations of progress in its establishment as a field of science as well as in its own
areas of research.
he analyses of P.C. Muehrche (1973), A.H. Robinson and others (1976) also of the
United States, and F.J. Ormeling (1972) of the Netherlands pointed out the research
done and progress attained in the theoretical areas, emphasizing this work even more
than recent technological breakthroughs. In addition, E. Arnberger (1970) of Austria
divided the development of contemporary cartography into the following three
eriods :
) the beginning of the latter half of the nineteenth century, when, in the domain
of geography, there was much interest in topographic cartography
) the beginning of the twentieth century to the pre-War era, when cartography
strove to establish itself as an independent field of science, and the main focus shifted
to thematic cartography
) the post-War era, where cartography has established itself as a field of science
in its own right.
artographic research in the first time period, the nineteenth century, was done
with the military in mind, and therefore it focused on surveying technology and
military topography. The tendency was to stress the technical and practical over the
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T. KANAKUBO
theoretical. However, geographers' attention was turned toward maps which
influenced progress in geographical research systems. Research in map projection,
relief representation, map color, and construction of various types of atlases was
abound, and efforts to institute cartography as a science continued.
n the second time period, photogrammetry was introduced to mapmaking, and in
addition to topographic maps, attention turned toward thematic maps as well. Maps
were most highly regarded by geographers interested in regional geographic research.
Thus was born the theory for cartographic representation, and there began a natural
trend toward acknowledging maps as a scholarly field. This trend was especially
conspicuous in Germany, where A. Penck, W. Koppen, M. Eckert, and A. Hettner,
among others, did much energetic research. Eckert, in particular, wrote his great
work, Die Kartenwissenschaft, Forschungen and Grundlagen zu einer Kartographie
als Wissenschaft (I-1921, 11-1925), and also presented his thoughts on Map Logic.
n the other hand, advances in the theoretical side of cartography was difficult in
the United States, where practicality took precedence over theory. However, there
appeared such people as E. Raisz, who emphasized the scientific and artistic aspects of
maps, and J.K. Wright, who stressed the disposition as well as the scientific integrity
of the cartographer. These people influenced the progress of post-War cartographic
communication theory.
o summarize, the latter half of the nineteenth century was the period in which
theoretical cartography began to flourish. The beginning of the twentieth century to
the pre-War era saw the German geographic world grasp international power over
cartography. It was in this time period that cartography began its fight to establish
its theoretical side as an independent science.
3 Theoretical cartography in the post-War era
ower over the fieldof cartographywas passed or a time from Germany o the
UnitedStates and England, he victors of the War. There were many enlightening
texts published to be distinguisheds the AmericanA.H.Robinson's The Look of
Maps 1952) nd Elements f Cartography 1953). In these,he discussedhe impor-
tance of visual mpressionn cartographic esiznand the clarityand legibility f maps,
and made a general analysis of the process in which cartographic ommunication
theorieswere devised.
he rebuilding f a newscientific artoy aphywas led by the German heoretical
cartographyof the Fifties,whichbeganwit the definition,lassification,nd systema-
tization of technical erms. At this sa e time, E. mhof of Switzerlanddeclared,
Theoreticalcartography
or scientifi cartography s comprisedof the critical
examination nd development f map , their subjectmatter, their graphic orms and
12 v WC I Ci
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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography 5
techniques of construction, and the obtaining of standards for the map drawing (1956).
In addition he acknowledged and stressed the esthetical value of maps.
long with the rapid progress made in cartography in the post-War period,
cartography distinguished itself from being merely a constituent of the large field of
geography, and produced the need to create an academy or society dealing solely with
maps. From the nineteen-fifties to the Sixties, several scientific associations related
to cartography were formed throughout the world, and various bulletins were publi-
shed as well. The International Cartographic Association (ICA) was established in
1959 as an international organization of cartographers. The ICA began holding an
International Cartographic Conference about every two years, and various Commis-
sions and Working Groups began aggressive activity. In 1961 the first yearly bulletin,
the International Yearbook of Cartography (IYC) was published. In Japan, the Japan
Cartographers Association (JCA) was established in 1963, the same year that their first
bulletin, Map, was published. Japan joined the ICA in 1964.
o sum up, post-War cartography thrived in the Fifties to the beginning of the
Sixties, and cartographic associations from all over the world were first united in the
form of the ICA. The ICA became an international forum for the presentation of
theories and the exchange of news and technological advances. All in all, it was an
epoch-making period.
