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WW
Wastewater
Operator Field Guide
Compiled by AWWA staff members:
John M
Stubbart
William G Lauer
Timothy J McCandless
Paul Olson
merican Water Works
ssociation
cience and Technology
AWWA unites the drinking water comm unity by develop ingand distributing author-
itative scientif ic and technological knowledge. Through its members AWWA
develops industry standards for products and pro cesses that advance public
health and safety. AWWA also provides quality improvement programs for water
and w astew ater utilities.
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Copyright 006 American Water Works Association.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States ofAmerica.
Project Manager: Melissa Christensen Senior Technical Editor
Produced by Glacier Publishing Services Inc.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in
any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including
photocopying recording or any information or retrieval system
except in the form
of
brief excerpts or quotations for review pur-
poses without the written permission of the publisher.
Disclaimer
The authors contributors editors and publisher do not assume
responsibility for the validity of the content or any consequences
of their use.
n
no event will AWWA be liable for direct indirect
special incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use
of information presented in this book.
n particular AWWA will
not be responsible for any costs including but not limited to
those incurred as a result of lost revenue. In no event shall
AWWA’s liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase of thjs
book.
Libraryof Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
has been applied
for
ISBN
1 58321 386 4
merican Water Works
ssociation
West
Qiiiricy Averiiie
Denver
o 80235 3098
303.794.77i 1
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reface
T his guide is
a
compilation ofinform ation charts graphs formu-
las and definitions that are used by wastewater system operators
in performing their daily duties. There is s much information
contained in
s
many different sources that finding it while in the
field can be
a
problem. This guide compiles information mostly
from AWWA manuals books an d standards bu t also from other
generic information found in many publications.
T h e sections of this guide grou p the information based on how
it would be used by the operator. T h e guide includes information
for both wastewater treatment and collection. Design engineers
should also find this material helpful. Major sections include
math conversion factors chemistry safety collection p um ps and
motors flow wastewater treatment biosolids an d disposal.
Perusing the guide now will assist in finding handy information
later. T his is the first edition of the guide. If you w ould like to sug-
gest changes or additions
to
the guide please submit them
to
AWWA Publishing Group
6666
W. Quincy Ave. Denver
CO
80235.
vii
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Contents
Preface
Basic Math
Systkme International Units
Key Formulas for Math
Key Conversions for
Flows
Key Formulas for
Flows
and Meters
Units of Measure
and
Conversions
Units of Measure
Conversion of US Customary Units
Conversion ofMetric Units
Temperature Conversions
Water Conversions
Water Equivalents and Data
Chemistry
Key Formulas for Chemistry
Conductivity and Dissolved Solids
Safety
OSHA
Safety Regulations
Trench Shoring Conditions
Roadway Traffic and Vehicle Safety
Fire and Electrical Safety
vii
5
10
11
13
14
3
35
9
5
51
5
61
62
81
83
88
90
102
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Personnel Safety
Health Effects of Toxin Exposure
Collection
Design Flow Rates
Flow Measurement
Sewer Construction
Manholes
Pipe Characteristics
Pipe Joints
Gauges and Valves
Types of Corrosion
Various Factors Affecting Corrosion
Pipe Testing
Water Exfiltration
Pipe Cleaning and Maintenance
Pumps
Electrical Measurements
Frequently Used Formulas
Horsepower and Eficiency
Pump Volage
Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Types of Pumps
Flow
Key Conversions for Flows
Key Formulas for Flows and Meters
Weirs
Types of Flumes
Types of Meters
Wastewater Treatment
Key Formulas
Grit
Filters
Settling
Diffusers
Sequencing Batch Reactors
103
106
9
120
123
129
147
149
160
163
165
166
169
171
173
85
186
186
189
195
197
21 1
222
223
228
241
246
261
264
2 73
275
284
288
289
iv
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Intermittent Sand Filters
Septage
Biosolids
Sludge Processing Calculations
Gravity Thickening
Dewatering
Centrifuges
Management Practices
Regulatory Requirements
Discharge and Disinfection
Chlorine
Ultraviolet Light
Marine Discharge
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Glossary
Index
9
294
297
298
3 4
31
315
317
335
369
37
38
387
389
4 5
423
V
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Basic
Math
A number of calculations are used in the
operation of small wastewater acilities. Some
only need to be calculated once and recordedfor
iLture
reference; others may need to be calculated
morefiequently. Operators need to be a m i l ia r
with
the
ormulas and basic calculations to carry
out their duties properly. Note
that
the orm ulas
in th is section are basic and general; spec %
for m ula sfo r particu lar components
of
wastewater systems can be fo un d in the
relevant sections of th is guide.
1
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SYSTEME INTERNATIONAL UNITS
When performing calculations, water operators should pay particu-
lar attention not only to the numbers but also to the units involved.
Where
SI
units and customary units are given, convert all units to
one system, usually
SI,fi.st.
Be sure to write the appropriate units
with each number in the calculations for clarity. Inaccurate calcula-
tions and measurements can lead to incorrect reports and costly
operational decisions. This section introduces the calculations that
are the basic building blocks
of
the water/wastewater industry.
SI
Prefixes
The SI is based on factors of ten, similar to the dollar. This allows
the size
of
the unit of measurement to be increased or decreased
while the base unit remains the same. The
SI
prefixes are
mega, M = 1,000,000
x
the base unit
kilo, k = 1,000 x the base unit
hecta,
h
=
100
x
the base unit
deca, da = 10 x the base unit
deci, d = 0.1 x the base unit
centi,
c
= 0.01 x the base unit
milli, m =
0.001 x the base unit
micro, p = 0.000001 x the base unit
Base SI
Units
Quantity
Unit
Abbreviation
length meter
mass kilogram
time second
electric current ampere
thermodynamic temperature kelvin
amount of substance mole
luminous intensity candela
m
kg
sec
A
K
mol
cd
2
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Supplementary
SI
Units
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
plane angle radian
solid angle steradian sr
rad
9
v
m
.-
m
DerivedSI Units With Special
Names
Quantity
Equivalent-Units
Unit Abbreviation Abbreviation
frequency of a periodic
force
pressure, stress
energy, work, quantity of heat
power, radiant flux
quantity of electricity,
electric charge
electric potential, potential
difference, electromotive orce
electrical capacitance
electrical resistance
electrical conductance
magnetic flux
magnetic flux density
inductance
luminous flux
luminance
activity of a radionuclide)
absorbed ionizing radiation dose
ionizing radiation dose equivalent
phenomenon)
hertz
newton
pascal
joule
watt
coulomb
volt
farad
ohm
siemens
weber
tesla
henry
lumen
lux
becquerel
gray
sievert
Hz
V
F
R
S
Wb
T
H
Im
Ix
Bq
GY
sv
sec-’
kg m/sec2
N/m2
N-m
Jlsec
A-sec
WIA
C N
VIA
AN
Vesec
Wb/m2
Wb/A
cd-Sr
lm/m2
disintegrations/sec
J/kg
Jlkg
3
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Some Common Derived
SI
Units
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
absorbed dose rate
acceleration
angular acceleration
angular velocity
area
concentration amount of
substance)
current density
density, mass
electric charge density
electric field strength
electric flux density
energy density
entropy
grays per second
meters per second squared
radians per second squared
radians per second
square meter
moles per cubic meter
amperes per square meter
kilograms per cubic meter
coulombs per cubic meter
volts per meter
coulombs per square meter
joules per cubic meter
joules per kelvin
Gylsec
m/sec2
radlsec’
radlsec
m 2
m o ~ l m ~
A/m2
kglm3
c/m3
V l m
C/m2
J/m3
JIK
exposure
X
and gamma rays) coulombs per kilogram Clkg
heat capacity
heat flux density irradiance
luminance
magnetic field strength
molar energy
molar entropy
molar heat capacity
moment of force
permeability magnetic)
permittivity
power density
joules per kelvin
watts per square meter
candelas per square meter
amperes per meter
joules per mole
jOUleS per mole kelvin
joules per mole kelvin
newton-meter
henrys per meter
farads pet meter
watts per square meter
JIK
W m’
cdlm2
A lm
Jlmol
J/ mol.K)
Jl mo1.K)
N-m
Hlm
lm
W/m2
Table continued on next
page
4
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Some Common Derived SI Units continued)
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
5
radiance watts per square meter W/ m*.sr)
s
steradian
radiant intensity watts per steradian
.-
2
Wlsr
m
specific energy joules per kilogram Jlkg
specific entropy joules per kilogram kelvin Jl kg.K)
specific heat capacity joules per kilogram kelvin J4kg.K)
specific volume cubic meters per kilogram m31kg
surface tension newtons per meter Nlm
thermal conductivity watts
per meter kelvin Wl m.K)
velocity
meters per second m/sec
viscosity, absolute pascal-second Pa.sec
viscosity, kinematic square meters per second m2/sec
volume
cubic meter
wave number per meter
m3
m-’
KEY FORMULAS FOR MATH
Area Formulas
Square
area= s X s
diagonal =
1.414
x s
Rectangle
or
Parallelogram
area
= b
x
h
diagonal
=
square root
b +
h
)
2
5
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Trapezoid
(a
+ b h
area
=
Any Triangle
b x h
2
rea=
Right-Angle Triangle
a + b = c
2 2
Circle
area =
C
X
r
circumference = 2
x
T
x
r
2
Sector of
a
Circle
T C X r X r X a
360
rea =
length = 0.01745 x
r
x a
0.01 745
X
r
angle =
1
0.01745
x
adius =
Ellipse
area =
T
x a x b
A
a 4
6
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Volume Formulas
rectangle tank volume = r:Z$e) dimension
area of
areaof ) third )
rectangle dimension
rough volume=
dimension
areaof
)
third )
= rectangle dimension
third
= 0.785 D2)
dimension)
cone volume =
Is
(volume of a cylinder)
3
Rectangular Solid
volume = h x a x
b
surface area = 2
X ~ X
) + 2 x b
x
h) +
2
x
a
x
b)
Cylinder
volume=XXr
x h
surface area =
2
x
x
x
rh
x
=
3.142
2
7
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Elliptical Cylinder
volume =
n;
x a x
b
x
h
x
h + 6.283 X aX b
+ b 2
area = 6.283 x
Sphere
volume =
surface area = 4 x n x r
Cone
volume =
surface area
= n ; ~
X f i x
(r +
h)
x
h
~ X T C X ~ ’
3
2
n ; x r 2 X h
3
Pyramid
a x b x h
volume
=
Other Formulas
theoretical water gal/min x total head, ft
horsepower 3,960
2
gal/min x Ib/in.
1 715
theoretical water horsepower
pump efficiency
brake horsepower =
volume of basin, gal
flow rate, gprn
detention time, min =
a
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filter backwash
rate,
flow, gpm
gal/m in/ft area of filter. ft2
flow, gpm
area, ft2
surface overflow rate =
flow, gpm
weir overflow rate
=
weir length, ft
pounds pe r mil gal
=
parts p er million x 8.34
parts per m illion = po un ds pe r mil gal x
0.12
par ts per million
=
percent s trength of solution x
10,000
pounds per day = volume, mgd x dosage, mg/L x 8.34 lb/gal
feed, Ib/day
volume, mgd x 8. 3 4 lb/gal
osage, mg/L
=
percent element
by weight
rectangular basin
3 =
volum e, ft
rectangular basin
volume,
gal
weight
of
element in com pound
molecular weight of com pou nd
length, ft
x
width,
ftx
height,
t
5
m
.-
x
100
length,
ft
x width, ft
x
height,
ft
x 7.48 gal/f?
right cylinder
3 =
0.785
x
diameter*, ft x height or depth, ft
volum e, ft
right cylinder 0.785 x diameter', t x height or depth,
volume,
gal
ft
x
7.48 gal/ft
gallonsper capita per day,
volume,
gpd
-
average water usage population served/day
9
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supply, day s = volume, gpd
(full to tank dry
population served x gpcd
6
ft3/sec
gallons per day of
(demand/day)
water consumption,
=
population x gpcd
1,440
ft3/min ft3/day
flow, gprn
=
flow, cfs x
448.8
gpm/cfs
flow, gpm
flow, cfs
=
448.8
gpmlcfs
1
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2
x 12 in./ft
ipe diameter, in. =
rea, ft
0.785
leak rate, gpd
length, mi. x diameter, in.
ctual leakage, gpd/m i./in.
=
NOTE: minimum flushing velocity: 2.5 f p s
maximum pipe velocity: 5.0
f p s
key conversions: 1.55 cfslrngd; 448.8gpm/cfs
KEY
FORMULAS FOR FLOWS
AND
METERS
Velocity
flow, cfs
=
area,
ft x
velocity, f p s
2
distance , ft
=
0.785 x diameter,
fi X
pm
448.8
gpm/cfs time, sec
flow, cfs
velocity,
f p s
=
rea,
ft
2
2
flow, cfs
area, ft
=
velocity,
f p s
Head Loss Resulting
From
Friction
Darcy-WeisbachFormula
h L = f
L/DN
2 /2g
W here (in any consistent
set of
units):
hL =
L =
D =
V =
g =
f
head
loss
friction factor, dimensionless
length o fpip e
diameter
of
the pipe
average velocity
gravity constant
11
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Flow
Rate
Calculations
The
rule
of continuity states that die flow Q that enters a system
must also be the flow that leaves the system.
Q , = Q
or
AIVl=A2V2
or
Q=AV
Where:
Q = flowrate
A
= area
Y = velocity
A
V
koyra =
(wi; '.)
x
( d e p )
x E;;.+)
eed rate dosage, conversion factor
fIb/day
>
= ppm
( .:zte7)
8.34
lb/gal
mil/gal
8.34
lb/gal
Summary
of
Pressure Requirements
Value
Requirement
psi
kPa) Location
Minimum pressure 35 241) Al l points within distribution system
Desired maximum
100 690) All points within distribution system
Fire flow minimum
20 140) All points within distribution system
Ideal range
50-75 345-41 7) Residences
35-60 241414) All points within distribution system
20 140) All ground level points
12
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Units of
Measure
and Conversions
The ability to accurately and consistently
measure such variables as low and head, along
wi th wastewater quality indicators such as
chemical and biological oxygen demand, total
suspended
solids,
toxins, and pathogens
is
a key
component
of
the successful operation of a
wastewater distribu tion system. Th is section
provides the most common uni ts ofmeasure
and associated conversions typically used
in the wastewater industry.
13
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UNITS
OF MEASURE
acre An
SI
unit ofarea.
acre-foot (acre-ft) A unit of volume. One acre-foot is the equivalent
amount
or
volume ofwater covering an area of 1 acre that
is
1 foot deep.
ampere (A) An SI unit of constant current that, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite leng th
or
negligible cross section
and placed 1 meter apa rt in a vacuum , wo uld pro du ce a force equal to
2
x 10 newtons pe r nieter oflength.
ampere-hour(A-hr) A un it of electric charge equ al
to 1
ampere flowing
for 1 hour.
angstrom
(A)
A unit ofleng th equal to 10 l o meter.
atmosphere (atm) A unit of pressure equal to 14.7 pou nds per square
inch (101.3 kilopascals) at average sea level un de r standard conditions.
bar A unit ofpre ssu re defined as 100 kilopascals.
barrel (bbl) A un it of volume, frequently 42 gallons for petroleum or
5 5 gallons for water.
baud A measure of analog data transmission speed that describes the
modulation rate of a wave, or the average frequency of the signal. O ne
baud equals 1 signal unit p er second. If an analog signal is viewed as an
electromagnetic wave, on e complete wavelength
or
cycle is equivalent to
a signal unit. T h e term b ud has often been used synonymously with
bits
per
second.
T h e baud rate may equ al bits per second for some trans-
mission techniques, but special modulation techniques kequently
deliver a bits-per-second rate higher than the baud rate.
becquerel (Bq) An S I unit of the activity of a radionuclide decaying at
the rate of on e spontaneo us nuclear transition p er second.
billion electron
volts
(BeV) A unit of energy equivalent to 10’ electron
volts.
billion gallons per day (bgd) A unit for expressing the volumetric flow
rate of water being pum ped, distributed, or used.
binary digits (bits) per second (bps) A
measure of the data transmission
rate. A binary digit is the smallest unit of information
or
data, repre-
sented by a binary “1”
or “0.”
British thermalunit(Btu) A unit of energy. One British thermal unit
was formerly defined as the quan tity of heat required to raise the tem-
perature of 1 pound of pure water 1’ Fahrenheit; now defined as
1,055.06joules.
7
bushel (bu) A unit ofvolume.
caliber (1) T h e diameter of a roun d body, especially the internal diame-
ter of a hollow cylinder.
(2)
T h e diameter of a bullet
or
other projectile,
14
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or the diameter of a gun's bore. In
US
customary units, usually
expressed in hundredths or thousandths ofan inch and typically written
as a decimal fraction (e.g., 0.32). In SI units, expressed in millimeters.
calorie gramcalorie) A unit of energy. One calorie is the amount of heat
necessary to raise the temperature of
1
gram ofpure water at 15 Celsius
by 1' Celsius.
candela (cd) An SI unit of lunlinous intensity. One candela is the lumi-
nous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochro-
matic radiation of frequency
540 x 10"
hertz and that has a radiant
candle
A unit of light intensity. One candle is equal to 1 candela. Can-
candlepower
A unit oflight intensity. One candlepower is equal to 1can-
v
a
>
S
U
S
r
E
o
intensity in that direction of l/683 watt per steradian.
delas are the preferred units.
dela. Candelas are the preferred units.
2
poise.
.-
a
=I
centimeter (cm) A unit oflength defined as one hundredth ofa meter.
centipoise
A
unit ofabsolute viscosity equivalent to
10-
poise. See also
chloroplatinate (Co-Pt) unit (cpu) See
color
unit .
2
.c
c
cobalt-platinum unit
See
color
unit .
colony-forming unit (cfu)
A unit of expression used in enumerating
bacteria by plate-counting methods. A colony of bacteria develops from
a single cell or a group of cells, either ofwhich is a colony-forming unit.
color unit(cu)
The unit used to report the color of water. Standard solu-
tions of color are prepared from potassium chloroplatinate (KZPtCls)
and cobaltous chloride (CoC12.6H20). Adding the following amounts
in 1,000 milliliters of distilled water produces a solution with a color of
500 color units: 1.246 grams potassium chloroplatinate,
1.00
grams
geobaltous chloride, and 100 milliliters concentrated hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
coulomb(C)
An SI unit of a quantity of electricity or electric charge.
One coulomb is the quantity of electricity transported in 1 second by a
current of 1 ampere, or about 6.25 x
10''
electrons. Coulombs are
equivalent
to
ampere-seconds.
coulombs
per
kilogram
(C/kg)
A unit of exposure dose of ionizing radi-
ation. See also roentgen.
cubic eet (ft')
A unit ofvolume equivalent to a cube with a dimension of
1 foot on each side.
cubic
eet per hour (ft'/hr) A unit for indicating the rate of liquid flow
past a given point.