4 New movements in theoretical cartography of the Sixties
he first president of the ICA, E. Imhof, also served concurrently as the chief
editor of the IYC. Presenting such papers as Gelande and Karte (1950), Thematis-
che Kartographie (1962), and Kartographische Gelandedarstellung (1972), Imhof
aggressively led the cartographic world. He contributed numerous essays on the
annotation of toponomy, relief representation, and cartographic artistry. One of his
special goals concerned pictorial clarity or readability in relief representation ; draw-
ing a topographical map based on a precise sketch, Imhof emphasized the method of
compressing details and emphasizing essential forms.
he American J.C. Sherman, who penned the first thesis in the first issue of the
IYC, analyzed cartography of the outset of the Sixties. Sherman wrote about the
function of maps, the collection and processing of map resources, and the necessity of
geo-cartographic research done in the area of cartographic representation. He also
regarded maps as a form of communication, and subsequently expounded the useful-
ness of the information theory. In 1962 another American, W. Bunge, wrote Theoret-
ical Geography, in which he classified geography as a field of science with its own
laws. He also introduced the concept of metacartography and encouraged the
development of this new form of mathematical geography.
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T. KANAKUBO
In 1966 E. Arnberger of Austria wrote a compilation of all his research
, Hand-
buch der Thematischen Kartographie, declaring cartography a formal science
. His
disciple, Austrian I. Kretschmer, stated that this approach was not too narrow for the
consolidation of cartography, and would develop methods and rules of cartographic
representation and reproduction. J.S. Keates of England first defined the concept of
cartographic c
ommunication in 1964, proposing that communication through maps
be linked to information theory. That same year, A.A. Moles of France independently
presented his ideas on the relationship between information theory and the transmis-
sion of cartographic information. J. Bertin followed in 1967with Se'rniologie graphi-
que, which opened the way for the processing and transmission of information on
visual language.
. Board of England presented Maps as Models in 1967. He stated that maps
should be visualized not only as representational models of the real world
, but also
as conceptual models containing the essence of some generalization about reality
.
Along with the presentation of his diagram of The Map-Model Cycle
, he examined
the role of maps through use of a generalized communication system
. By recognizing
that maps are a model of reality, and by using them as conceptual models leading to
a greater understanding of the real world, he theorized that maps are assured their
central importance in geographical methodology
.
heoretical cartography in the socialist countries, particularly in the Soviet
Union, developed independently. K.A. Salichtchev concentrated on the development
of methods of cartographic research. He placed much emphasis on the importance of
mentioning various phenomena in papers, as well as the analysis and cognition of such
phenomena. Furthermore, Salichtchev stressed the significance of acquiring new
information about and of understanding the characteristics of such phenomena
, cou-
pled with research and predictions of spatial relationships. He pointed out the
necessity of utilising maps in order for the afore mentioned activities to occur
.
alichtchev advocated the cartographic modelling theory for understanding the
essence and substance of each phenomenon, criticizing Board's modelling theory :
t proceeds from the general theory of information
, leading to a faulty inter-
retation of a number of concepts and processes in cartography. This
roduced contradictions, and in the end led to a very narrow understanding of
aps as models of reality and to an underestimation of their cognitive
ossibilities.... [Board] tends to see maps ... as a repository of facts
resented as far as possible in intelligible form, if need be to the detriment of
etail and accuracy.
n summary, many scholars persevered in establishing a theoretical system of
cartography as a science in the early half of the nineteen-sixties
. The cartographic
communication theory was developed, and there were attempts to link it to the
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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography 7
information theory. In addition there were attempts to introduce
modelling theory, and cognition theory to cartography.
semiology, the
5 The Organization of Commissions in the International Cartographic Association
ICA) and their activities
long with the presentation of his thesis, Cartographic Information a funda-
mental concept and term in modern cartography, in which he exhibited a model
diagram concerned with cartographic communication, A. Kola triS-rof Czechoslovakia
also proposed the establishment of a Commission on Cartographic Information to
the ICA at the Fourth International Cartographic Conference held in New Delhi in
1968. The proposal was accepted and a working group was formed with Kola 'any
designated as chairman and was assigned the task of defining the terms cartographic
information and cartographic communication. A Commission on Communication
in Cartography was organized in 1972 at a general meeting at the Sixth International
Cartographic Conference, held in Ottawa that year. This commission served as a
forum for international discussion of theoretical cartography.
. Ratajski of Poland was keenly interested in the transmission process of carto-
graphic information and presented The Research Structure of Theoretical Cartogra-
phy in 1972, proposing the technical term cartology as well as exhibiting a graphic
model of cartographic communication. He applied the mathematical information
theory to construct his theory, and tried to clarify the effects of transmission and
explain the loss of information.
he working group of the ICA now established, cartographers from various
countries began to show interest in cartographic communication, and there were many
lively debates taking place at the international level. Many people like C. Koeman of
the Netherlands (1971), P.C. Muehrcke of the United States (1969, 1970), J.C. Barth-
olomew of England (1972), and U. Freitag (1971) and G. Hake (1973) of West Germany
discussed the communicative function of maps and tried to make a model of the
communication process.
herefore, it was during this time that the ICA's Commission on Cartographic
Information, organized in answer to a proposal made by Kola en9, became a more
animated forum for international discussion due to the aggressive efforts of chairman
Ratajski. Especially in the early half of the nineteen-seventies, numerous cartogra-
phers attempted to construct a model of the transmission of cartographic information.
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T. KANAKUBO
6 International debates on cartographic communication criticisms and develop-
ent
The idea that the role of maps was to communicate, and that the objective of
cartography was to verify and complete the communication process, became quite
popular among the members of the ICA Commission. Presented at the Sixth Interna-
tional Cartographic Conference in 1972 in Canada were L. Ratajski's The Research
Structure of Theoretical Cartography and American J.L. Morrison's Changing
Philosophical Technical Aspects of Thematic Cartography. However, K.A.
Salichtchev of the Soviet Union criticized these presentations :
he main tendencies in the development of contemporary cartography the
ntroduction of automation....... naturally are creating an urge to rethink
artography's subject and method. It seems to me that the very successes of
utomated cartography, which have stemmed partly from the application of
athematical information theory for the solution of certain cartographic
roblems, have provided a basis for a number of scientists again advancing
iews of cartography as an information-technical discipline.
orrison presented A Theoretical Framework for Cartographic Generalization
with Emphasis on the Process of Symbolization in 1974, in which he interpreted
cartography to be a science of communication. Using the process of cartographic
generalization as an example, he assumed that it was the sum of certain structural
changes occurring in the duration of ime : simplification, classification, symbolization,
and induction. Then, applying the technique of set theory to analyze the results, he
tried to extract the foundation of his communication theory from it. This paper was
seen as the deductive extension of his 1972 paper, and was a response to Salichtchev'
s comments.
A.H. Robinson and B.B. Petchenik of the United States presented The Map as a
Communication System in 1975. In this paper they introduced the history of the
development of the cartographic communication theory and analyzed the relationship
between the construction and perception of maps of the environment
, using Venn
diagrams. In addition, as future topics for discussion, they suggested among other
things the assessment of information and measurement of the quantity of information
,
and the perception of the white areas on maps.
n 1976 J.L. Morrison introduced his paper, The Science of Cartography and its
Essential Processes, his rebuttal of Salichtchev's criticisms as well as a report on his
advancements in cartographic communication. He stated that cartographic commu-
nication was not a simple, one-way transmission of information from cartographer to
map reader, but was communication between individual cognitive realms
, an intricate
and advanced transmission of information dependent upon the successful use of lan-
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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography
9
guage by the cartographic scientist, who must consider the map reader's abilities to
perform map reading tasks.
n 1975 B.B. Petchenik presented Cognition in Cartography, which included a
semantic analysis of maps. She further declared that cartographers should become
more familiar with basic cognitive research being conducted by psychologists, and that
epistemological cartography should be the main focus of cartography.
s mentioned previously, Salichtchev, who advocated the modelling theory based
on the theory of epistemological materialistic dialectics, stated that the cartographic
communication theory formed mainly by Ratajski and Morrison came partly from the
application of mathematical information theory, and severely criticized that it would
limit the role of cartography to an information-technical discipline. To counter
Salichtchev's comments, Morrison pointed out faults in Salichtchev's explanation and,
applying the technique of set theory, explained the structure of cartographic communi-
cation to prove his point. This debate sparked many analyses of the communication
theory and the epistemological theory of cartography, and the early half of the
nineteen-seventies served as a period in which such debates flourished.