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cubic feet per minute (ft3/min,
CFM) A unit for indicating the rate of
liquid flow past a given poin t.
cubic feet per second (ft3/sec, cfs) A
unit for indicating the rate of liq-
uid flow past a given point.
cubic inch
k3)unit of volume equivalent to a cube with a dimension
of 1 inch on each side.
cubic meter
(m3)
A
unit ofvolume equivalent to a cube with a dimension of
1 nieter on each side.
cubic yard (yd3)
A unit of volume equivalent to a cube w ith a dimension
of
1 yard on each side.
curie
Ci) unit of radioactivity. On e curie equals 37 billion disintegra-
tions per second, or approximately the radioactivity of
1
gram of
radium.
cycles per second (cps) A
unit for expressing the number
of
times sonie-
thing fluctuates, vibrates, or oscillates each second. These units have
been replaced by hertz. O n e hertz equals 1 cycle pe r second.
dalton (D)
A unit
of
weight. One dalton designates l/16 the weight of
oxygen-16. One dalton is equivalent to 0.9997 atomic w eight unit, or
nominally
1
atomic weight unit.
darcy(da)
The unit used to describe the permeability of a porous
medium (e.g., the movement of fluids through underground formations
studied by petroleuni engineers, geologists or geophysicists, and
groundwater specialists).
A
porous medium is said to have
a
pernieabil-
ity of 1 darcy if a fluid of l-centipoise viscosity that com pletely fills the
pore space of the m edium will flow through it at a rate
of
1 cubic centi-
meter per second pe r square centimeter of cross-sectional area under a
pressure gradient of 1 atmosphere p er centimeter of length. In SI units,
1 darcy
=
9.87 X
lo-
square m eters.
day
A unit of time equal
to
24 hours.
decibel
(dB)
A
dimensionless ratio
of two
values expressed in the same
units
of
measure. It
is
most often applied to a power ratio and defined as
decibels
=
10 loglo (actual power level/reference po wer level), or d B
=
10 loglo W2/Wl),where W is the power level in watts pe r square centi-
nieter for sound. Power is proportional to the square ofpoten tial. In the
case
of
sound, the potential is measured as a pressure, but the sound level
is an energy level. Th us , d B
=
10 loglo
@ I )
or dB
=
20 logio @z/ i),
where i is the potential. The reference levels are not well standardized.
For example, sound power is usually measured above 10 watts per
square centimeter, but both 1 0 an d watts per square centimeter
are used. So un d pressure is usually measured above 20 micropascals in
2
12
16
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air. The reference level is not important in most cases because one is usu-
ally concerned with the difference in levels, i.e., with a power
ratio.
A
power ratio of 1.26 produces a difference of 1 decibel.
deciliter(dL)
A unit
of
volume defined as one tenth of a liter. This unit is
often used to express concentration in clinical chemistry. For example, a
concentration of lead in blood would typically be reported in units of
micrograms per deciliter.
degree
(")
A measure of the phase angle in a periodic electrical wave.
One degree is
1360
of the complete cycle of the periodic wave. Three
degree Celsius ("C)
A unit of temperature. The degree Celsius is exactly
equal to the kelvin and is used in place of the kelvin for expressing Cel-
sius temperature (symbol
t )
defined by the equation
t
=
I
70 here T
is
the
thermodynamic temperature in kelvin and I0 = 273.15 kelvin by
degree Fahrenheit( F) A unit of temperature on a scale in which 32
marks the freezing point and 212 the boiling point of water at a baro-
v
a3
5
c
c
aE
hundred sixty degrees equals 2
E
radians.
0
c
a
5
definition.
s
v
c
c
=3
metric pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch.
-
degree kelvin
(K)
See
kelvin.
dram(dr) Small weight. Two different drams exist: the apothecary's
dram (equivalent to 1/3.54 gram) and the avoirdupois dram (equivalent
to 1/1.17gram).
electron volt (eV) A unit of energy commonly used in the fields of
nuclear and high-energy physics. One electron volt is the energy trans-
ferred to a charged particle with a single charge when that particle f d s
through a potential of 1 volt. An electron volt is equal to 1.6 x
lo-''
joule.
equivalents per liter (eq/L)
An
SI
unit ofan expression ofconcentration
equivalent to normality. The normality of a solution (equivalent weights
per liter) is a convenient way of expressing concentration in volumetric
analyses.
fathom A unit of length equivalent to 6 feet, used primarily in marine
measurements.
feet (ft)
The plural form of a unit of length (the singular form isfoot).
feet board measure
(fbm)
A
unit of volume. One board foot is repre-
sented by a board measuring 1 foot long by 1 foot wide by 1 inch thick
(144 cubic inches).
A
board measuring 0.5 feet by 2 feet by 2 inches
thick would equal 2 board feet.
feet per hour (ft/hr) A
unit for expressing the rate of movement.
feet per minute (ft/min) A unit for expressing the rate of movement.
17
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feet per second (ft/sec, fps)
A unit for expressing the rate ofmovem ent.
feet per second squared (ft/sec2)
A unit of acceleration (the rate of
change of linear motion). For example, the acceleration caused by grav-
ity is 32.2 ftisec' at sea level.
feet squared
per
second (ft2/sec) A
unit used in flux calculations.
fluid ounce
(fl oz) A unit for expressing volume, equivalent to ' /128 of a
gallon.
foot
A
unit of length, equivalent to 12 inches. See also
US c u s t o r n q
sys
tern of units.
foot of water
(39.2'
Fahrenheit)
A unit for expressing pressure or eleva-
tion head.
foot per second per foot (ft/sec/ft; sec-l)
A
unit for expressing velocity
gradient.
foot-pound, torque
A unit for expressing the energy used in imparting
rotation, often associated with the power of engine-driven mechanisms.
foot-pound, work
A unit of measure of the transference of energy when
a force produces movement o fa n object.
formazin turbidity unit (ftu) A
turbidity unit appropriate when
a
chem-
ical solution of forniazin is used as a standard to calibrate a turbidim eter.
If a nephelonietric turbidimeter is used, nephelonietric turbidity units
and forniazin turbidity units are equivalent. See also nephelometric tur-
bidity unit.
gallon (gal)
A unit o f volume, equivalent to 23 1 cubic inches. See also
Imperial gallon.
gallons per capita per day (gpcd)
A unit typically used to express the
average num ber of gallons of water used by the average person each day
in a water system. Th e calculation is made by dividing the total gallons
of water used each day by the total number of people using the water
system.
gallons per day (gpd)
A
unit for expressing the discharge o r flow past a
fixed point.
gallons per day per square foot (gpd/ft2, gsfd)
A unit of flux equal to
the quantity of liquid in gallons pe r day throu gh
1
square foot of area. It
may also be expressed as a velocity in units of length p er unit time.
In
pressure-driven membrane treatment processes, this unit is conmionly
used to describe the volumetric flow rate ofpe rm ea te through a unit area
of active membrane surface. In settling tanks, this rate is called the over-
flow rate.
gallons per flush (gal/flush)
The number of gallons used with each
flush of a toilet.
8
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gallons per
hour
(gph) A unit for expressing the discharge or flow of a
liquid past a fixed point.
gallons per minute (gpm) A unit for expressing the dischargeor flow of
a liquid past a fixed point.
gallons
per minute per square foot (gpm/ft2)
A
unit for expressing flux,
the discharge or flow of a liquid through a unit of area. In a filtration pro-
cess, this unit is commonly used to describe the volumetric flow rate of&
trate through a unit offilter media surface area. It may alsobe expressed as
a velocity in units of length per unit time.
gallons per second
g p s )
A unit for expressing the dischargeor flow past
a fixed point.
gallonspersquarefoot(gal/ft*)
A
unit for expressing flux, the dis-
charge or flow of a liquid through each unit of surface area of a granular
v
c
.-
$
r
r
a
2
p
filter during a lilter run (between cleaningor backwashing).
liquid past a fixed point.
symbol; the preferred symbol is pg.
3
v
m
allons per square foot per day See gallonsfier
day
per square oot.
gallons per year (gpy)
A
unit for expressing the discharge
or
flow of a
gamma (9
A
symbol used to represent
1
microgram. Avoid using this
gigabyte
(GB) A
unit of computer memory. One gigabyte equals
1
mega-
byte times 1kilobyte,
or
1,073,741,824bytes (roughly 1 billion bytes).
gigaliter
(GL) A unit of volume defined as 1 billion liters.
grad A unit of angular measure equal to
'/400
of a circle.
grain (gr) A unit ofweight.
grainsper gallon (gpg) A unit sometimes used for reporting water analy-
sis concentration results in the United States and Canada.
gram (g)
A fractional unit of mass. One gram was originally defined as
the weight of 1 cubic centimeter or 1 milliliter of water at 4" Celsius.
Now it is 1 / ~ , ~ ~ ~f the mass of a certain block of platinum-indium alloy
known
as the international prototype kilogram, preserved at S k e s ,
France.
gram molecular weight The molecular weight of a compound in grams.
For example, the gram molecular weight of Cop is 44.01 grams. See
also
mole.
gray (Gy) An
SI
unit ofabsorbed ionizing radiation dose. One gray, equal
to 100 rad, is the absorbed dose when the energy per unit mass
imparted to matter by ionizing radiation is 1joule per kilogram. See also
rad;
rem
sievert.
.c
c
3
hectare (ha)
A
unit ofarea equivalent to 10,000 square meters.
19
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henry(H) An
SI
unit of electric inductance, equivalent to meters
squared kilograms pe r second squared p er ampere squared. O ne henry
is the inductance o f a closed circuit in which a n electromotive force of
1 volt is produced when the electric current in the circuit varies uni-
formly at a rate of 1
ampere per second.
hertz (Hz) An SI unit of nieasure of the frequency of a period ic phenoni-
enon in which the period is 1 second, equivalent to second.'. Hertz
units were formerly expressed as cycles per secon d.
horsepower (hp) A standard unit of power. See also US customary sys-
tern of units.
horsepower-hour(hp-hr) A un it of energy o r work.
hour (hr)
An interval of time equal to
'/24
of
a
day.
Imperial gallon A unit of volume used in the United Kingdom, equiva-
inch (in.)
A
unit of length.
inch of mercury (32"Fahrenheit) A unit of pressure o r elevation head.
inch-pound (in.-lb) A unit
of
energy o r torque.
inches per minute (in./min) A unit of velocity.
inches per second (in./sec)
A
unit ofvelocity.
InternationalSystemof Units. See S y s t h e International.
joule (J) An SI un it for energy, work, o r quantity of heat, equivalent to
meters squared kilograms per second squared. O n e jou le is the work
do ne when the point
of
application of a force of 1 newton is displaced
a
distance of 1 meter in the direction of the force (1 newton-meter).
kelvin (K) An SI unit of thermodynam ic temperature.
No
degree sign ( )
is used. Z ero kelvin is absolute zero, the com plete absence ofh ea t.
kilo
A
prefix m eaning 1,000.
kilobyte(kB)A unit of measurement for digital storage of data in various
comp uter media, such as hard disks, random access memory, and com-
pact discs. O n e kilobyte is 1,024 bytes.
lent to the volume of 10pou nd s of freshwater.
kilograin
A
unit ofw eight equivalent to 1,000 grains.
kilogram (kg) An SI unit of mass. O ne kilogram is equal to the mass of a
certain block
of
platinum-iridium
alloy
known as the international pro-
totype kilogram (nicknamed Le G ran d K), preserved at SZvres, France.
A
new standard is expected early in the 2 1
st
century.
kilohertz (kHz) A unit
of
frequency equal
to
1,000 hertz or 1,000 cycles
per second.
kiloliter A unit ofvolunie equal
to
1,000 liters or 1 cu bic meter.
kilopascal (Wa)
A
unit of pressure equal to 1,000pascals.
20
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kiloreactive volt-ampere (kvar) A unit of reactive power equal to 1,000
kilovolt (kV) A unit of electrical potential equal to 1,000 volts.
kilovolt-ampere
(kVA)
A unit of electrical power equal to 1,000 volt-
kilowatt (kW) A unit of electrical power equal to
1,000
watts.
kilowatt-hour (kW-hr) A unit ofenergy or work.
lambda(h)
A
symbol used to represent
1
microliter. Avoid using this
volt-ampere-reactive.
amperes.
2
$2
o
aJ
>
c
c
.-
symbol; the preferred symbol is pL.
linear feet ht) A unit ofdistance in feet along an object.
liter (L)
A
unit ofvolume. One liter of pure water weighs 1,000 grams at
liters per day (L/day)
A
unit for expressing a volumetric flow rate past a
liters per minute (L/min) A unit for expressing a volumetric flow rate
lumen Im)An SI unit of luminous flux equivalent to candela-steradian.
One lumen is the luminous flux emitted in a solid angle of 1 steradian by
lux h) n SI unit of illuminance. One lux is the illuminance intensity
given by a luminous flux of
1
lumen uniformly distributed over a surface
of
1
square meter. One lux is equivalent to 1candela-steradian per meter
squared.
4 Celsius at
1
atmosphere ofpressure.
0
2
3
given point.
=I
past a given point. P
r
point source having a uniform intensity of 1 candela.
mega Prefix meaning lo6 in Syst2nie International.
megabyte(MB)
A
unit of computer memory storage equivalent to
megahertz
(mHz)
A unit of frequency equal to 1 million hertz,
or
1
mil-
megaliter (ML) A unit ofvolume equal to
1
million liters.
megaohm(megohm)
A
unit of electrical resistance equal to
1
million
ohms. This is the unit of measurement for testing the electrical resis-
tance of water to determine its purity. The closer water comes to abso-
lute purity, the greater its resistance to conducting an electric current.
Absolutely pure water has a specific resistance of more than
18
million
ohms across
1
centimeter at a temperature of 25 Celsius. See also ohm.
meter
(m)
An
SI
unit of length. One meter is the length of the path
traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458
second.
meters per second per meter (m/sec/m; see-') A unit for expressing
velocity gradient.
1,048,576 bytes.
lion cycles per second.
21
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metric system A system of units based
on
three basic units: the meter for
length, the kilogram for mass, and the second for time-the so-called
MKS
system. Decimal fractions and multiples of the basic units are used
for larger and smaller quantities. The principal departure of the SI from
the more familiar form of metric engineering units is the use of the new-
ton as the unit of force instead of kilogram-force. Likewise, the newton
instead of kilogram-force is used in combination units including force;
for example, pressure or stress (newton per square meter), energy
(newton-meter =joule), and power (newton-meter per second
=
watt).
See also
Syst2me Interrzational.
metric ton (t) A unit ofweight equal to 1,000 kilograms.
mho A unit of electrical conductivity in
US
customary units equal to
microgram (pg) A unit of mass equal to one nullionth of a gram.
micrograms per liter
(pg/L)
A unit of concentration for dissolved sub-
microhm A unit of electrical resistance equal to one millionth of an ohm.
micrometer (pm) A unit oflength equal to one millionth ofa meter.
micromho A unit of electrical conductivity equal to one millionth
of
an
niho. See also
microsiemens.
micromhos per centimeter (pmho/cm) A measure of the conductivity
of
a water sample, equivalent to niicrosiemens per centimeter. Abso-
lutely pure water, from a mineral content standpoint, has a conductivity
of 0.055 niicromhos per centimeter at
25
Celsius.
micrornolar(IrM) A concentration in which the molecular weight of a
substance (in grams) divided by
lo6
(i.e.,
1
pmol) is dissolved in enough
solvent to make
1
liter ofsolution. See
also micromole; molar.
micromole (pmol) A unit of weight for a chemical substance, equal to
one millionth of a mole. See also
mole.
micron p) A unit of length equal to
1
micrometer. Micronieters are the
preferred units.
microsiemens ($3) A unit of conductivity equal to one millionth of a sie-
mens. The microsiemens is the practical unit of nieasurenient for con-
ductivity and is used to approximate the total dissolved solids content of
water. Water with 100 milligranis per liter of sodium chloride (NaCI)
will
have a specific resistance of 4,716 ohm-centimeters and a conduc-
tance
of
212
microsiemens per centimeter. Absolutely pure water, from
a niineral content standpoint, has a conductivity of 0.055 microsiemens
per centimeter at 25 Celsius.
1 siemens, which is an SI unit. See also
siemens.
stances based on their weights.
microwatt
pW)
A unit
of
power equal to one nullionth of a watt.
22
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2
microwatt-seconds per square centimeter (pW-sec/cm
)
A unit of mea-
surement of irradiation intensity and retention
or
contact time in the
operation of ultraviolet systems.
mil A unit oflength equal to one thousandth of an inch.
mile (mi) A unit oflength, equivalent to 5,280 feet.
miles per hour (mph) A unit of speed.
milliampere
(mA)
A unit of electrical current equal to one thousandth of
milliequivalent(meq)
A
unit of weight equal to one thousandth the
milliequivdents per liter (meq/L) A unit of concentration for dissolved
v
aa
5
c
an ampere. c
E
equivalent weight of a chemical.
substances based on their equivalent weights.
tion of matter in water as determined by water analyses.
s
a
c
ce
illigram (mg) A unit of mass equal to one thousandth of a gram.
miUiliter
(mL) A
unit ofvolume equal to one thousandth ofa liter.
millimeter
(mm) A
unit oflength equal to one thousandth ofa meter.
milligrams per liter (mg/L) The unit used in reporting the concentra-
5
2
P
c
millimicron (mp)
A
unit of length equal to one thousandth of a micron.
millimolar(rmll) A concentration in which the molecular weight of a
substance (in grams) divided by lo3 (i.e., 1 mmol) is dissolved in
enough solvent to make 1 liter of solution. See also
millimole; molar.
m i h o l e
(mmol)
A unit of weight for a chemical substance, equal to
one-thousandth ofa mole. See also
mole.
million electron volts (MeV) A unit of energy equal to
lo6
electron
volts. This unit is commonly used in the fields of nuclear and high-
energy physics. See alsoelectron volt.
c
3
his unit is correctly called a nanometer.
6
million
gallons
mil
gal,MG)
A unit ofvolume equal to 10 .
million gallons per day (mgd) A unit for expressing the flow rate past a
given point.
m i l s per year (mpy)
A
unit for expressing the loss ofmetal resulting from
corrosion. Assuming the corrosion process is uniformly distributed over
the test surface, the corrosion rate of a metal coupon may be converted
to a penetration rate (length per time) by dividing the unit area of metal
loss by the metal density (mass per volume). The penetration rate,
expressed as mils per year, describes the rate at which the metal surface
is receding because of the corrosion-induced metal loss. See also
mil.
minute (min) A unit of time equal to
60
seconds.
molar(M)
A
unit for expressing the molarity of a solution.
A
1-molar
solution consists of
1
gram molecular weight of a compound dissolved in
23
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enough water to make 1 liter
of
solution. A grani molecular weight is the
niolecular weight of a compound in grams. For exam ple, the m olecular
weight of sulhric acid (H2.504) is
98. A
1-molar,
or
1-mole-per-liter,
solution of sulfuric acid would consist of 98 grams of
HzSO4
dissolved in
enough distilled water to make 1 liter ofso lution .
mole (mol) A mole of a substance is a num ber of granis of that substance
where the number equals the substance's molecular weight.
moles
per liter (mol/L,M A
unit of concentration for a dissolved
substance.
mrem
An expression or measure of the extent of biological injury that
would result from the absorp tion of a particular radionuclide at a given
dosage over 1 year.
nanograms per liter
(ng/L)
A unit expressing the concentration of
chemical constituents in solution as mass (nanograms) of solute per unit
volume (liter) of water. O n e million nanograms p er liter is equivalent to
1 niilligram pe r liter.
nanometer(nm)
A unit ofleng th defined as 10 meter.
nephelometric turbidity unit (ntn)
A u nit for expressing the cloudiness
(turbidity) of a sample as measured by a nep helonietric turbidinieter. A
turbidity of 1 nephelometric turbidity unit is equivalent to the turbidity
created by a
1:4,000
dilution of a stock solution of 5.0 milliliters of a
1 000-grani hydrazine sulfate
( (NH2)2*H4S04)
n
100
milliliters of
dis-
tilled water solution plus 5.0 milliliters of a 10.00-gram hexan iethylene-
tetraniine ((CH&N4) in 100 milliliters of distilled water solution that
has stood for
24
hours at 25 f 3 Celsius.
newton (N)An SI un it of force. On e newton is equivalent to 1 kilogram-
meter pe r second squared . It is the force, when app lied to a body having
a mass of
1
kilogram, that gives the body an acceleration of
1
meter per
second squared . Th e new ton replaces the unit kilogram-force, which is
the unit of force in the metric system .
ohm a ) n
SI
unit of electrical resistance, equivalent to meters squared
kilograms per second cu bed pe r am pere squared. O n e ohm is the elec-
trical resistance between two po int s o fa conductor when a constan t dif-
ference of 1 volt potential applied between the two points produces in
the conductor a current of 1
ampere, with
the
conductor not being the
source of any electroniotive force.
one
hundred cubic feet (ccf)
A
un it of volume.
ounce (oz)
A unit of force, mass, a nd volum e.
ounce-inch (ounce-in., ozf-in.)
A un it of torque.
24
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parts per billion (ppb) A unit ofproportion, equal to lo-'. This expres-
sion represents a measure of the concentration of a substance dissolved
in water on a weight-per-weight basis or the concentration of a sub-
stance in
air
on a weight-per-volume basis. One liter of water at
4
Cel-
sius has a mass equal to 1.000 kilogram (specific gravity equal to 1.000,
or 1billion micrograms). Thus, when 1 microgram of a substance is dis-
solved in 1 liter of water with a specific gravity of 1.000
(1
microgram
per liter), this would
be
one part of substance per billion parts of water
on a weight-per-weight basis. This terminology is now obsolete, and the
mg
term micrograms per liter (ug/L) should be used for concentrations in
C
water.
parts per
million
(ppm)
A unit ofproportion, equal to
10-
.
This termi-
C
nology is now obsolete, and the term milligrams per liter (m g/L) should
be used for concentrations in water. See also parts per billion.
minology is now obsolete, and the term
grams
per
liter
@) should be
parts per trillion(ppt)
A unit of proportion, equal to
lo-''.
This termi-
nology is now obsolete, and the term
nanograms per liter
(ng/L)
should
be used for concentrations in water. See also arts p e r billion,
pascal (Pa)
An
SI
unit of pressure or stress equivalent to newtons per
meter per second squared. One pascal is the pressure or stress of 1 new-
ton per square meter.
pascal-second (Passec)
A unit of absolute viscosity equivalent to
kilo-
gram per second per meter cubed. The viscosity
of
pure water at
20"Celsius is
0.0010087
pascal-second.
pi
(x)
The ratio
o f
the circumference of a circle to the diameter of that
circle, approximately equal to 3.14159 (or about
**/7).
picocurie (pCi)
A unit of radioactivity. One picocurie represents a quan-
tity of radioactive material with an activity equal
to
one millionth of one
millionth of a curie (i.e., 10-
6
a
This ter- 2parts per thousand (ppt) A unit of proportion, equal to
+
used for concentrations in water. See alsoparts per billion.
C
x
12
curie).
picocuries per liter @Ci/L) A radioactivity concentration unit.
picogram (pg) A unit ofmass equal to gram or kilogram.
picosecond
ps)
A unit of time equal
to
one
trillionth
(1
0.")
of
a second.
plaque-forming unit (pfu)
A unit expressing the number
of
infectious
virus particles. One plaque-forming unit is equivalent to one virus
particle.
platinum-cobalt (Pt-Co)color
unit
(PCU)
See color unit.
poise
A unit ofabsolute viscosity, equivalent to 1 gram mass per centime-
ter per second.
25
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pound
(lb)
A
unit used to represent either a mass o r a force. Th is can be
a con hsin g unit because
two
terms actually exist,
fiound
r uss (Ihni) and
Bound
force (Ibf). On e pou nd force is the force with w hich a 1-pound
mass i s attracted to the earth. In equation form,
pou nds force =
1
ocal acceleration resulting from gravity
(poun ds mass)
( standard acceleration resulting from gravity
O ne poun d mass, on the other hand, i s the mass that will accelerate at
32.2 feet per second squared when a 1-poun d force is applied to it. As
an example of the effect
of
the local acceleration resu lting from gravity, at
10,000 feet
(3,300 meters) above sea level, where the acceleration
resulting from gravity is 32.17 feet pe r second squared (979.6 centime-
ters pe r second squared) instead of the sea level value of 32.2 feet per
second squared (980.6 centimeters per second squared), the force of
gravity on a 1-pound m ass would be 0.999 po un ds force. O n the surface
of the earth at sea level, po un d mass and pou nd force are numerically
the same because the acceleration resulting from gravity is applied
to
an
object, although they are quite different physical quantities. Thi s may
lead to confusion.
pound force (lbf)
See
Bound.
pound mass (lbm)
See
pound .
pounds per day (Ib/day)
A unit for expressing the rate at which a chemi-
pounds per square foot (lb/ft2)
A unit of pressure.
pounds per square inch (psi)
A un it of pressure.
pounds per square inch absolute (psia)
A
unit of pressure reflecting the
sum
of
gauge pressure a nd atm osphe ric pressure.
pounds per square inch gauge (psig)
A
unit of pressure reflecting the
pressure measured w ith respect to that of the atmosphere. T h e gauge is
adjusted to read zero at the surrounding atmo spheric pressure.
rad (radiation absorbed dose)
A unit of adso rbed do se of ionizing radi-
ation. Exposure of soft tissue o r similar material to 1 roentgen results in
the absorption ofab out 100 ergs (10 joules) of energy pe r gram, which
is 1 rad. See
also
gray;
rem;
sievert.
radian (rad)
An SI
unit of measure of a p lane angle that is equal to the
angle at the center of a circle su bte nd ed by an a rc equal in length to the
radius. T hi s unit is also used to measure the phase angle in a periodic
electrical wave. Note that 2
n
adians is equivalent to 360".
cal i s ad ded to a water treatment process.
radians per second (rad/sec)
A unit of angular frequency.
26
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rem (roentgen equivalent
man
[person]) A unit of equivalent dose of
ionizing radiation, developed by the International Commission on
Radiation Units and Measurements in 1962 to reflect the finding that
the biological effects of ionizing radiation were dependent on the nature
of the radiation as well as other factors. For X- and gamma radiation, the
weighting factor is 1; thus, 1 rad equals 1 rem.
For
alpha radiation, how-
ever, l rad equals20 rem. See also
gray; rad ; sievert.
revolutions per minute (rpm) A unit for expressing the frequency of r
rotation,
or
the number of times a fixed point revolves around its axis in .E
1 minute. 5
revolutions per second (rps) A unit for expressing the frequency of
rotation, or the number of times a fixed point revolves around its axis in
a
1 second.
ce
roentgen
(r)
The quantity of electrical charge produced by X- or gamma
radiation. One roentgen of exposurewill produce about2 billion ion pairs
per cubic centimeter of air. First introduced at the Radiological Congress
held in Stockholm as the special unit for expressing exposure to ionizing
second(sec) An
SI
unit of the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of
radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperline lev-
els of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
rn
aa
c
c
Z
radiation, it is now obsolete. See also
gray; rad; rem; sievert.
.-
c
3
second feet A unit offlow equivalent to cubic feet per second.
second-foot day
A
unit ofvolume. One second-foot day is the discharge
during a 24-hour period when the rate of flow is 1 second foot (i.e.,
1 cubic foot per second). In ordinary hydraulic computations,
1
cubic
foot per second flowing for
1
day is commonly taken as 2 acre-feet. The
US
Geological Survey now uses the term
s
duy
(cubic feet per second
day) in its published reports.
section
A
unit of area in public land surveying. One section is a land area
of 1 square mile.
SI
See
Syst2me International.
siemens(S)
A n
SI unit of the derived unit for electrical conductance,
equivalent to seconds cubed amperes squared per meter squared per
kilo-
gram.
One siemens is the electrical conductanceof a conductor in which a
current of
1
ampere is produced by
an
electric potential difference of 1 volt.
sievert (Sv) An
SI
unit
of equivalent
ionizing radiation dose. One sievert
is the dose equivalent when the adsorbed dose of ionizing radiation
multiplied by the dimensionlessfactors Q (quality factors) and N(prod-
uct of any other multiplying factors) is 1 oule per kilogram. One sievert
is
equal to 100 rem. See also
gray; rad;rem.
27
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slug T h e base unit of mass.
A
slug
is
a niass that will accelerate at 1 foot
per second squared when
1
po un d force is applied.
square foot (ft2) A unit of area equivalent to that of a square, 1 foot on
each side.
square
inch
(in. ) A
unit o f area equivalent to that of a square,
1
inch on
each side.
square meter (m
)
A unit of area equivalent to that of a square, 1 meter
on each side.
squaremile
(mi') A unit of area equivalent to that
of
a square,
1
mile on
each side.
standardcubic feet per minute (SCFM) A unit for expressing the flow
rate of air. Th is unit represents cu bic feet of
air
per minute at standard
conditions of temperature, pressure, and humidity (32 Fahrenheit,
14.7
poun ds per square inch absolute, and 50%relative hunudity).
steradian (sr) An
SI
unit of measure of
a
solid angle which, having its
vertex in the center of a sphere, cuts
off
an area o n the surface of the
sphere equal to that of a square with sides
of
length equal
to
the radius
of the sphe re.
Syst2me International
(SI)
The International System
of
Units of mea-
sure as defined by the periodic meeting of the General Conference on
Weights and Measures. This system is sonietimes called the interna-
tional metric system or Le S y s t h e International d'UnitCs. T h e
SI
is a
rationalized selection of
units koni the metric system with seven base
units for which names, symbols, and precise definitions have been
established. Many derived units are defined in ternis of the base units,
with
symbols assigned to each and, in some cases, given names (e.g., the
newton
1).
T h e great advantage of
SI
is its establishment of one and
only one unit for each physical quantity-the meter for length, the kilo-
gram (not the gram) for mass, the second for time, and so on. From
these elemental units, units for all other mechanical quantities are
derived. Another advantage is the ease with w hich unit conversions can
be made, as few conversion factors need to be invoked.
tesla
(T)
An SI unit of magnetic flux density, equivalent to kilograms per
second squared per am pere. O n e tesla
is
the
magnetic flux density given
by a m agnetic flux of 1weber p er squ are meter.
2
2
ton
A
unit of force an d niass defined as 2,000 pounds.
tonne
(t)
A
unit of mass defined as 1,000 kilograms. A tonne is some-
torr
A
unit of pressure. O ne torr is equ al to 1 centimeter of mercury at
times
called a metric ton.
0 Celsius.
28
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t rue color un it (tc u) A unit of color measurement based on the plati-
num-cobalt color unit. T hi s unit is applied to water samples in which
the turbidity has been removed. On e true color unit equals 1color unit.
See also color un it.
turbidity un it See
nelbhelometric turbidity unit .
US ustomary system
ofunits
A system of units based o n the yard an d
the po un d, commonly used in the United States and defined in Unit of
Weights and Measures (United States Customary and Metric): Defini-
tions and Tables of Equivalents;
National Bureau
o
Standards
Miscel-
historical origin from the United Kingdom (e.g., the length of a king's
foot for the length of
1
foot; the area a team of horses could plow in a
day-without getting tired-for an acre; the load a typical horse could
lift in a m inute for horsepower, an d so forth).
No
organized method of
volt (V) An SI un it of electrical potential, potential difference, an d elec-
tromotive force, equivalent to meters squared kilograms per second
cubed per ampere. One volt is the difference of electric potential
between two po ints of a condu ctor , carrying a co ns tan t cu rren t of
1 ampere, when the power dissipated betw een these poin ts is equal to
1watt.
volt-ampere (VA) A unit used for expressing apparent power and com-
plex power.
volt-ampere-reactive (VAR) A unit used for expressing reactive power.
watt (W) An SI unit of power and radiant flux, equivalent to meters
squared kilograms per second cub ed. O n e watt is the power that gives
rise to the p roduction of energy at the rate of 1 ou le pe r second. Watts
represent a measure of active power an d instantaneous power.
weber (Wb)
An
SI
unit of magnetic flux, equivalent to meters squared
kilograms pe r second squared per ampere. O n e weber is the m agnetic
flux that, linking a circuit of one turn, p rod uc es in the circuit an electro-
motive force of
1
volt as the magnetic flux is reduced to zero at a uniform
rate in 1second.
-
laneous Publication MP 233, Dec. 20, 1960. Most of the units have a
$
S
0
r
5
multiples and fractions is involved. See also Syst.?me International.
.g
S
yar d (yd) A unit
of
length equal to
3
feet.
29
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CONVERSION OF US CUSTOMARY UNITS
Linear Measurement
fathoms
x 6 =
feet(ft)
feet (ft) x
12 =
inch es (in.)
inch es (in.) x
0.0833
= feet(ft)
miles (mi) x 5,280 = feet (ft)
yard s (Yd)
x 3
= feet (ft)
yards (yd)
x
36 = inc hes (in.)
Circular Measurement
degree s (angle)
degree s (angle)
Area Measurement
acres
square feet (ft')
squ are inches (in.2)
squa re m iles (mi')
square miles (nip )
squa re m iles (mi')
square yards
(yd')
x 60 =
min utes (angle)
x 0.01745 = radians
x 43,560 = squarefeet(ft ')
x 144
x 0.00695 = squarefeet(f t ' )
x 640
= acres
x
27,878,400
=
square feet
(ft')
= sq ua re inc hes (in.')
x 3,098,000
x 9
Volume Measurement
acre-feet (acre-ft) x 43,560
acre-feet (acre-ft)
x 325,851
barrels petroleum (bo) x
42
board
foot
(tbm)
cub ic feet
(f?) x 1,728
cub ic feet (ftj)
x 7.48052
cu bic feet (f6')
x
29.92
cub ic feet (ft')
x 59.84
cub ic feet (ftj)
x
0.000023
cubic inches (in?)
x 0.00433
cub ic inclies (in? )
x 0.00058
drops
x 60
gallons (gal)
x 0.1337
gallons (gal)
x 231
gallons (gal) x 0.0238
gallons (gal) x 4
gallons (gal)
x 8
gallons, US
x 0.83267
= square yards (yd )
= square feet (ft')
= cub ic feet
(f?)
=
gallons (gal)
=
gallons (gal)
=
144
square inches
X
1
inch
=
cubic inches (in?)
= gallons (gal)
=
quar ts (q t )
= pints (pt)
= acre feet (acre-ft)
= gallons (gal)
= cu bi c feet (ft')
= teaspoons (tsp)
=
cubic feet (ftj)
=
cubic inches (in.j)
= barrels petroleum (b o)
= quarts (qt)
=
pints@)
= gallons, Impe rial
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gallons (gal)
gallons (gal)
x
0.0238
=
barrels (pe troleum ) (bo)
gallons, imp erial
x
1.20095
=
gallons,US
pints (pt) x 2
=
quar ts(qt)
quarts (qt)
x 4
=
gallons (gal)
quarts (qt) x 57.75 = cub ic inches (in. )
x
0.00000308
=
acre-feet (acre-ft)
Pressure Measurement
atmospheres x 29.92
atmospheres x 33.90
atmospheres x 14.70
feet ofw ater
feet ofwat er
feet ofwat er
x
0.8826
x
0.02950
x 0.4335
feet ofw ater x 62.43
feet ofwat er x 0.8876
inches of mercury x 1.133
inches ofmercu ry
x
0.03342
inches of mercury
x 0.4912
inches ofwater x 0.002458
inches of water x 0.07355
inches ofwater
x
0.03613
pou nds/squ are in. (lb/in.*) x 144
pounds/square
foot
(lb/ft2)
x
.00694
pounds/square in. (lb/in.*) x 2.307
poundslsquare inch (1 b/ h2 ) x 2.036
poun ds/square inch (lb/in.*) x 27.70
Weight Measurement
cubic feet of ice
cubic feet ofwater (50°F)
cubic inc hes of water
gallons ofw ater (50°F) x 8.3453
milligrams/liter (mg/L) x 0.0584
milligrams/liter (mg/L) x 0.07016
milligrams/liter (mglL)
x
8.345
x 57.2
x
62.4
x 0.036
ounces
(02) x
437.5
= inches of mercury
=
feet ofwa ter
cn
c
Y,
.-
-
=
poun ds per square inch (lb/
z
=
inches of mercury u
=
atmospheres
a
in.2)
s
c
=
po und s per square inch (Ib/ E
3
cn
m
n.*)
2
po un ds p er square foot (lb/ft')
= feet ofwa ter
=
inches of mercury Lc
= atmospheres c
.-
3
=
poun ds per square inch (Ib/
=
atmospheres
= inches of mercury
= po un ds per square inch (lb/
=
pou nd s pe r square foot (lb/ft )
=
pou nds p er square inch (Ib/
=
feet of water
=
inches of mercury
=
inch es of water
in.*)
in.2)
in.*)
=
pounds(1b)
=
poun ds ofwater
=
pounds ofwater
=
pou nd s of water
=
grains per gallon (US) (gpg)
=
grains per gallon (UK) ( imp)
=
po un ds per million gallons
(Ib/mil gal)
=
grains(gr)
31
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parts per m illion (pp m )
grains p er gallon
(gpg)
grains pe r gallon (gpg)
x 1
x
17.1 18
x
142.86
percent solution
pounds
(lb)
poun ds (Ib)
pounds (lb)
poun ds/cubic inch (Ib/in.”)
pounds ofwater
pounds ofwater
pou nds of water
tons (short)
tons (short)
tons (long)
cub ic feet air (at 60°F and
29.92 in. mercury)
x 10,000
x 16
x 7,000
x 0.0005
x 1,728
x 0.0160
x 27.68
x 0.1198
x
2,000
x
0.89287
x
2,240
x 0.0763
Flow Measurement
(bo/hr)
barrels per
hour
petroleum
acre-feetlminute (acre-ft/min)x 325,853
acre-feet/niinute (acre-ft/min)x 726
cubic feet/minute (ft’/min)
x 0.1247
cubic feetlminute (ft’/min) x 62.43
cubic feet/second (ft’lsec) x 448.831
cubic feet/second (ft’/sec)
cub ic feet/second (ftY/sec)
x 1.984
gallons/minute (g pm ) x 1,440
gallons/minute gpm)
x 0.00144
gallons/niinute (gpm) x 0.00223
gaIlons/minute (gpm) x 0.1337
gallons/minute
(gpm) x
8.0208
gallons/minute (gp m x 0.00442
gallons/minute
(gpm)
x
1.43
gallons water/minute x 6.0086
million gallons/day (mgd) x 1.54723
million gallons/day (mgd)
x
92.82
million galIons/day (mgd) x 694.4
million gallons/day (mgd) x 3.07
pounds ofwater/minute x 0.000267
x 0.70
x
0.6463 17
=
milligrams per liter (nig/L)
=
parts p er million (pprn)
=
po un ds p er million gallons
(lb/mil gal)
=
milligrams per liter (mg/L)
=
ounces(oz)
=
grains(&
=
tons (short)
= poun ds per cub ic foot (Ib/ft’)
=
cu bic feet (ft’)
=
cu bic inches (in.’)