7 The Standardization of thematic maps
he ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was organized in 1968, con-
centrating on intensifying the expansion of international research of thematic cartog-
raphy and examining the possibility of standardizing international thematic maps.
However, as the scope of the problems was too broad and there were discrepancies in
the aims of each country, the focus of the commission was narrowed down to the
international standardization of map symbols.
artographers from numerous countries worked on the standardization of
thematic maps in the nineteen-seventies. In the socialist countries, M.I. Nikishov and
A.I. Preobrazhensky (1970) of the Soviet Union and L. Ratajski (1971) of Poland, among
others, attempted to standardize conventional signs of economic maps to be drawn in
the future. F. Joly (1971) of France stated that a distinction should be made between
the fields in which standardization would and would not be desirable. E. Lehmann
(1972) of East Germany accentuated that alterations in the scale of a cartographic
ompilation would bring about changes in the concept of the map as well as changes
in map content and the method of cartographic representation. W. Witt (1972) of
West Germany declared that thematic maps should be classified into two groups based
on their function, and since each group would demand different researching methods,
they should be treated as separate entities. And from their respective standpoints, I.
P. Zarutskaya (1966) of the Soviet Union and E. Spiess (1971) of Switzerland indicated
the importance of the base map of a thematic map.
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T. KANAKIJBO
The president of the ICA, A.H. Robinson (1974), analyzed the advantages and
disadvantages of symbol standardization of international thematic maps. He studied
two different systems, one based on the type of geographical phenomena being mapped,
the other on the purpose for which the map is being made, and from his findings then
related the difficulties in the reformation and standardization of international thematic
maps.
Problems of an International Standa
rdization of a Means of Communication
through Cartographic Symbols was presented by E. Arnberger of Austria in 1974.
Arnberger expressed his views about such matters as the preconditions for interna-
tional standardization, the functions of symbols that should be used, and the order of
precedence of graphic elements. Then, from the fact that there were many other
terms that should be first resolved and tht there was a need to do some basic research
on the union of experimental psychology and cartography, he advocated prudence in
international standardization.
n Cartographic Communication Links and a Cartographic Alphabet (1974), K.-
H. Meine of West Germany expressed the need for an expansion in knowledge of the
cartographic communication process and the creation of an alphabet for a basic
language of maps, and the semiological application for such an alphabet
.
n these ways, the ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was kept busy in
the early Seventies, dealing with the possibilities of the standardization of interna-
tional thematic maps. Generally speaking, cartographers of socialist countries were
quite agreeable to the idea, while cartographers of capitalist countries tended to be
skeptical.
8 The movement towards the systematization of theoretical cartography
fter having been criticized by K.A. Salichtchev, L. Ratajski revised his theory in
1977 in Loss and Gain of Information in Cartographic Communication. In this paper
he not only wrote of the loss of cartographic information in the communication
process, but also mentioned for the first time the acquisition of information. In 1978
he wrote The Main Characteristics of Cartographic Communication as a Part of
Theoretical Cartography, in which he said that the ideological background which
influenced theoretical cartography of that time consisted of the information theory
,
semiology, the modelling theory, metascience, and the cognition theory. He then gave
an overall review of these background elements and their relation to cartography
.
he latter-half of the Seventies saw a good number of papers calling for the
systematization of theoretical cartography, where the author would add his own
opinion to a history of different views of a theory. For example, there were A.H.
Robinson and others' Cartography 1950-2000 (1976), W
. Witt's Theoretische Karto-
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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography
11
graphie ein Beitrag zur Systematik, A.M. Berlyant's Cartographic Research
Method (1977), I. Kretschmer's Theoretical Cartography : Positions and Tasks
(1980), K.A. Salichtchev's commemorative collection of essays, A Way for Develop-
ment of Cartography ( Puti Razvitija Kartografii ) (1975), and E. Arnberger's com-
memorative essay collection, Beitrage zur Theoretischen Kartographie (1977). L.