= gallons (gal)
=
pounds(1b)
= tons(1ong)
=
pounds(1b)
= pounds(1b)
(for normal w ater applications)
= gallons pe r m inute (gpm)
=
gallons per min ute
(gpm)
=
cub ic feet pe r seco nd (ft’/sec)
=
gallons per second (gps)
=
po und s ofwater per minute
=
gallons per minute (gpm )
=
million gallons per day (mgd)
= acre-feet per day (acre-ft/day)
=
gallons per da y (gpd)
=
million gallons per day
(rngd)
=
cubic feet pe r second (ft“/sec)
= cubic feet per m inu te (ft’/min)
=
cubic feet per h our (ft3/hr)
=
acre-feet per day (acre-ft/day)
=
barrels
(42
petroleum gal) pe r
=
tons of water per 24 hours
=
cub ic feet per seco nd (ft’/sec)
= cubic feet per min ute (ft’lmin)
=
gallons per m inute (gpm)
=
acre-feet per day (acre-ft/day)
= cub ic feet per seco nd (ft’lsec)
ho ur (bo/day)
32
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Work Measurement
British thermal units (Btu) x 778.2 = foot-pounds (ft-lb)
British thermal units (Btu) x 0.000393
=
horsepower-hours (hp-hr)
British thermal units (Btu)
x
0.000293 = kilowatt-hours (kW.hr)
foot-pounds(ft-lb)
x
0.001286 = British thermal units (Btu)
foot-pounds (ft-lb)
X 0.000000505
=
horsepower-hours(hp.hr)
foot-pounds(ft-lb)
X
0.000000377= kilowatt-hours (kW-hr)
horsepower-hours hp-hr)
X
2,547
horsepower-hours hp.hr) X 0.7457
kilowatt-hours (kW.hr) X 3,412
kilowatt-hours (kW.hr)
X
1.341
Power Measurement
boiler horsepower x 33,480
boiler horsepower x 9.8
British thermal unitslsecond x 1.0551
(Btu/sec)
British thermal units/minute x 12.96
(B tu/min)
British thermal unitslminute
x
0.02356
(Btulmin)
British thermal units/minute
x
0.01757
(B tu/min)
British thermal units/hour
x
0.293
(Btu/hr)
British thermal units/hour
x
12.96
(Btu/hr)
British thermal units/hour
x
0.00039
(Btu/hr)
foot-pounds per second
x
.0771
(ft-lb/sec)
foot-pounds per second x .001818
(ft-lb/sec)
foot-poundsper second x ,001356
(ft-lb/sec)
foot-poundsper minute x .0000303
(ft-lh/min)
foot-poundsper minute x .0000226
(ft-lb/min)
horsepower (hp) x 42.44
= British thermal units (Btu)
= kilowatt-hours (kW-hr)
= British thermal units (Btn)
= horsepower-hours hp-hr)
= British thermal units per hour
=
kilowatts (kW)
= kilowatts (kW)
(Btu/hr)
=
foot-pounds per second
= horsepower (hp)
(ft-lb/sec)
= kilowatts (kW)
= watts(W)
= foot-pounds per minute
= horsepower (lip)
(ft-lb/rnin)
= British thermal units per
minute (Btulmin)
= horsepower (hp)
= kilowatts (kW)
= horsepower (hp)
= kilowatts (kW)
= British thermal units per
minute (Btu/min)
33
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horsepower (lip)
horsepower (hp )
horsepower (lip)
horsepower (lip)
horsepower (hp)
kilowatts (kW )
kilowatts (kW )
kilowatts (kW)
kilowatts (kW)
kilowatts (kW)
kilowatts (kW)
tons ofrefrigeration (US)
watts (W )
watts (W )
watts ( W )
watts (W )
x 33,000
x 550
x
1,980,000
x 0.7457
x
745.7
x 0.9478
x 56.87
x
3,413
x 44,250
x 737.6
x
1.341
x 288,000
x
0.05692
x 0.7376
x 44.26
x
0.001341
Velocity Measurement
feet/minute (ft/niin) x 0.01667
feet/minute (ftimin) x 0.01136
feet/second (ft/sec) x 0.6818
miles/hour (niph) x 88
miles/hour (mph ) x 1.467
Miscellaneous
grade:
1
percent
(or
0.01)
=
foot-pounds pe r minute
= foot-pounds per second
=
foot-pounds pe r h ou r (ft-lb/hr)
=
kilowatts (kW )
= wat ts (W)
= British thermal units pe r
= British therma l units per
=
British thermal units pe r hour
= foot-pounds per minute
=
foot-pounds per second
= horsepower (hp )
= British thermal units per
=
British thermal u nits per
= foot-pounds (force) p er sec ond
= foot-pounds per minute
= horsepower (hp)
(ft-lb/min)
(ft-lb/sec)
secon d (Btu/sec)
minute (Btu/min)
(Btu/hr)
(ft-lb/min)
t-lb/sec)
24
hours
minute (Btulmin)
(ft-lb/sec)
(ft-lb/min)
= feet pe r se con d (ftlsec)
= miles pe r hou r (mph)
= miles per hou r (mp h)
=
feet pe r minu te (ftirnin)
= feet pe r sec ond (ftlsec)
=
1
foot pe r
100
feet
34
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CONVERSIONOF METRIC UNITS
l inear Measurement
inch (in.) x 25.4
inch (in.)
x
2.54
foot
(ft)
x
304.8
foot (ft) x 30.48
foot (ft) x 0.3048
Yard (Yd) x 0.9144
mile (mi) x 1,609.3
mile (mi) x 1.6093
millimeter
(mm)
x
0.03937
centimeter (cm) x 0.3937
meter
(m)
x 39.3701
meter (m) x 3.2808
meter (m) x 1.0936
kilometer km) x 0.6214
Area Measurement
square meter
(m')
x
10,000
hectare (ha)
x
10,000
square inch (in.s) x 6.4516
square foot (ft2)
x
0.092903
square yard (yd ) x 0.8361
acre
x
0.004047
acre x 0.4047
square mile (mis)
x
2.59
square centimeter (cm') x 0.16
square meters (m2)
x
10.7639
square meters
( m P )
x 1.1960
hectare (ha)
x
2.471
square kilometer(h ) x 247.1054
square kilometer
(h2)
0.3861
Volume Measurement
cubic inch (in?) x 16.3871
cubic foot (fts)
x
28,317
cubic foot (ft3) x 0.028317
cubic foot (ft') x 28.317
cubic yard (yd3) x 0.7646
acre foot (acre-ft) x 1,233.4
=
millimeters (mm)
=
centimeters (cm)
= millimeters (mm)
= centimeters (cm)
= meters(m)
=
meters(m)
= meters(m)
=
kilometers km)
=
inches (in.)
= inches (in,)
= inches (in.)
=
feet (ft)
=
yards(yd)
= miles(mi)
=
square centimeters (cm')
= square meters (mP)
=
square centimeters (cm')
=
square meters
(m2)
= square meters (n?)
=
square kilometers (km')
=
hectares (ha)
=
square kilometers (km2)
=
square inches (in. )
=
square feet (ft2)
= square yards (yd2)
=
acres
=
acres
=
square miles (mi')
=
cubic centimeters (an3)
= cubic centimeters (cm3)
= cubic meters (m3)
=
liters(L)
= cuhic meters (m')
= cubic meters (m')
35
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ounce (US fluid)
( 0 2 )
quart (liquid) (qt)
quart (l iquid) (qt)
gallon
(gal)
gallon (gal)
bushel (bu)
cub ic centim eters (cni’)
cubic m eter
(m’)
cubic meter (m”)
cubic meter (my)
cubic m eter
(ni’)
liter
(L)
liter
(L)
liter (L)
decaliter
(dL)
decaliter (dL)
hectoliter (hL)
hectoliter
(hL)
hectoliter (hL)
hectoliter (h L)
peck (pk)
x 0.029573
x
946.9
x 0.9463
x 3.7854
x 0.0037854
x 0.881
x 0.3524
x 0.061
x 35.3183
x 1.3079
x 264.2
x
0.000811
x 1.0567
x 0.264
x 0.0353
x
2.6417
x 1.135
x 3.531
x 2.84
x 0.131
x 26.42
Pressure Measurement
pound/square inch (psi) x 6.8948
poundlsquare inch (psi) x 6,894
pound/square inch (psi) x
0.070307
po un d/ squa re foot (Ib/ft‘)
x 47.8803
pound/square foot (b/ft 2)
x 0.000488
po un dls qu are foot (Iblft’) x
4.8824
inches of mercury x 3,386.4
inchcs
ofwater
x 248.84
bar x
100,000
pascals (P a)
x 1
pascals (Pa) x 0.000145
kilopascals (kPa) x 0.145
pascals (Pa) x
0.000296
=
liters(L)
= milliliters (mL)
=
l i ters(L)
= liters(L)
=
cu bic me ters (m’)
= decaliters
(dL)
=
hectoliters (hL )
=
cu bic inches (in.’)
= cu bic feet (ft’)
=
cubic yards (yd’)
=
gallons (gal)
=
acre-feet (acre-ft)
= quart (liquid) (qt)
=
gallons (gal)
= cu bic feet (ft’)
= gallons (gal)
=
pecks (pk )
= cubic fee t (ft’)
= bushels (hn )
= cubic yards
(yd’)
= gallons (gal)
=
kilopascals (kPa)
=
pascals (P a)
=
kilograms/square centimeter
= pascals (P a)
= kilograms/square centimeter
(kg/cm‘)
= kilogram s/squ are meter (kglm’‘)
=
pascals (Pa)
=
pascals (Pa)
=
newtons pe r squ are meter (N/m‘)
= newtons pe r squ are meter
(N/m‘)
( k g / c 4
= pounds/square inch (psi)
=
pounds/square inch (psi)
= inches ofmercury (at
60’F)
36
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kilogram/square cen tim eterx
14.22
kilogram/sqnare centimeterx
28.959
kilogram/square meter
x
0.2048
centimeters ofm ercu ry x 0.4461
(kg/cm')
(kdcm2)
(kg/m')
Weight Measurement
pound (lb)
x 453.59
ounce
02) x 28.3495
poun d (Ib) x
0.4536
ton (short)
x
0.9072
pounds/cubic foot (Ib/ft3) x 16.02
pounds/million gallons x 0.1198
(Ib/mil gal)
gram
(9) x 15.4324
gram
(9)
x
0.0353
kilograms (kg)
x
2.2046
megagram (metric ton )
x 1.1023
gramspiter (dL) x
0.0624
gramslcubic meter
(gjm3)
x 8.3454
gram k) x
0.0022
kilograms (kg)
x 0.0011
Flow Measurement
gallons/second (gps)
x
3.785
=
pounds/square inch (psi)
= inches of mercury (at 60°F)
=
po un ds per square foot (lb/ft2)
=
feet ofw ater
m
= grams (g)
9
= g r a m s ( d
c
s
= megagrams (m etric ton)
r
= gram s per liter (gjL)
9
=
kilograms (kg)
c
tu
3
v
tu
a
= grams per cubic meter (gjm3)
=
grains(gr) I
=
ounces
02 )
=
pounds( Ib) .-
=
pounds(1b)
3
Y-
c
= tons (short)
= tons (short)
=
po un ds p er cub ic foot (Ib/ft')
=
poun ds/m illion gallons
(Ib/mil gal)
=
liters pe r second (L/sec)
gallons/minute (g pm ) x
0.00006308 =
cubic meters pe r second
gallons/minute (gpm)
x 0.06308
= liters per secon d (L/sec)
gallons/hour (g ph)
x 0.003785 =
cubic m eters pe r hou r (m3/hr)
gallons/day (gpd )
x 0.000003785=
million liters per da y (ML/day)
gallons/day (gpd ) x
0.003785 =
cubic m eters pe r day @/day)
cub ic feet/second (ft3/sec)
x
0.028317
=
cubic meters per second
cub ic feet/second (ft3/sec) x 1,699
=
liters per m inute (L/min)
cub ic feet/minute (f$/min) x 472
=
cubic centim eters/second
cub ic feetlminute (ft3/min) x
0.472
= liters per second (L/sec)
cub ic feet/minute (ft3/min) x
1.6990
= cubic meters per h our (m 3/hr)
million gallons/day (mgd) x 43.8126 = liters per seco nd (L/sec)
(m3/sec)
ms/sec)
(cm3/sec)
37
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million gd lons/da y (mgd)
x
3,785
million gallons/day (mgd)
x
0.043813
gaIlons/square foot (gal/ft‘) x
40.74
gallons/acre/da y
x
0.0094
(gal/acre/day)
gallons/square foot/day x 0.0407
gallons/square foot/day x 0.0283
(gal/ft‘/day)
galIons/square fo ot/niinute
x
2.444
(gal/ft’/min)
gallons/square foo t/minute
x
0.679
(gal/ft’/niin)
gallons/square foo t/minu te
x
40.7458
(gaI/ft‘/min)
gallons/capita/day (gp cd) x 3.785
liters/second (L/sec )
x
22,824.5
liters/second (L/sec)
x
0.0228
liters/second (L/sec)
x
15.8508
liters/second (L/sec)
x
2.1 19
liters/niinute (Limin) x 0.0005886
cubic centimeters/second x 0.0021
(cm’/sec)
cub ic meters/second (m’/ x 35.3147
sec)
cubic meters/second (m’/ x 22.8245
sec)
cubic meters/second (m’/
x
15,850.3
sec)
cubic meters/hoar
(m’/hr)
x
0.5886
cubic nieters/hour (m’/hr)
x
4.403
cu bic me ters/d ay (m’/day) x 264.1720
W/ft“ /day)
= cub ic m eters pe r day (m’/day)
= cubic meters pe r second
=
liters per square meter (L/m2)
= cubic meters/hectare/day
=
cubic meters/square meter/day
= litersl squ are mete r/m in (L/ni‘/m)
(n<’/sec)
(m’Pa/day)
(m’/m‘/day)
= cubic m eters/square meter/liour
= liters/square m eter/second
=
literslsquare meter/minute
= liters/day/capita (L/d/capita)
=
gallons pe r day (gp d)
= million gallons pe r da y (mgd)
=
gallons p er m inute
(gpm)
=
cub ic feet pe r minu te (ft’/min)
= cub ic feet per secon d (ft’/sec)
= cub ic feet pe r minu te (ft’lmin)
(m”/m‘/hr) = m/hr
(L/m‘/sec)
(L /ns /min)
= cu bic feet pe r seco nd (ft’/sec)
= million gallons per day
(mgd)
=
gallons per minute (gpm)
=
cub ic feet per minute (fi’/min)
= gallons pe r minute
(gpm)
=
gallons
per day (gpd)
cub ic meters/day (m’/day) x
0.0002641
7
=
million gallons pe r day (mgd)
cubic m eters/hectare/day
x
106.9064
=
gallons pe r acre pe r day
(mY/ha/day) (gal/acre/day )
cubic meters/square x 24.5424 = gallons /square foot/day
meter/day (m”/m 2/day ) gal/ft2/day)
liters/square nieter/minute
x
0.0245
(L/m’/min) (gal/ft2/min)
liters/square meteijniinute x 35.3420
(L/ni‘/min) (gal/ft‘/day
)
= gallons/square foot/minute
= gallons /square foot/day
38
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Work, Heat, and Energy Measurements
British thermal units (B tu) x 1.0551
British thermal units (Btu) x 0.2520
foot-po und (force) (ft-lb)
x
1.3558
=
joules
(J)
horsepower-hour (hp-hr ) X 2.6845
watt-second (W-sec)
x
1.000 = joules (J)
watt-hour (W -h r) x 3.600
=
kilojoules (kJ)
kilowatt-hour (kW -hr ) X 3,600
=
kilojoules kJ)
kilowatt-hour(kW.hr) X 3,600,000 = joules J)
British thermal units per x 0.5555 = kilogram-calories p e r kilogram
British thermal units per x
8.8987
= kilogram-calories/cubic meter
cu bic foot (Btu/fts) (kg-cal/ms)
kilojoule (kJ)
x 0.9478
= British thermal units (B tu)
kilojoule (kJ)
kilojoule (kJ) X 0.2778
=
watt-hours(W.hr)
joule (J) x 0.7376 = foot-po und s (ft-lb)
joule (J)
x 1.0000
= watt-seconds (W-sec)
joule
(J)
x
0.2399
=
calories(ca1)
megajoule (MJ) X 0.3725 = horsepower-hour (hp.hr)
kilogram-calories (kg-cal)
x 3.9685 =
British thermal units (B tu)
kilogram-calories pe r
x 1.8000
= British thermal units pe r pou nd
kilogram-calories per liter
x
112.37
= British thermal units pe r c ubic
(kg-cal/L) foot (Btu/f$)
kilogram-calories/cubic x 0.1 124
=
British thermal un its pe r cub ic
meter (kg-cal/ms) foo t (Btu/ft3)
=
kilojoules (kJ)
=
kilogram-calories (kg-cal)
=
megajoules (MJ)
po un d (Btu/lb) (kg-cal/kd
X 0.00027778
= kilowatt-hours (kW -hr)
kilogram (kg-cal/kg) (Btu jlb)
Velocity, Acceleration, and Force Measurements
feet per min ute (ft/min) = meters per ho ur (m/hr)
feet pe r h ou r (ft/hr)
=
meters per ho ur (m/hr)
miles pe r hour (mph) x 44.7
=
centimeters per second
miles per hour (mph)
=
meters per minute (mlmin)
miles per ho ur (m ph) = kilometers per ho ur (km/hr)
feet/secon d/seco nd (ft/sec')x 0.3048 = meters/second/second (m/se$)
inches/second/second x 0.0254 = meters/second/second (m/sec2)
(in./sec*)
pound-force (lbf)
x 4.44482 =
newtons(N)
centimeters/second (cm/ x 0.0224 = miles pe r hou r (mph)
sec)
x 18.2880
x 0.3048
(cmlsec)
x
26.82
x
1.609
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nieters/second (ni/sec) x 3.2808
meters/rninute (m/niin) x 0.0373
meters per
hour
(rn/hr) x 0.0547
meters per ho ur (rn/hr) x 3.2808
kilonieters/second (km/sec)x
2,236.9
kilonieters/hour (km/hr) x
0.0103
nieters/second/second
x
3.2808
(m/sec2)
rneters/second/second x
39.3701
(ni/sec')
newtons
(N)
x 0.2248
= feet pe r s eco nd (ft/sec)
=
miles per ho ur (rnph)
= feet pe r minute (ft/min)
= feet pe r ho ur (ft/hr)
=
miles per hou r (mph)
= miles pe r min (mpm )
= feet/s eco nd /second (ft/sec')
=
inches/second/second (in./sec2)
= po un ds force (Ibf)
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Factors for Convers ion
us Multiply by Metric (Sl) or
US
length
inches (in.)
feet (ft)
yard bd)
miles (mi)
Area
square inch (in?)
square feet (ft')
acres
square miles (mi')
Volume
cubic feet
(ft3)
cubic yard (yd3)
gallon (gal)
2.540
0.0254
0.3048
12
0.9144
3
1.609
1,760
5,280
6.452
0.0929
144
4,047
0.4047
43,560
0.001
562
2.590
640
28.32
0.02832
7.48
6.23
1,728
0.7646
3.785
0.003785
4
8
128
0.1337
centimeters (cm)
meters
m)
meter (m)
inches (in.)
meters (m)
feet (ft)
kilometers (km)
Yards
b d )
feet (ft)
square centimeters (cm')
square meters m2)
Square
inches
ti )
square meters (m')
hectares (ha)
square feet (Ul ,
square miles (mi')
square kilometers (kin')
acres
liters
L)
cubic meters
m3)
gallons, US
gallons, Imperial
cubic inches (in?)
cubic meters (m3)
liters
(L)
cubic meters
(m3)
pints (pt)
fluid ounces (fl
oz)
cubic feet Cft?
quarts (qt)
'c
v
c
3
c
.-
Table continued on next page
41
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Factors for Conversion (continued)
us Multiply by Metric (SI) or US
acre-feet (acre-ft)
Weight
pounds (lb)
grains (gr)
tons (short)
tons (long)
gallons of water, US
gallons, Imperial
.cubic feet
(ft3)
of
pounds per cubic
foot
Unit Weight
water
(1b/ft3)
pounds per ton
Concentration
(PPm)
(gpg)
parts per million
grains per gallon
Time
days
32
946
0.946
1.233
1o ~
1,233
1,613.3
453.6
0.4536
7,000
16
0.0648
2,000
0.9072
2,240
8.34
10
62.4
7.48
157.09
16.02
0.016
0.5
0.5
1
8.34
17.4
142.9
24
1,440
86,400
fl oz
milliliters (mL)
liters (L)
cubic hectometers (hm3)
cubic meters (m3)
cubic yd (yd3)
grams (g)
kilograms (kg)
grains (gr)
ounces (oz)
grams (9)
pounds (Ib)
tonnes (metric tons)
pounds (Ib)
pounds (Ib)
pounds (Ib)
pounds (Ib)
gallons (gal)
newtons per cubic meter (N/m3)
kilograms forcehquare meter
(kgf/m2)
gramskubic centimeter (g/cm3)
kilograms/metric ton (kg/tonne)
milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg)
milligrams per liter (mg/L)
poundshillion gallons (Ib/mil gal)
milligrams per liter (mg/L)
pounds/million gallons (lb/mil gal)
hours (hr)
minutes (min)
seconds (sec)
Table continued on next page
42
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Factors for Conversion (continued)
us
Multiply by Metric (Sl)or US
hours (hr)
minutes (min)
feet per mile (fvmi)
feet per second
Slope
Velocity
(Wsec)
inches per minute
miles per hour (mph)
(in./min)
knots
Discharge
(ft3/sec)
cubic feet per second
million gallons per
day (mgd)
gallons per minute
(gpm)
gallons per day (gpd)
million gallons per day
per acre-foot
(mgaacre-ft)
60 minutes (min)
60
seconds (sec)
0.1894 meters per kilometer (m/km)
v
S
a3
.-
720 inches per minute (in./min) r
0.3048 meters per second (m/sec) 5
30.48
centimeters per second (cm/sec)
8
0.6818
0.043
0.4470
1.609
0.5144
1.852
0.646
448.8
28.32
0.02832
3,785
3.785
0.04381
694
1.547
3.785
0.06308
0.0000631
8.021
0.002228
3.785
0.430
U
m
=I
miles per hour (mph) S
2
kilometers per hour (kmlhr) ’
centimeters per second (cm/sec)
meters per second (m/sec)
meters per second (m/sec)
kilometers per hour (km/hr)
P
v
r
3
c
.-
million gallons per day (mgd)
gallons per minute (gpm)
liters per second (Usec)
cubic meters per second (m3/sec)
metric tons per day
cubic meters per day (m3/day)
cubic meters per second (m3/sec)
gallons per minute (gpm)
cubic feet per second (ft3/sec)
liters per minute (Umin)
liters per second (Usec)
cubic meters per second (m3/sec)
cubic feet per hour
(ft3/hr)
cubic feet per second (ft3/sec)
liters (or kilograms) per day (Uday)
gallons per minute per cubic yard
(gPm/Yd3)
0.9354 cubic meters/square meter/day
(m3/m2.day)
Table continued on next page
43
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Factors
for
Conversion (continued)
us Multiply by Metric (SI)
or
US
acre-feet per day 0.01428
cubic feet per gallon 7.4805
cubic feet per million 0.00748
cubic feet per 1,000 0.001
Application Rate
(ft3/gal)
gallons (ft3/mil gal)
cubic feet per minute
(ft3/1 000 ft3min)
cubic feet per cubic feet 180
per hour (ft3/ft3.hr)
cubic feet per minute per 0.00748
foot (ft3/min+t)
cubic feevpound (ft3/lb) 0.0625
gallons per foot per day 0.0124
(gal/ft.day )
gallons per square 40.7458
foot per minute
(gal/$min) 0.04075
2.445
58.6740
gallons per acre 0.00935
(gal/acre)
million gallons per 0.430
day per acre-foot
(mgd/acre-ft)
pounds per acre (Ib/acre) 1.1 21
pounds per pound per 1
pounds per day (Ib/day) 0.4536
pounds per square foot 4.8827
day (Ib/lb.day)
per hour (lb/$.hr)
cubic meters/second (m3/sec)
cubic me tedcubic meter m3/m3)
cubic meterdl ,000 cubic meters
(m3/1000
m j
cubic meterdcubic meterhinute
(m3/m3min)
gallonshquare foovday (gal/ft’.day)
cubic meters per minute per meter
(m3/minm)
cubic meters per kilogram (m3/kg)
cubic meters per meter per day
(m3/m.day)
liters per square meter per minute
(Um’min)
cubic meters per square meters per
minute (m3/m2min)
cubic meters per square meter per
hour (m3/m2.hr)
cubic meters per square meter per
day (m3/m’,day)
cubic meters per hectare (m3/ha)
gallons per minute per cubic yard
(gpm/yd3)
kilograms per hectare (kglha)
kilograms per kilogram per day
kilograms per day (kglday)
kilograms per square meter per
hour (kg/m’.hr)
(kg/kg.day)
Table continued o next page
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Factors
for
Conversion (continued)
us
Multiply
by
Metric (SI) r US
pounds per 1.000 square 0.0049
feet per day (Ib/l,OOO
f12.day)
pounds per acre per day 1.1 209
(Ib/acreday)
pounds per cubic feet per 16.01 85
hour (lb/ft3.hr)
pounds per 1,000 cubic 0.0160
feet per day
(Ib/l,OOO ft3.day)
pounds per 1,000 gallons 120.48
(Ib/l,OOO gal)
pounds per million 0.12
gallons (Ib/mil gal)
Force
pounds (Ib) 0.4536
453.6
4.448
pounds per square inch 2.309
(Psi) 2.036
51.71
6894.76
Pressure
703.1
0.0690
pounds per square foot 4.882
47.88
(Ib/f?)
pounds per cubic inch 0.01602
(Ib/in.’)
16
tons per square inch 1.5479
millibars (mb) 100
kilograms per square meter per day
(kg/m2.day)
kilograms per hectare per day
kilograms per cubic meter per hour
kilograms per cubic meter per day
(kg/haday) v
.g
E
c
(kg/m3.hr) 0
(kg/m3,day)
(kg/l,OOO m3) =I
milligrams per liter (mg/L)
P
U
c
kilograms per 1,000 cubic meters
ce
p
c
.-
kilograms force (kgf)
I
grams (9)
newtons (N)
3
feet head of water
inches head of mercury
millimeters of mercury
newtons per square meter
(N/m2)
=
pascals (Pa)
kilograms of force per square meter
(kgf/m2)
bars
kilograms of force per square meter
(kgf/m2)
newtons per square meter (N/m2)
grams of force per cubic centimeter
(gmf/cmj
grams of force per liter (gmf/L)
kilograms per square millimeter
(kg/mm2)
newtons per square meter (N/m2)
Table continued on next page
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Factors for Conversion (continued)
us Multiply by Metric (SI) or
US
inches of mercury
345.34
kilograms per square meter (kg/mz)
atmospheres
pascals
Mass and Density
slugs
.pounds
slugs per cubic foot
density
9
f water
specific weight (p)
of water
Viscosity
pound-secondsper
cubic foot or slugs per
foot-second (Ib-sec/ft3
or slugdft-sec)
square feet per second
0.0345
kilograms per square centimeter
0.0334 bars
0.491 per square inch (psi)
101,325 pascals (Pa)
1,013 millibars (1mb = 100 Pa)
14.696 per square inch (psi)
1
o
newtons per square meter (N/m2)
1.0x 10-5
bars
1.0200 10-5
kilograms per square meter (kglm’)
9.8692
lo4 atmospheres
1.40504 x
1O4 per square inch (psi)
4.0148
inch head of water
7.5001 x lo4
centimeters head of mercury
(kg/cmz)
14.594
32.174
0.4536
51 5.4
62.4
980.2
1.94
1,000
1
1
kilograms (kg)
pound (lb) (mass)
kilograms (kg)
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)
pounds per cubic meter (lb/ft3)
at 50°F
newtons per cubic meter (N/m3)
at 10°C
slugs per cubic foot (slugs/ft3)
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)
kilograms per liter (kg/L)
grams per milliliter (g/mL)
47.88 newton-seconds per square meter
(N-sec/mz)
0.0929
square meter per second (m2/sec)
(ft2/sec)
Table continued on next page
46
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Factors for Conversion (continued)
us Multiply by Metric (SI) or US
Work
British thermal units
778
(BtN
0.293
1
British thermal units/
pound (Btu/lb)
British thermal units/
cubic foot/degrees
Fahrenheiffhour
(Btum3.0F.hr)
horsepower-hours
kilowatt-hours (kW.hr)
(hp.hr)
horsepower per
1,000
gallons (hp/l,OOO gal)
Power
horsepower (hp)
2.3241
5.6735
2,545
0.746
3,413
1.34
0.1 970
550
746
2.545
kilowatts (kw)
3,413
British thermal units/hour 0.293
12.96
0.00039
(“F
-
32)
x
(EtuJhr)
Temperature
degrees Fahrenheit
(“0 (519)
degrees Celsius
“C
x
( 9 4
+
ec, 32
“C + 273.1
5
foot-pounds (ft-lb)
watt-hours Whr)
heat required to change
1
Ib of
kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg)
watts per square meter per degrees
Celsius per hour
v
Q1
5
water by 1°F S
.-
r
=
”
(W/m2%.hr) 0
2
a
P
British thermal units (Btu) 0
horsepower-hour (hphr) .-
=
c
British thermal units (Btu)
kilowatt-hours (kW.hr)
c
c
kilowatts per cubic meter (kW/m3)
=3
foot-pounds per second (ft-lb/sec)
watts
British thermal units per hour
(Btu/hr)
British thermal units per hour
(Btu/hr)
watts
foot-pounds per minute (ft-lb/min)
horsepower (hp)
degrees Celsius
(“C)
degrees Fahrenheit (“F)
Kelvin (K)
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Decimal Equivalents
of
Fractions
Fraction Decimal
‘/64 0.01563
l/32 0.031 25
3/64 0.04688
l/16 0.06250
5/64 0.07813
3/32
0.09375
7/64 0.10938
118
0.12500
9/64
0.14063
5/32
0.1 5625
0.1 7188
3/1 0.18750
3/64 0.20313
7/32 0.21875
l5/64
0.23438
114 0.25000
7/64 0.26563
9/32 0.28125
19/64 0.29688
O/32 0.31 250
21/64 0.32813
11/32 0.34375
23/64
0.35938
318 0.37500
25/64
0.39063
13/32 0.40625
27/64
0.42188
7/1 0.43750
29/64
0.45313
15/32
0.46875
31/64
0.48438
112 0.50000
Fraction Decimal
33/64
0.51 563
l/32
0.53125
35/64
0.54688
9/1
6
0.56250
37/64
0.5781 3
9/32
0.59375
3g/64 0.60938
518
0.62500
41/64 0.64063
21/32
0.65625
43/64 0.67188
11/16 0.68750
45/64
0.70313
23/32 0.71875
47/64
0.73438
314 0.75000
49/64 0.76563
25/32 0.781 25
%4 0.79688
13/16 0.81250
53/64 0.82813
27/32
0.84375
55/64 0.85938
7/a
0.87500
s7/64
0.89063
29/32
0.90625
59/64
0.92188
5/1 6
0.93750
61/64
0.95313
31/32
0.96875
63/64
0.98438
48
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TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS
F
C
F
C
F
C
0.555 (OF-32) = degrees Celsius ( C)
(1.8
x
C)+ 32 = degrees Fahrenheit (OF)
C 273.15
=
kelvin (K)
boiling point*
=
212°F
= 100°C
=
373K
=
0°C
= 273K
freezing point* = 32°F
*At 14.696 psia, 101.325 kPa.
Celsius/Fahrenheit Comparison Graph
49
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WATER CONVERSIONS
Water is composed of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, in the ratio
of two volumes of the former to one of the latter. It is never found
pure in nature because
of
the readiness with which it absorbs
impurities from the air and soil.
One foot ofwater column at 39.1 F = 62.425 pounds on the
square foot.
One foot of water column at 39.1 F
=
0.4335 pound on the
square inch.
One foot of water column at 39.1 F = 0.0295 atmospheric
pressure.
One foot of water column at 39.1 F
=
0.8826 inch mercury
column at 32°F.
One foot of water column at 39.l F = 773.3 feet of air
column at 32°F and atmospheric pressure.
One pound pressure per square foot = 0.01602 foot water
column at 39.1 F.
One pound pressure per square foot = 2.307 feet water
column at 39.1 F.
One atmospheric pressure
2
29.92 inches mercury column
=
33.9 feet water column.
One inch of mercury column at 32°F = 1.133 feet water
column.
One foot of air column at 32°F and 1atmospheric pressure =
0.001293 foot water column.
50
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WATER EQUIVALENTS AND DATA
1 US gallon of water weighs 8.345 pounds.
1 cubic foot ofwater equals 7.48 gallons.
1 foot head of water develops 0.433 pounds pressure per
square inch.
rn
cPounds per hour times 0.1 2 equals gallons per hour.
.-
Grains per gallon times 0.143 equals pounds per 1,000 gallons.
Parts per million divided by 120 equals pounds per 1,000
>
I=
m
=I
5
gallons.
m
E
2
=
1 grain per gallon equals 17.1 parts per million.
Estimated flow in gallons per minute equals pipe diameter in
inches squared times20.
P
surface requires
4
allons per hour of feedwater.
I
* 1 boiler horsepower based on 10 square feet of heating
1pound of coal will produce 7 to
10
pounds
of
steam.
1gallon of oil will produce 70 to 120 pounds of steam.
1,000 cubic feet of natural gas will produce 600 pounds
of
c
.-
c
3
steam.
Saturated salt brine for zeolite regeneration contains
2.48 pounds of salt per gallon or 18.5 pounds per cubic foot.
Refrigeration tonnage is gallons per minute
of
cooling water
times increased temperature divided by 24.
Cooling tower makeup is estimated at 1.5 gallons per hour
per ton of refrigeration.
1 ton of refrigeration is 288,000 Btu.
51
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Chemistry
The science
of
chemistry deals with the structure
composition and changes
in
composition
of
matter as well as wi th the laws tha t govern these
changes.
Ti
understand and work uccessfilb
with the chemical phases
of
wastewater treatment
such as coagulation sedimentation softening
disinfection an d chemical removal of
various undesirable substances
a wastewater operator needs to know
some basic chemistry concepts.
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p l
P IA
ILL
Key Atomic Number
Common Name
Atomic Mass (Weigh t)
Atom ic weights conform to the 1961 v
of the Commission
on
Atomic Weig
rn
,,>-,,,,-,,,-*, ,,-, ,,, ,, , , ,=
endApp,,edChem,s,ryThe
1389055 14 115
14090765
11424
(145)
15036
15
amBSO,e lemen ts ,o-118
thos e numb ers I2271 2320381
231
03588 2360269 I2371 244) 2
89 90 91 92 93 94 95
er iodic
Table
o Elements
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List of
Elements
Actinium
Aluminum
Americium
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Berkelium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Curium
Dubnium
Dysprosium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Europium
Fermium
Fluorine
_______~
Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight
Ac 89 227'
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
B
Br
cd
Ca
f
C
Ce
cs
CI
Cr
co
cu
Cm
Db
DY
Es
Er
Eu
Fm
F
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
97
4
83
5
35
48
20
98
6
58
55
17
24
27
29
96
105
66
99
68
63
100
9
26.98
243'
121.75
39.95
74.92
21
0'
9.01 1=
w
137.34
247'
rn
.-
E
208.98
10.81
79.90
112.41
40.08
251
12.01
140.1 2
132.91
35.45
52.00
58.93
63.55
247'
262'
162.50
252.
167.26
151.96
257'
19.00
Table
continued
on next page
55
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List of Elements (continued)
Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight
Francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Hassium
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lawrencium
Lead
Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Meitnerium
Mendelevium
Mercury
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Fr 87 223.
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
Hs
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Lr
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Mt
Md
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
NP
Ni
64
31
32
79
72
108
2
67
1
49
53
77
26
36
57
103
82
3
71
12
25
109
101
80
42
60
10
93
28
157.25
69.72
72.64
196.97
178.49
265'
4.00
164.93
1.01
114.82
126.90
192.22
55.85
83.80
138.91
262'
207.2
6.94
174.97
24.31
54.94
265'
258*
200.59
95.94
144.24
20.18
237.05+
58.69
Table continued on next page
56
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List
of
Elements (continued)
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium
Potassium
Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Rutherfordium
Samarium
Scandium
Seaborgium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulfur
Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight
Nb 41 92.91
N
No
0s
0
Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po
K
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rb
Ru
Rf
Sm
sc
sg
Se
Si
As
Na
Sr
S
7
102
76
8
46
15
78
94
84
19
59
6
9
88
86
75
45
37
44
104
62
21
106
34
14
47
11
38
16
14.01
259.