Guelke's compilation of major papers on theoretical cartography written after those of
M. Eckert, was published in Canada as The Nature of Cartographic Communication
(1977).
As geography and cartography are closely related, the IGU (International Geo-
graphical Union) and the ICA held an international conference at approximately the
same time in the same country as affiliate associations. However, as both groups
became more specialized and changes occurred in their relationship to each other, they
began to drift apart, and in 1980 they held their last cosponsored conference in Tokyo.
. Board of England, as successor to L. Ratajski, became the center of ICA
Commission activity. He sought to compile a bibliography of literature on cartogra-
phic communication and complete a model of cartographic communication as the basic
framework of research. He also completed a genealogical model (1983) of literature
on theoretical cartography, arranging the information by author, year of publication,
and language in which it was written.
.A. Salichtchev presented Idea and Theoretical Problems in Cartography in the
80's (Idei i teoreticheskie Problemi v Kartografii 80-h Godov. ) in 1982. He wrote
about the developmental history of theoretical cartography, with an emphasis on the
international debates of the Seventies and the Eighties. He placed cognitive-oriented
ideas in opposition with formalistic-oriented ideas and placed himself at a standpoint
supporting the former. However, in the chapter entitled Cartographic Communica-
tion : A Theoretical Survey of the compilation Graphic Communication and Design
in Contemporary Cartography, edited by D.R.F. Taylor of Canada and published in
1983, Salichtchev professed a view stressing the communicative function of maps as
well.
To summarize, the late Seventies and early Eighties was the era in which
movements to systematize theoretical cartography became conspicuous. Although
there were many essays presented which expressed the author's own opinion with the
history of different views of a theory, there was also a trend of integrating the various
theories. In addition, geographic and cartographic societies, which until then had
enjoyed a close relationship, terminated their practice of holding international confer-
ences in the same place, thereafter slowly growing apart.
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T. KAN AKUBO
9 The development of automated cartography and its effect on theoretical cartog-
aphy
With the advancements in computer technology, automated cartography began to
develop rapidly in the nineteen-sixties and onwards
. Major areas of research includ-
ed the collection of cartographic data, map compilation
, representation of cartogra-
phic information, and the development of a mapping system. Construction of a
cartographic database and preparations for Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
also flourished. The value of conventional maps and automated maps were compara-
tively analyzed as well.
oupled with the development of automated cartography, cartographic works of
a new sort, contradictory to the traditional concept of maps
, were born. The concepts
of a temporary map or nonmap, as opposed to the permanent map (P.D. Rife, 1970), or
a virtual map, as opposed to a real map (H. Moellering
, 1976), were also born, and
therefore the need to reexamine the concept of cartography was also realized
.
rom the end of the Seventies on into the Eighties
, a great many papers and books
on theoretical cartography were presented or published, and a movement toward
systematization came to light. The ICA's Commission on Cartographic Communica-
tion edited a bibliography of literature on theoretical cartography
, then disbanded. In
its place was organized a Working Group on Concepts and Methodology in Cartogra-
phy, and its successor, the Commission on Concepts in Cartography ; these groups
began to arrange systematically various concepts and methodology
.
ue to the progress in computer-assisted cartography
, new potential was discover-
ed in cartography. The ICA formed a new Working Group on Cartographic Definition
to reexamine cartography from a fresh standpoint, or specifically
, to examine the need
to alter the definition of cartography. This topic became the center of debate within
the ICA. Systematic organization of the theoretical angle of cartography
, which is
indispensable to the development of the new cartography
, will be the next step, and
it will require the cooperation of cartographers from all over the world
.
s related above, the amazing progress made in computer technology has also
greatly influenced cartography. The concept of cartography has changed, and there
have been calls for altering the definition of cartography . The need to organize
genealogically the concepts and methodology of cartography has arisen. At the same
time, preparation for the systematization of the theoretical angle has been hastened
due to the development of the new cartography. All these advancements have made
essential the cooperation of cartographers from all countries
.
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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography
13
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