190.23
16.00
106.42
30.97
195.08
244
209
P
E
.I
cn
(u
.-
5
39.10
140.91
145
231.04+
226.03+
222.
186.21
102.91
85.47
101.07
261
150.36
44.96
263.
78.96
28.09
107.87
22.99
87.62
32.06
able continued on next pa ge
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List of Elements (continued)
Name
Symbol Atomic Number
Atomic
Weight
Tantalum
Ta 73
180.95
Technetium
Tc
43 98.91'
Tellurium
Te 52
127.60
Terbium
Tb 65
158.93
Thallium
TI 81
204.38
Thorium
Th 90
232.04+
Thulium
Tm 69
168.93
Tin
Sn 50
118.69
Titanium
Ti
22 47.90
Tungsten
W 74
183.85
Ununbium
Uub 112
27'
Ununnillium
Uun 110
269'
Ununhexium
Uuh 116
289'
Ununoctium
uuo
118 293'
Ununquadium
uuq 114
285'
Unununium
uuu
111
27'
Uranium
U 92
238.03
Vanadium
V 23
50.94
Xenon
Xe
54
131.29
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Yttrium
Y
39
88.91
Zinc
Zn 30
65.38
Zirconium
Zr 40 91.22
*Mass number
of
most stable or best-known isotope.
tMass
of most
commonly available, long-lived sotope.
58
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Compounds Common in Wastewater Treatment
Chemical Name Common Name Chemical Formula
Aluminum hydroxide AI(OH)3
Aluminum sulfate
Ammonia
Calcium bicarbonate
Calcium carbonate
Calcium chloride
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hypochlorite
Calcium oxide
Calcium sulfate
Carbon
Carbon dioxide
Carbonic acid
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Copper sulfate
Dichloramine
Ferric chloride
Ferric hydroxide
Ferric sulfate
Ferrous bicarbonate
Ferrous hydroxide
Fluosilicic acid
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrofluosilicic acid
(fluosilicic acid)
Hydrogen sulfide
Hypochlorous acid
Magnesium bicarbonate
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium chloride
Maanesium hvdroxide
(hydrofluosilicic acid)
Alum floc
Filter alum
Ammonia
Limestone
Hydrated lime
(slaked lime)
HTH
Unslaked lime
(quicklime)
Activated carbon
Blue vitriol
Ferric hydroxide floc
Muriatic acid
Table
continued
on
next
page
59
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Compounds Common in Wastewater Treatment (continued)
Chemical Name
Common Name
Manganese dioxide
Manganous bicarbonate
Manganous sulfate
Monochloramine
Potassium bicarbonate
Potassium permanganate
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium carbonate
Nitrogen trichloride
(trichloramine)
Sodium chloride
Sodium chlorite
Sodium fluoride
Sodium fluosilicate
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium phosphate
Sodium silicofluoride
Sodium bisulfite
Sodium sulfate
Sodium suCite
Sodium thiosulfate
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfuric acid
Trichloramine
(sodium silicofluoride)
(sodium fluosilicate)
(nitrogen trichloride)
Soda
Soda ash
Lye
Bleach
Oi l
of vitriol
Chemical Formula
Mn02
Mn(Hc03)~
mn504
nh2c1
khc03
KMn04
NaHC03
Na2C03
nc13
NaCl
NaC102
NaF
Na2SiF6
NaOH
NaOCl
Na3P04
.1
2H20
Na2SiFs
NaHS03
Na2S04
Na2S03
Na2S203 5H20
502
nc13
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KEY FORMULA S FOR C HEM ISTRY
total suspended solids, mg/L =
paper wt. and dried solids, g paper wt., g
mL
of
sample
x
1,000,000
residue,
mg x 1,000
mL sample
total
solids, mg/L
=
mL of titrant X normality X 50,000
mL of sample
otal alkalinity, mg/L =
Langelier saturation index
=
p H
pH,
saturated
concentration 1x volume 1 = concentration
2 x
volume 2
residue, mg
x
1,000
mL sample
mg/L total solids
=
weight
of
solute
weight ofsolution
ercent strength by weight
=
x 100
total weight
molecular weight
number
of
moles
=
moles of solute
liters
of
solution
molarity
=
total weight
equivalent weight
number of equivalent weights =
number
of
equivalent weights
of
solute
liters
of
solution
normality
=
molecular weight of
new measure
molecular weight of
i
ld measure
old concentration)
=
new concentration
61
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High Concentration H+ and OH-
High Concentration
of
H+
Ions
Ions in Balance of OH-
Ions
Pure Acid
Neutral Pure Base
0 - 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-12-13-14
The
pH Scale
CONDUCTIVITY AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
Electrical conductivity is the ability of a solution to conduct an
electric current an d it can b e u sed as an indirect measure
of
the
total dissolved solids T D S ) in a wa ter sample.
T h e unit
of
measure co mm only used is siemens per centimeter
S/cm). T h e conductivity of water is usually expresse d as micro-
siemens per centimeter pS/cm) whic h is 10 S/cm . T h e relation-
ship between conductivity an d dissolved solids is approximately:
2
pS/cm
=
1
pp m which is the same as
1
mg/L)
6
T h e conductivity o fwater from various s ourc es is
Absolutely pu re water
Distilled water = 0.5 pS/cm
Mountain water = l .OpS/cm
Most drinking water sou rces = 50 0 to 800 pS/cm
Seawater = 5 6 m S / c m
Maximum for pota ble water
=
0.055 pS/cm
= 1,055 pS/cm
Som e com mo n conductivity conversion factors are
mS/cm
x
1,000 = pS/cm
pS/cm x
0.001
= mS/cm
P s/cm X I
=
pmhos/cm
ps / c m x 0.5
=
m g /L of T D S
mS/cm x 0.5 = g /L of T D S
m g / L T D S
x
0.001 = g /L of T D S
m g / L T D S x 0.05842 = g p g T D S
62
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Densities
of
Various Substances
Density
Substance
lb/ft3 lb gal
Solids
Activated carbon'
Lime't
DW
alumr
Aluminum (at 20°C)
Steel (at 20°C)
Copper (at 20°C)
Propane (-44.5 C)
Gasolinet
Water (4°C)
Fluorosilicic acid (So%, -8.1 C)
Liquid alum (36'Be, 15.6 C)
Liquid chlorine (-33.6%)
Sulfuric acid (18°C)
Methane (OOC, 14.7 psia)
Air (20°C, 14.7 psia)
Oxygen (OOC, 14.7 psia)
Hydrogen sulfidet
Carbon dioxidet
Chlorine gas (OOC, 14.7 psia)
Liquids
Gases
8-28 (avg. 12)
20-50
60-75
168.5
486.7
555.4
36.5
43.7
c
v
.-
E
.88
5.84 P
62.4 8.34
c
v
36.5 4.88 .-
62.4 8.34
43.7 5.84 5
77.8-79.2 10.4-10.6
83.0 11.09
97.3 13.01
114.2 15.3
0.0344
0.075
0.089
0.089
0.1 15
0.187
*Bulk density of substance.
t Temperature and/or pressure not given.
The density of granite rock is about 162 lb/f?, and the density
of water is 62.4 lb/f?. The specific gravity of granite is found by
this ratio:
density ofgranite 162 lb/ftg
density ofwater 62.4 lb/ftg
specific gravity
=
- = 2.60
63
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Specific Gravities of Various Solids and Liquids
Substance Specific Gravity
Solids
Aluminum
(20°C)
Steel
(20°C)
Copper (20°C)
Activated ca rb oit
Lime^+
Dry alum'+
Soda ash*t
Coagulant aids (polyelectrolytes)*t
Table salft
Liquid alum
(36OBe, 15.6 )
Water
(4°C)
Fluorosilicic acid (30 , 8 . 1 C)
Sulfuric acid
(18°C)
l iquids
2.7
7.8
8.9
0.13-0.45
(avg.
0.19)
0 . 3 2 4 . 8 0
0.96-1.2
0.43-0.56
0.77-1.1 2
0.48-1.04
1.33
1 oo
1.25-1.27
1
.a3
Ferric chloride (30 ,30°C) 1.34
*Bulk density used to determine specific gravity.
t Temperature and/or pressure not given.
Specific Gravities of Various Gases
Gas SDecific Gravitv
Hydrogen (OOC;
14.7
psia)
Methane
O0C 14.7
psia)
Carbon monoxide^
Air
(20°C; 14.7
psia)
Nitrogen (0°C; 14 .7 psia)
Oxygen (OOC;
14.7
psia)
Hydrogen sulfide*
Carbon dioxide*
Chlorine gas (OOC;
14.7
psia)
Gasoline vaDor*
- -
0.07
0.46
0.97
1
oo
1.04
1.19
1.19
1.53
2.49
3.0
When released in a room, these
gases will first rise to the ceiling
area.
- - - - -
-
- - -
When released in a room, these
gases will first settle to the floor
area.
*Temperature and pressure not given.
64
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Common
Element Valences
Arsenic
As)
+3,
+5
Barium (Ba)
+2
Cadmium
Cd)
+2
Calcium (Ca) +2
Carbon (C) +4, -4
Chlorine (Cl)
-1
Chromium (Cr) +3
Hydrogen (H) +1
Copper (Cu) +1, +2
Dilution
normality
of
volume of
-
normality
of)
(volume
of)
solution 1 solution 1 solution 2 solution 2
N l ) V , ) = WZ)(VZ)
This equation can be abbreviated as
Common
Element Valences
Magnesium (Mg)
+2
Mercury (Hg) +1,
+2
Nitrogen (N) +3, -3, +5
Oxygen
0)
-2
Phosphorus P)
-3
Potassium
K)
+1
Selenium (Se) -2, i -4
Sulfur S) -2, +4, +6
4
cn
.-
=
Parts of A
Required
Solution
A,
Higher = A %
Concentration I\ o,ution
I
Conce
Sum =Total
Parts in
Desired Solution
l
c = Parts of B
Required
ntration
:
esired
Solution
B,
I = C %
Lower = B %
Concentration
Rectangle Method (sometimes called the dilution rule)
65
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Some Chemicals Used in Water and Wastewater Treatment
Chemical Name Name Formula Used for
Common Chemical
Aluminum oxide
Aluminum sulfate
Ammonia
Calcium bicarbonate
Calcium carbonate
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hypochlorite
Calcium oxide
Carbon
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Copper sulfate
Ferric chloride
Ferric sulfate
Ferrous chloride
Fluosilicic acid
Alumina
Alum
Ammonia gas
Ammonia aqua
Limestone
Hydrated lime or
slaked lime
HTH
Unslaked lime
or
quick lime
Activated carbon
Blue vitr iol
Fluoride
.(hydrofluosilicic acid)
Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid
Ozone
Potassium dichromate
Potassium permanganate
Sodium aluminate
Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda
Sodium carbonate Soda ash
Sodium chloride Salt
Sodium chlorite
Sodium fluoride
Sodium fluosilicate
Sodium Calgon
Sodium hydroxide Lye
Sodium hypochlorite Bleach
Sodium phosphate
Sodium thiosulfate
Sulfuric acid
Oi l
of vitriol
Zinc orthophosphate
hexametaphosphate
A1203 Fluoride, arsenic removal
A12(S04)y14H20 Coagulation
NH3 (ammonia
NHdOH (ammonia Chloramination
gas)
Alkalinity
Softening
Chlorination
Softening
Taste, odors, and pesticide
removal
Disinfection
Disinfection
Algae control
Coagulation
Coagulation
Chlorite control
Fluoridation
Disinfection
Taste and odor control
Coagulation
Alkalinity
Softening
Chlorine dioxide formation
Fluoridation
Fluoridation
Sequestering
Alkalinity
Chlorination
Zn3(P04)2 Corrosion control
.
66
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Nitrification Reaction
Biological nitrification is an aerobic au totrophic process in w hich
the energy for bacterial growth is derived from the oxidation of
inorganic compounds, primarily amm onia nitrogen. Autotrophic
nitrifiers, in contrast
to
heterotrophs, use inorganic carbon diox-
ide instead of organic carbon for cell synthesis. T h e yield of nitri-
fier cells per unit of substrate metabolized is many times smaller
than that for heterotrophic bacteria.
Although
a variety of
nitrifylng bacteria exist in nature, the two
genera associated with biological nitrification are
Nitrosomonas
and
Nitrobucter.
T h e oxidation of ammonia
to
nitrate is a two-step
process requiring both nitrifiers for the conversion.
Nitrosomonas
oxidizes ammonia to nitrite, while
Nitrobacter
subsequently trans-
forms nitrite
to
nitrate. T h e respective oxidation reactions are as
follows:
-
v
Ammonia oxidation:
Nihobacler
NH; +
1 . 5 0 2
+ 2HC0,
+
NO, + 2H2COs + H20
Nitrite oxidation:
Nihobacter
NO, 0.502 + NO,
Overall reaction:
nimf iers
NH;
2 0 2
+
2HCO.j
+
NO,
+
2H2COs
+
H20
67
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Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water as a Function of Temperature
and Salinity (barometric pressure = 760 mm Hg)
Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration, mg/L
Salinity,
ppt
Temperature,
C 5 1 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0 1460 1411 1364 1318 1274 1231 1190 1150 1111 1074
1 142 0 1373 1327 1283 1240 1198 1158 1120 1083 1046
2 1381 1336 1291 1249 1207 1167 1129 1091 1055 1020
3 1345 1300 1258 1216 1176 1138 1100 1064 1029 995
4 1309 1267 1225 1185 1147 1109 1073 1038 1004 97 1
5 1276 1234 1194 1156 11 18 1082 1047 1013 98 0 94 8
6 1244 1204 1165 11 27 1091 1056 1022 98 9 957 927
7 12 13 11 74 11 37 11
00
1 0 6 5 1 0 31 9 9 8 9 6 6 9 3 5 9 0 6
8 1 1 83 1 1 4 6 1 1 0 9 1 0 7 4 1 0 4 0 1 0 07 9 7 5 9 4 4 9 1 4 8 8 5
9 1155 11 19 1083 1049 1016 984 953 923 894 866
1 0 1 1 28 1 0 92 1 0 5 8 1 0 2 5 9 9 3 9 6 2 9 3 2 9 0 3 8 7 5 8 4 7
11 1 1 0 2 1 0 67 1 03 4 1 0 0 2 9 7 1 9 4 1 9 1 2 8 8 3 8 5 6 8 3 0
12 1 0 7 7 1 04 3 1 0 1 1 9 8 0 9 5 0 9 2 1 8 9 2 8 6 5 8 3 8 8 1 2
13 1 0 53 1 0 2 0 9 8 9 9 5 9 9 3 0 9 0 1 8 7 4 8 4 7 8 2 1 7 9 6
14 1 0 29 9 9 8 9 6 8 9 3 8 9 1 0 8 8 2 8 5 5 8 3 0 8 0 4 7 8 0
15 1 0 07 9 7 7 9 4 7 9 1 9 8 9 1 8 6 4 8 3 8 8 1 3 7 8 8 7 6 5
16 9 8 6 9 5 6 9 2 8 9 0 0 8 7 3 8 4 7 8 2 1 7 9 7 7 7 3 7 5 0
17 9 6 5 9 3 6 9 0 9 8 8 2 8 5 5 8 3 0 8 0 5 7 8 1 7 5 8 7 3 6
18 9 4 5 9 1 7 8 9 0 8 6 4 8 3 9 8 1 4 7 9 0 7 6 6 7 4 4 7 2 2
19 9 2 6 8 9 9 8 7 3 8 4 7 8 2 2 7 9 8 7 7 5 7 5 2 7 3 0 7 0 9
20 9 0 8 8 8 1 8 5 6 8 3 1 8 0 7 7 8 3 7 6 0 7 3 8 7 1 7 6 9 6
Jabie
continued on next page
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Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water as a Function
of
Temperature
and Salinity (barometric pressure
=
760
mm Hg) (continued)
Dissolved OxygenConcentration, m g A
Salinity,
ppt
Temperature,
C
0
5
1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 4 5
21
8.90 8.64
8.39 8.15 7.91 7.69 7.46 7.25 7.04
8.84
22 8.73 8.48 8.23 8.00 7.77 7.54 7.33 7.12 6.91 6.72
23 8.56 8.32
8.08
7.85
7.63 7.41 7.20
6.99 6.79 6.60
24 8.40 8.16 7.93 7.71 7.49 7.28 7.07
6.87 6.68
6.49
25 8.24
8.01 7.79 7.57 7.36 7.15 6.95 6.75 6.56 6.38
26
8.09 7.87 7.65
7.44 7.23 7.03 6.83
6.64 6.46
6.28
27
7.95 7.73 7.51 7.31 7.10 6.91 6.72
6.53 6.35
6.17
28 7.81 7.59 7.38 7.18 6.98 6.79
6.61 6.42
6.25 6.08
29 7.67 7.46 7.26 7.06 6.87 6.68
6.50
6.32 6.15
5.98
30 7.54
7.33
7.14 6.94
6.75 6.57
6.39 6.22
6.05 5.89
31
7.41 7.21
7.02 6.83 6.65 6.47
6.29 6.12
5.96 5.80
32 7.29 7.09 6.90 6.72 6.54
6.36 6.19
6.03 5.87 5.71
33 7.17
6.98 6.79
6.61 6.44 6.26 6.10
5.94
5.78 5.63
34
7.05 6.86 6.68 6.51 6.33 6.17
6.01 5.85 5.69 5.54
35
6.93 6.75
6.58 6.40
6.24 6.07
5.92 5.76 5.61 5.46
36 6.82 6.65
6.47
6.31 6.14 5.98 5.83 5.68 5.53 5.39
37
6.72
6.54 6.37 6.21 6.05 5.89 5.74
5.59 5.45 5.31
38
6.61 6.44 6.28
6.12 5.96 5.81 5.66
5.51 5.37
5.24
39 6.51 6.34 6.18 6.03 5.87 5.72 5.58 5.44 5.30 5.16
40 6.41 6.25 6.09 5.94 5.79 5.64 5.50
5.36 5.22
5.09
ppt = parts per thousand.
69
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Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water*as a Function of Temperature
and Barometric Pressure (salini ty
=
0 ppt )
Dissolved-Oxygen
Concentration, mg/L
Barometric
Pressure,
mm
of
mercury
Temperature,
C
735 740 745
750
755 760 765 770 775 780
0 14.12 14.22 14.31 14.41 14.51 14.60 14.70 14.80 14.89 14.99
1 13.73 13.82 13.92 14.01 14.10 14.20 14.29 14.39 14.48 14.57
2 13.36 13.45 13.54 13.63 13.72 13.81 13.90 14.00 14.09 14.18
3 13.00 11.09 13.18 13.27 13.36 11.45 13.53 13.62 13.71 13.80
4 12.66 12.75 12.83 12.92 13.01 13.09 13.18 13.27 13.35 13.44
5 12.33 12.42 12.50 12.59 12.67 12.76 12.84 12.93 13.01 13.10
6 12.02 12.11 12.19 12.27 12.35 12.44 12.52 12.60 12.68 12.77
7 11.72 11.80 11.89 11.97 12.05 12.13 12.21 12.29 12.37 12.45
8 11.44 11.52 11.60 11.67 11.75 11.83 11.91 11.99 12.07 12.15
9 11.16 11.24 11.32 11.40 11.47 11.55 11.63 11.70 11.78 11.86
10 10.90 10.98 11.05 11.13 11.20 11.28 11.35 11.43 11.50 11.58
11 10.65 10.72 10.80 10.87 10.94 11.02 11.09 11.16 11.24 11.31
12 10.41 10.48 10.55 10.62 10.69 10.77 10.84 10.91 10.98 11.05
13 10.17 10.24 10.31 10.38 10.46 10.53 10.60 10.67 10.74 10.81
14 9.95 10.02 10.09 10.16 10.23 10.29 10.36 10.43 10.50 10.57
15 9.73 9.80 9.87 9.94 10.00 10.07 10.14 10.21 10.27 10.34
16 9.53 9.59 9.66 9.73 9.79 9.86 9.92 9.99 10.06 10.12
17 9.33 9.39 9.46 9.52 9.59 9.65 9.72 9.78 9.85 9.91
18 9.14 9.20 9.26 9.33 9.39 9.45 9.52 9.58 9.64 9.71
19 8.95 9.01 9.07 9.14 9.20 9.26 9.32 9.39 9.45 9.51
20 8.77 8.83 8.89 8.95 9.02 9.08 9.14 9.20 9.26 9.32
Table continued on next page
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Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration in Water as a Function
of
Temperature
and Barometric Pressure (salinity = ppt) (continued)
Dissolved-Oxygen Concentration, ms/r
Barometric Pressure,
mm
of
mercury
Temperature,
o c
735 740
745 75 755 76
765
no 775 78
21 8.60 8.66 8.72 8.78 8.84 8.90 8.96 9.02 9.08 9.14
22 8.43 8.49 8.55 8.61 8.67 8.73 8.79 8.84 8.90 8.96
23 8.27 8.33
0.39 8.44
8.50
8.56 8.62
8.68 8.73 8.79
24 8.11
8.17 8.23
8.29 8.34 8.40 8.46 8.51
8.57
8.63
25 7.96 8.02
8.08
8.13 8.19
8.24
8.30
8.36 8.41
8.47
26
7.82
7.87 7.93
7.98
8.04
8.09 8.15
8.20
8.26 8.31
27 7.68
7.73 7.79
7.84 7.89 7.95 8.00
8.06
8.11 8.17 .-
E
28
7.54 7.59 7.65 7.70 7.75 7.81 7.86 7.91 7.97 8.02
30
7.28
7.33 7.38 7.44 7.49 7.54 7.59 7.64 7.69 7.75
v
9
7.41 7.46 7.51 7.57 7.62 7.67 7.72 7.78 7.83 7.88
31 7.16 7.21 7.26
7.31
7.36
7.41
7.46 7.51 7.46 7.62
32 7.04 7.09 7.14 7.19 7.24 7.29 7.34 7.39 7.44 7.49
33 6.92 6.97 7.02 7.07 7.12 7.17 7.22 7.27 7.31 7.36
34 6.80
6.85 6.90 6.95
7.00
7.05
7.10 7.15
7.20
7.24
35
6.69 8.74 6.79
6.84 6.89
6.93
6.98 7.03
7.08 1.13
36 6.59
6.63 6.68
6.73 6.78 6.82 6.87
6.92 6.97
7.01
37 6.48 6.53 6.57 6.62 6.67 6.72 6.76 6.81 6.86 6.90
38 6.38 6.43 6.47
6.52 6.56
6.61
6.66 6.70
6.75 6.80
39 6.28 6.33 6.37 6.42 6.46 6.51 6.56 6.60 6.85 6.69
40 6.18 6.23 6.27
6.32
6.36
6.41
6.46 6.50 6.55 6.59
* ppt
=
parts per thousand.
71
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Asterionella
Hydrodietyon
Rridiniurn
Anabaena
Anacystis
Mallomonas
Staurastrum
Aphanimmenon
Nilella
Dmobryon
Tabellana
Pandorina
Vmglenapsis
Synedra
Ceralium
Gomphosphaena
Source:Standard Methods for the Examination
of
Water and Wastewater.
Taste and Odor Algae
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Anacystis
Cymbella
Chlorella
Synsdra
R vu
a ia
ekslra
Cyclotella
Tahellarla
Spirogyra
Asterionella
Fragilaris
AnabaeM
Dialoma
Source: Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
Filter- and Screen-Clogging Algae
73
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Phonnidium
Fyrobottys
Merismqledia
Carteria
Lepacinclls
Nilzschia
Telraedron
Chiorococcum
Anabaena
Euglena
Splragyra
Oscillateria
Phacus
Chlorogonium
Chbrel la
Stigeocbnium
G l o ~ l c a p ~
Gomphoneme
ArWlrospira
Lyngbya
Chlamydomonas
Source: Standard Methods for the Examination
of
Water and Wastewater.
Freshwater Pollution Algae
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Rhirocloniurn
Pinnularia
Navimls
Aphandheca
Ulahrix
Chromulvla
Cladophora
Micrasteries
Cal rix
Mend on
Chamaesphon
Source; Standard Methods for the Examinationof Water and Wastewater.
Clean Water Algae
75
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Nodidaria
Euglena
Micractinium
Mougwtla
Phscus
Gamphosphilaria
Gonium
Slephanadiscus
Dw
d
u
Sphaerwps
Slaurmas Zygnema Eudonna
PeiliaSVum
Source:Standard Methods or the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
Plankton
and
Other Surface Water Algae
76
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Phormidium
Ulothrix
Achnanthes
Sl&&llWn
Cham
Cladophora
Gomphonema
Vamheria
Tetraspara
Audouinells
TolypaIhrix
Oedogonium
DrapWi?EUla
Chaetophora
Source:
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.
Algae Growing on Surfaces
77
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Planklosphaeea
Poiyedriopsis Eiakatothrix
Spirulina
ChrOrnulina
Diacanthos
Clwteridium
Vacualaria
Ourococcua
Chodatella
Chm
mo
n
Ankistrodesmus
Cryptomonas
Massarila
Plemmonas
Closlerioopsts
Cosrnariurn
Clostsrium
Seenedesmus
Goienkinia
Schizdhnx
Schroederia ChlamVdarnonas
Source: Standard Methods for the Examination
of
Water and Wastewater.
Wastewater Treatment Pond Algae
7a
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Source:
Standard Methods for the Examinationof Water and Wastewater.
Estuarine Pollution Algae
79
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Safety
Wastewater operators are exposed to
a
number
of
occupational hazards.
n
act, water and
wastewater treatment r a n k high o n the national
listings
of
indu strial occufiations where
on-the-job in juries can occur. Whether regulated
by the Occupational Safe and Health
Administration
o r
dictated by common sense
and p la nt policy, s afi working practices
are
a n
impor tan t pa r t of the wastewater operator’sjob.
81
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Pipeline Color Coding Used in Wastewater Treatment Plants
Type of Line Contents of Line Color of Pipe
Sludge lines Raw sludge
Sludge recirculation or suction
Sludge draw off
Sludge recirculation discharge
Gas lines Sludge gas
Natural gas
Water lines Nonpotable water
Potable water
Water for heating digestors or
buildings
Other lines
Reuse
Chlorine
Sulfur dioxide
Sewage (wastewater)
Compressed air
Brown with black bands
Brown with yellow bands
Brown with orange bands
Brown
Orange (or red)
Orange (or red) with black
bands
Blue with black bands
Blue
Blue with 6-in. (1
50-mm)
red bands spaced 30 in.
(760 mm) apart
Purple
Yellow
Yellow with red bands
Gray
Green
Source: Recommended Standards for Water Works and Recommended Standards
for Wastewater Facilities the “Ten States Standards” ).
NOTE:t is recommended hat the direction of flow and name of the contents be noted
on all lines.
82
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OSHA SAFETY REGULATIONS
Confined Space Entry
Beginning in April 1993, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OS HA) implemented and started enforcing com-
prehensive regulations governing confined spaces. M ost states and
municipalities have adop ted these standards, even if OSH A does
not regulate them directly.
Virtually all access entrances now come under OSHA stan-
dard 29
CFR
1910.146,
Permit Required Confined Spaces.
These standards formally implement requirements and clarify
previous recommendations and suggestions made by industry
representatives.
Emergency Rescue
As
of
April
15,
1993,
a
mechanical device for rescue became
required for all vertical-type, permit-required confined spaces
deeper than
5
ft [1910.146(k)(3)(ii)J. A safety line and human
muscles are no longer acceptable means of rescue for most con-
fined spaces with the potential for vertical rescue. Systems that
were used in the past, including “boat winches,” should no longer
be used. Today, “hum an-rated” alternatives are available that sat-
isfy the OSHA requirements. This means that the manufacturer
has designed the system specifically for lifting people rather than
materials.
Nonemergency IngressIEgress
Means for safe entry and exit by au thorized personnel are ju st as
important, per 1910.146(d)(4), as rescue systems. Most tripod/
winch systems used for nonemergency work positioning an d sup-
port applications (such
as
lowering a worker into an access space
that does not contain
a
ladder) are defined as “single-point adjust-
able suspension scaffolds.” Trip ods and davit-arms are examples.
Both general industry standards (OSH A 19 10 ) an d construction
industry standards (OS HA 1926) stipulate specific requirements
that must be satisfied when a tripod/manually operated winch
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system is the primary m eans used
to
suspend o r su pp ort workers.
Excerpts from the standards follow.
Utility owners and operators are also now clearly responsible
for contractor o r subcontractor activities in an d around confined
spaces.
Contractors should be trained in following proper proce-
dures and using the right equipment.
I. a. OSHA 1910.28(i)( 1) Single-point adjustable suspension
scaffolds. The scaffolding [tripod, davit-arm], including
power units or manually operated winches, shall be
a
type
tested and listed by a nationally recognized testing laboratory.
b.
OSHA
1926.451(k)( 1) Single-point adjustable suspen-
sion scaffolds. T h e scaffolding [tripod, davit-arm], includ-
ing power units or manually operated winches, shall be
a
type
tested and listed by Underwriters Laboratories or Fac-
tory Mutual Engineering Corporation.
84
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Confined Space Entry Procedure
Job: Manhole Inspection and Cleaning Employee:
Dept: Foreman:
Municipality:
Required and/or Recommended personal protection equipment (PPE): Coveralls, rubber glo
Sequence of
Basic
Job
Steps Potential Accidents
r
Hazards
1. Secure the work site to ensure Injury or damage to equipment by contact with
vehicles. Injury to public, either pedestrians or
vehicle occupants.
Ignition of gases that may be present and toxic
traffic and public safety.
2. Check manhole for hazardous
gases before removing access vapors.
cover.
3. Remove access cover. Injury to back or foot; slips and falls.
Safety
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Confined Space Entry Procedure (continued)
Sequence of
Basic Job Steps
4. Before entering confined space,
use flashlight or mirror to
visually check condition of
manhole and ladder rungs.
Ensure that testing of hazard-
ous
gases is continuous and
ventilation is in use where
entry is required.
8
Potential Accidents r Hazards
Falls, hazardous gases, and infection.
5.
Perform routine flushing
Hazardous gases may be released from
disturbed sediments. Surcharging of collection
system. Slips, falls, and infection.
Injury to back or foot; slips and falls.
operation, removing debris
and sediment as necessary.
6.
Replace access cover.
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Entry Date: Start Time: Completion Time:
Description of Work To Be Performed:
Description
of Space
Confined Space
ID
Number: Type: Classificalion:
Building Name:
Location of Confined Space:
Entry Checklist
Potential Hazards Identified?
Communicalions EstablishedWith Operations Center?
Emergency Procedures Reviewed?
Entrants and Atlendants Trained?
Isolation of Energy Completed?
Area Secured?
Emergency Escape Retrieval Equipment Available?
Personal Protective Equipment Used?
es NO
Yes
O
Yes O
es NO
Yes
O
es NO
Yes NO
Yes
NO
Confined Space Equipment and PPE Used During Entry
ripod With Mechanical Winch
arness
GeneraVLocal Exhaust Venlilalion
Air Purifying Respirator
Self-containedBreathing Apparatus
teel
Toe
Boots
Safety Glasses/Goggles/Face Shield
Chemical Resistanl Clothing
Hearing Protection
cF
Rescue Tripod With Lifeline Hard Hat
Two-way Communications Gloves
v
Other PPE or Equipment Used:
Air Monitoring Results Prior
to
Entry
Monitor Type: Serial Number:
Oxygen % LEL
%
co
%
HpS
%
Calibration Performed? Yes No Initials
Alarm Conditions? D y e s ONO
Monitoring Performed by (sign):
Continuous Air Monitoring Results
Date: -Time:
~
Time
Oxygen % LEL CO % H2S- %
Time- Oxygen-
%
LEL-% CO-
%
H2S-
%
Time Oxygen
%
LEL-
% cop % HzS %
Authorization
We have reviewed the work authorized by this permit and the information contained here-
in. Written instructions and safety procedures have been received and are understood.
Entry cannot
be
approved if any checks are marked in the NO column. This permit is not
valid unless all appropriate tems are completed. This permit is to be kept at the job site.
Return site copy to supervisor.
Entrant's Name Signature: Date:
Atlendant's Name Signature: Date:
Supervisor's Name Signature: Date:
Confined Space Entry Permi t
a i
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TRENCH SHORING
CONDITIONS*
Sheet Pilings
Trench Depth
4
ft to
8
ft-2 in. thick rnin.
More than 8 ft-3 in. thick rnin.
I
Braces
4
in. x 4 in. rnin.
(see specifications)
Sheet piling or equivalent solid sheeting is required for trenches
4
ft or more deep.
Longitudinal-stringer dimensions depend on the strut braces, the stringer spacing,
and the depth of stringer below the ground surface.
Greater loads are encountered as the depth increases,
so
more
r
stronger
stringers and struts are required near the trench bottom.
Running
Material
* This section adapted from Office of Water Programs California State Universik
Sacramento Foundation in Small Water System Operation and Maintenance. For
additional information visit <www. owp.csus.edu> or call 916 278 6142.
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Uprights
2
n
x 8
in
Depth to
1
t
3
in
x
8
in
Depth more than
10
?
renches 5 ft or more deep and more than
8
ft long must be braced at intervals of
8 fl or less. .c
Hard Compact Ground
(5
t
or more in depth)
m
cn
Stringers Cleats
4 in
x
4 in min
x
E
Additional Sheeting
as
Required
Sheeting must be provided and must be sufficient to hold the material in place.
Longitudinal-stringer dimensions depend on the strut and stringer spacing and on
the degree o f instability encountered.
Saturated, Filled, or Unstable Ground (additional sheeting as required)
9
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ROADWAY, TRAFFIC, AND VEHICLE SAFETY-
Recommended Barricade Placement for Working in a Roadway
NOTE:
If
traffic is heavy or cons truction work cau ses interference in the o pen
lane, one
or
m ore flaggers should b e used.
Speed Limit,
mph hm/hr)
20 (32)
25 (40)
30 (48)
35 (56)
40 (64)
45 (72)
50 (81)
55
(89)
Lane Width,
11 f t (3.4
in
0 ft (3 m)
12 ft (3.7 m)
ff
70
105
150
205
270
450
500
550
Taper len gth,
m)
f t
m)
(21)
75
(23)
(32)
115 (35)
(46)
165
50)
(62)
225 (69)
(82) 295 (90)
(137)
495 (151)
(152)
550 (168)
(168)
605 (184)
t
80
125
180
245
320
540
600
660
Minimum
Number of
Cones Required
5
6
7
8
9
13
13
13
*
This section adapted from Office of Water Programs California State University
Sacramento foundation in Small Water System Operation and Maintenance. for
additional information visit < w w . owp.csus.edu> or call 916 278 6142.
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Provide adequate
path for pedestri an
traffic here.
2
lacem ent near intersection. Som e locations m ay require high-level warnings
at points 1 and 2.
Y-
ce
cn
Placement at major traffic s ig nalx ont ro lled ntersection where congestion is
extreme. Som e locations may permit warnings at points 1,
2,
3,
and 4
Placementof Traffic Cones and Signs
91
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Placement for multilane highway.
Place high-level warning in same
lane as obstruction. See table on
page 90 for distances.
Placement for normal service,
leak, or construction. See
table on page 90 for distances.
Placementof Traffic Cones and Signs (continued)
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Typical High LevelWarning
Placement on curved ro
The same pattern
as
sh
over double center line
flagger or police officer.
Placementof Traffic Cones and Signs (continued)
Safety
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Placement for g ate op eration or oth er jobs
of
short duration.
Employ ee mu st w ear high-visibility vest or jack et.
Altern ate placem ent for o peration describ ed above.
High-level warning is m ounted on rear of vehicle that is
parked in advance of w ork location. Emplo yee mus t wear
high-visibility vest o r jack et.
Placement
of
Traffic Cones and Signs (continued)
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Road
Work
Ahead
150
ft
min.
Work
Area
Work
High-Level
Space Warning
Device
Single
Lane
Ahead
Road
100
t min.
Work
Ahead
150
f t min.
Closing
of
Left Lane
95
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Road
Work
Ahead 150fi
rnin.
Work
Area
Work
Space
Delineators
High-Level
Warning
Device
100 ft rnin.
Right Lane
Closed A head
150 f t
min.
Road Work
Ahead
Closing of Right Lane
96
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1.
Truck and spoil bank
placed ahead of
excavation for
employee protection.
2. Cone pattern
arranged with gentle
curves-traff ic
adjusts smoothly.
3. Pipe blocked
to
prevent rolling into
street. Barricades
warn pedestrians.
4. Material is neatly
stacked.
5.
High-level warning
or barricades of
solid material to give
audible warning
of
vehicles entering
work area.
6.
Pedestrian bridge
over excavation.
7. Left side of truck
protected by cone
pattern; work area
entirely outlined.
8.
Tools
out of way of
pedestrians; tools
not
in
use replaced
in truck.
9. Pickup parked in
work area or on
street away from
work area.
Good
Practices n
Work
Area Protection
97
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Strongback
Member
60 in.
Back
View
Strongback
Member
60 in
42
in.
36 in.
Side
View
Rope or Chain
Hook Closing
No Scale
Materials Schedule: Construction Method:
Strongback: 1-1 in. Black Pipe
Remainder:
?4
in. Black Pipe
(or other with equivalent strength)
Electric Weld
Safety Orange or Yellow
NOTE:
Strongback member and both sides should be coupled together
so
they can be stacked for transportation and quickly assembled if needed.
Finish:
Typical
Portable
Manhole Safety Enclosure
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Boostei
Battery
\
B
A
Disabled
Vehicle
Body
Ground
\
Discharged
Battery
Proper Booster Cable Hookup
To boost the battery
of a
disabled vehicle from that
of
another vehi-
cle,
follow th is procedure.
For m aximum eye safety, wear protective goggles arou nd vehi-
cle batteries
to keep flying battery fragments and chemicals ou t of
the eyes. Should battery acid get into the eyes, imm ediately fli sh
them with water continuously for
15
minutes, then
see a
doctor.
First, extinguish all cigarettes and flames.
A
spark can ignite
hydrogen gas from the battery fluid. Next, take
off
the battery
caps,
if removable, and add distilled water if it is needed. Check for ice
in the battery fluid. Neverjump-start a frozen battery Replace the
caps.
Next, park the vehicle with the “live” battery close enough
so
the cables will reach between the batteries ofthe two vehicles. T h e
vehicles can be parked close, but d o not allow them
to
touch. If
they touch, this can create a dangerous situation. Now set each
vehicle’s parking brake. Be sure that an automatic transmission is
set
in park; put a manual-shift transmission in neutral. Make sure
your headlights, heater, and
all
other electrical accessories are
off
100
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(you don’t want to sap electricity away from the discharged [dead]
battery while you’re trying to start the vehicle). If the two batteries
have vent caps, remove them. Then lay
a
cloth over the open
holes. This will reduce the risk of explosion (relieves pressure
within the battery).
Attach one end
of
the jum pe r cable to the positive terminal
of
the booster battery (A) and the other end
to
the positive terminal
of the discharged battery
(D).
T h e positive terminal is identified
by a + sign, a red color, or a
“P”
on the battery in each vehicle.
Each
of
the two booster cables has an alligator clip
at
each end.
To
attach, simply squeeze the clip, place it over the terminal, an d let
i t
shut. Now attach one end of the remaining booster cable to the
negative terminal
of
the booster battery (B). T h e negative terminal
is marked with a sign, a black color, o r the letter “N.” Attach the
other end of the cable to a metal part o n the engine of the disabled
vehicle
(C).
Many m echanics simply attach it to
the
negative post
of the battery, bu t this is not recom mended because a resulting arc
could ignite hydrogen gas present at the battery surface and cause
an explosion. Be sure that the cables do not interfere with the fan
blades or belts. T h e engine in the booster vehicle should be run-
ning, a lthough it is not an absolute necessity.
Get in the disabled vehicle and start the engine. After it starts,
remove the booster cables. Removal is the exact reverse
of
attach-
ment. Remove the black cable attached to the previously disabled
vehicle, then remove it from the negative terminal of the booster bat-
tery. Next, remove the remaining cable from the positive terminal of
the dead battery and then from the booster vehicle. Replace the vent
caps and you’re done. Have the battery and/or charg ing system of
the vehicle checked by a mechanic to correct any problems.
101
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FIRE AND ELECTRICAL SAFETY
BFeaker,x,
G
' Hot ncoming Line
To Load
Grounded
Neutral
Line
Sensing Ring
The differential transformer continuously measures the current flow in the
hot and neutral lines. Under normal conditions, the current is equal in
each line.
If
there is a differenceof as little as 5 mA (0.005 A) the amplifier
energizes the shunt trip coil which causes the circuit breaker to
trip in
'k0fh of a second or less.
EXAMPLE:hand drill has a defective motor winding allowing a portion of the
current to flow to the metal case and thus through your body causing a
shock and possible electrocution.
Always use a ground fault interrupter when using electrical equipment
outdoors and in damp, wet locations. Always make sure your electrical tools
are in good shape.
Ground Fault Interrupter
Types
of Fires and
Fire Extinguishers
~ ~~
Class
of
Fire
and Extinguisher
Combustible
Mater ial Marking Extinguish With
Paper, wood, cloth A (ordinary Water, soda-acid, and dry
combustibles) chemical rated
A,
B,
C
Oil, tar, gasoline, paint B (flammable Foam, carbon dioxide, liquid
liquids) gas (HalonTM),and dry
chemical rated B, C, or A, B,
C
Electric motors, power cords,
C
(electrical Carbon dioxide, liquid gas
wiring, and transformer boxes
equipment) (HalonTM), nd dry chemical
Sodium, zinc phosphorus,
0
special Only special dry-powder
magnesium, potassium, and
metals) extinguishers marked for this
rated B, C, or A, B, C
titanium, especially as dust or
turnings
purpose
102
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PERSONNEL
SAFETY
4 1,500
Purging Time, min
Manhole Volume,
f t3
Effective Blower
Capacity,cfm
Useof alignment chart:
1. Place straightedge on manhole volume left scale).
2. Place either end of straightedgeonblower capacity right scale).
3.
Read required purging time, in minutes, on diagonal scale.
4. If
two blowers are used, add the two capacities, then proceed as above.
5 When common gases are encountered, increase purging time by
50%.
6. Effective blower capacity is measured with one or two 90 bends in
standard 154 blower hose.
Ventilation
Nomograph
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Hazardous Location Information
A hazardous location s an area where the possibility of explosion and fire is created by the p
(Fibers and flyings are not likely to be suspended in the air but can collect around machin
can ignite them.)
Class I Class
(National Electrical Code [NECI-500-5) (NEC-500-6) (NEC
Those areas in which flammable
gases or vapors may be present
in the air in sufficient quantities to
be explosive or ignitable.
Those areas made hazardous by the
presence of combustible dust.
Thos
prese
proce
Div i s i on D iv i s i on I I
(NEC-800-5, 6, 7) (NEC-500-5, 6, 7) (NEC
In the normal situation, hazard
would be expected to be present
in everyday production operations
or during frequent repair and
maintenance activity.
In the abnormal situation, material is
expected to be confined within closed
containers or closed systems and will be
present only through accidental rupture,
breakage, or unusual faulty operation.
The g
group
acco
explo
The d
grwp
the c
NOT
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Hazardous Location Information (continued)
Typical Class ocations
Petroleum refineries, and gasoline storage and dispensing areas
Industrial firms that use flammable liquids in dip tanks for parts cleaning or other o
Petrochemical companies that manufacture chemicals from gas and oil
Dry-cleaning plants where vapors from cleaning fluids can be present
Companies that have spraying areas where products are coated with paint or plast
Aircraft hangars and fuel servicing areas
Utility gas plants, and operations involving storage and handling of liquefied petrole
Typical Class
I
Locations
g
Grain elevators, flour and feed mills
Plants that manufacture, use, or store magnesium or aluminum powders
Plants that have chemical or metallurgical processes; producers of plastics, medici
Producers of starch or candies
Spice-grinding plants, sugar plants, and Cocoa plants
Coal preparation plants and other carbon-handling or processing areas
Textile mills, cotton gins, cotton seed mills, and flax processing plants
Typical Class 111 Locations
Any plant that shapes, pulverizes, or cuts wood and creates sawdust or flyings
Source:Explosion
Proof
Blowers:
95 3 and
9575 07 NEC (Warning: Explosion-proof blowe
Safety
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Hazards Classif ication
Class 1 Explosives
Class2 Gas
Class
3
Flammable liquid
Class
4
Flammable solids potential spontaneous conibus-
tion, or emission of flammable gases when in contact
with water)
Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Toxic poisonous) and infectious substances
Class 5
Class
6
Class 7 Radioactive material
Class 8 Corrosives
Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous goods
HEALTH EFFECTS OF
TOXIN
EXPOSURE
Although the foul odor rotten eggs) ofhydrogen sulfide is easily
detected at low concentrations, it is an unreliable warning because
the gas rapidly desensitizes the sense of smell, leading to a false
sense of security. In high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide, a
worker may collapse
with
little or no warning.
Potential Effects
of
Hydrogen Sulf ide Exposure
ppm
Effectsand
Symptoms
Time
1,000
or more Unconsciousness, death Minutes
500-700 Unconsciousness, death
30 minutes
to 1 hour
200-300
Marked eye and respiratory irritations
1
hour
50-1 00 Mild eye and respiratory irritations
1
hour
10
Permissible exposure level 8 hours
106
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Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless gas that may build
up in a confined space. In h igh concentrations of carbon monox-
ide a worker may collapse with little o r no warning.
Potential Effects of Carbon Monoxide Exposure
Effectsand Symptoms
4,000
2,000-2,500
1,000-2,000
1,000-2,000
1,000-2,000
600
400
200
50
Fatal
Unconsciousness
Slight heart palpitation
Tendency to stagger
Confusion, headache, nausea
Headache, discomfort
Headache, discomfort
Slight headache, discomfort
Permissible exposure limit
Time
cl hour
30 minutes
30 minutes
Y
hours
2 hours
hour
2 hours
3
hours
8 hours
Chlorine is a highly toxic chemical even in small concentra-
tions
in
air. T h e following table show s the physiological effects
of
various concentrations
of
chlorine by volume in air.
Effects of Chlorine Gas Exposure
ppm
Effects
and Symptoms
3
4
5
5
30
40
1,000
Slight symptoms after several hours’ exposure
Detectable odor
60-minute inhalation witnout serious effects
Noxiousness
Throat irritation
Coughing
Dangerous from
30
minutes to 1hour
Death after a few deep breaths
107
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Common Dangerous Gases Encountered in Water Supply Systems and
Explos ive Range
(% by volume in air)
of Gas Formulae (air = 1 L imi t l im i t
Carbon dioxide
con 1.53
Not flammable Not flammable
Specific Grav i i yp
Name Chemical Vapor Density lo w er Upper
~
Carbon co
0.97 12.5 74.2
monoxide
Chlorine
c12
2.5
Not flammable Not flammable
Not explosive Not explosive
Ethane CZH4
1.05
3.1
15.0
~
Gasoline C5Hin to CgHzo 3.0 to 4.0 1.3 7.0
vapor
Hydrogen Hz 0.07 4.0 74.2
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at Wastewater Treatment Plants
Common Physiological
Properties
Effects
Most Simplest and Least
(percentages @ercentages Common Expensive
Safe
given are percent given are percent
Sources
Methodof
in air by volume)
in air by volume)
in
Sewers
Testingt
Colorless, odorless,
10%
cannot be Issues from carbona- Oxygen deficiency
nonflammable.
Not
endured for more ceous strata. Sewer indicator
generally present in than a few minutes. gas.
dangerous amounts
unless there is respiration.
already an oxygen
deficiency.
Acts
on
nerves of
Colorless, odorless, Hemoglobin of blood Manufactured fuel CO ampoules
nonirritating, has strong affinity for gas
tasteless. gas causing oxygen
Flammable. starvation.
0.2
Explosive. to
0.25
causes
unconsciousness in
30
minutes.
2
-
a
cn
Greenish yellow Respiratory irritant, Leaking pipe Chlorine detector.
gas, or amber color irritating to eyes and connections. Odor, strong. Ammonia
liquid under pressure. mucous membranes. Overdosage.
on
swab gives
off
Highly irritating
30
ppm causes white fumes.
and penetrating odor. coughing.
4 M 0
ppm
Highly corrosive dangerous in
in presence of
30
minutes.
1,000
ppm
moisture. likely to be fatal in a few
breaths.
Colorless, tasteless, See Hydrogen. Natural gas Combustible gas
odorless, nonpoison- indicator
ous. Flammable.
Explosive.
Colorless. Odor Anesthetic effects
Leaking storage
1.
Combustible gas
noticeable in
0.03 .
when inhaled.
2.43
tanks, discharges indicator
Flammable.
rapidly fatal.
1.1%
o
from garages, and 2. Oxygen deficiency
Explosive. 2.2%
dangerous for
commercial or indicator for
even short exposure. home dry-cleaning concentrations
operations.
>30
Colorless, odorless, Acts mechanically
to
Manufactured fuel Combustible gas
tasteless, nonpoi- deprive tissues of gas indicator
sonous.
Flammable. oxygen.
Does not
Explosive. Propagates support life. A simple
flame rapidly: very asphyxiant.
dangerous.
Table continued on next page
109
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Common DangerousGases Encountered n Water Supply
Systems
and
Explosive Range
(% by
volume in air)
Name Chemical Vapor Density Lower Upper
of Gas Formulae (air = 1) Limit Limit
Specific Gravitypf
Hydrogen HzS
sulfide
1.19 4.3
46.0
Methane CH4 0.55 5.0 15.0
Nitrogen Nz 0.97 Not flammable Not flammable
Oxygen 02
(in air)
1 1 1 Not flammable Not flammable
*Gases with a specific gravity
less
than 1.0 are lighter than air; those with a specific gravity
t The first method given is the preferable esting procedure.
Never enter a
12%
atmosphere. Use detection meters with alarm warning devices.
more than 1.0 are heavier than air.
110
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at Wastewater Treatment Plants (continued)
Common
Properties
(percentages
below are percent
in air
by
volume)
Physiological Effects Most Simplest and
(percentages Common Cheapest
Safe
below
are percent SOUlCeS Method
of
in air
by
volume) in
Sewers
Testingt
Rotten egg odor
in small concen-
trations but sense
of smell rapidly
impaired. Odor not
evident at high
concentrations.
Colorless. Flammable.
Explosive. Poisonous.
Death in a few Petroleum fumes,
1.
H2S analyzer
minutes at 0.2 . from blasting, sewer 2. H2S ampoules
Paralyzes respiratory gas
center.
Colorless, tasteless, See Hydrogen. Natural gas, marsh
1.
Combustible gas
odorless, nonpoison- gas, manufacturing indicator
ous.
Flammable.
fuel
gas, sewer gas
2.
Oxygen deficiency
Explosive. indicator
Colorless, tasteless, See Hydrogen. Issues from some Oxygen deficiency
odorless. rock strata. Sewer indicator
Nonpoisonous.
Principal constituent
of air (about 79%).
Nonflammable. gas
~~~~ ~~
Colorless, odorless, Normal air contains
Oxygen depletion Oxygen deficiency
tasteless, nonpoison-
20 93%
of
O2
from poor venblabon indicator
ous
gas Supports
Humans tolerate and absorpbon or
combustion
down to
12
chemical consumption
Below
5%
to
7%,
likely to be fatal
of available
O2
111
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Chlorine and Safety
W he n using chlorine, observe the following precautions:
1. Use a mask when entering a chlorine-containing atmosphere.
2.
Apparatus, lines, and cylinder valves should be checked
regularly for leaks. Use ammonia fumes to test leaks.
Amm onia an d chlorine pro du ce w hite fbmes of amm onium
chloride, w hich indicate leaks.
3. Because it is heavier than air, always store chlorine on the
lowest floor; it will collect at the lower level. For the same
reason, never sto op dow n wh en a chlorine smell is noticed.
H andle ch lorine carefully and respectfully, as she is the “green
goddess of water.”
112
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Waterborne Diseases
Waterborne Disease Causative Organism
Source of
Organism in Water
Gastroenteritis Salmonella(bacteria) Animal or human feces
Typhoid
Salmonella iyphosa
Human feces
(bacteria)
Dysentery Shigella Human feces
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
Human feces
Infectious hepatitis Virus Human feces, shellfish grown in
(bacteria)
d
polluted waters
Amoebic dysentery
Entamoeba histolytica
Human feces
(protozoa)
Giardiasis Giardia amblia
(protozoa)
Wild animal feces suspected
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium Human and animal feces
Safety
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Potential Waterborne Disease-Causing Organisms
Organism Major Disease
Bacteria
Salmonella fyphi
Typhoid fever
Salmonella paratyphi
Paratyphoid fever
Other Salmonellaspp Gastroenteritis (salmonellosis)
Shigella Bacillary dysentery
Vibrio cholerae
Pathogenic
Escherichia
coli
Yersinia enterocolitica
Campylobacter jejuni
Legionella pneumophila
d
Cholera
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis
Legionnaires’ disease, Pontiac fever
Mycobacterium avium intracellulare Pulmonary disease
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Dermatitis
Aeromonas hydrophila
Helicobacter pylori
Gastroenteritis
Peptic ulcers
Enteric Viruses
Poliovirus Poliomyelitis
Coxsackievirus Upper respiratory disease
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Potent ial Waterborne Disease-Causing Organisms (continued)
Organism
Major
Disease
Echovirus Upper respiratory disease
Rotavirus Gastroenteritis
Notwalk virus and other calciviruses Gastroenteritis
Hepatitis
A
virus
HepatitisE virus
Infectious hepatitis
Hepatitis
Astrovirus Gastroenteritis
Enteric adenoviruses GastroenteriUs
Protozoa and Other Organism
uI
Giardia lamblia
Giardiasis (gastroenteritis)
Cryptosporidium parvum Cryptosporidiosis (gastroenteritis)
Entamoeba histolytrca Amoebic dysentery
Cyclospora caya anensis Gastroenteritis
-A
Micraspora
Acanthamoeba
Toxoplasma gondii
Naegleria fowleri
Gastroenteritis
Eye infection
Flu-like symptoms
Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis
Blue-green algae Gastroenteritis, liver damage, nervous system
Fungi Respiratory allergies
Safety
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Typical Pathogen Survival Times
at
20 -30°C
Pathogen
Surviva
Fresh Water and Sewage
Viruses'
Enteroviruses 4 2 but usually
<50 <60
bu
Bacteria
Fecal coliforms*
Salmonella spp.
Shigellaspp.'
<60 but usually
<3
<60 but usually
<3
<3 but usually 4
<3
bu
<3 bu
l o bu
Vibrio choleraet <3 but usually 4 <5 but
Protozoa
Helminths
E histolytica cysts <3 but usually 5
4
u
A. lumbricoides eggs Many months <60 bu
In seawater, viral survival is less, and bacterial survival is very much less, than in fresh
Includes polio-, echo-, and coxsackie viruses.
$ c cholerae
survival in aqueous environments
is
a subject of current uncertainty.
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Infectious Doses of Selected Pathogens
Organisms Infectious
Dose*
Escherichia coli
(enterOpathOgeniC)
Clostridium perfringens
Salmonella typhi
Vibrio cholerae
Shigella flexneri A
Entamoeba histolytica
Shigella dysentariae
106-10’o
l-lo’o
lo4-lo7
103-107
180
20
10
Giardia lamblia
<10
Cryptosporidiumparvum 1 10
Ascaris lumbricoides 1-10
Enteric virus 1-10
*Some of the data for bacteria are given as
IDSo,
which is the dose that infects
50 of the people given that dose. People given lower doses also could become
infected.
5
Microorganism Concentrations in Raw Wastewater
Organisms Concentration,numbef/lOO mf
Total coliforms 107-1010
Clostridium perfringens
103 105
Enterococci 104-105
Fecal coliforms 104-109
Fecal
Streptococci
io4-106
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 1 03-1 o4
Protozoan cysts io3-105
Shigella 1-lo3
Salmonella
1
O*-I
o
Helminth ova
10-lo3
Enteric virus 102-1 o
Giardia lamblia cysts
10-lo4
Entamoeba histolytica
cysts 1-10
Cryptosporidiumparvum oocysts
1
0-1
o3
117
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Examples
of
Concentration of Microbial Pathogens in Raw Wastewater
and Sludge
Raw Wastewater, Sludge,
Microbial Agent
number/l number/gm
Salmonella 4 x
lo3 MPN
2
x
lo3 MPN
Enteric virus
3 x
l o 4
pfu
1 x 103 pfu
Giardia
2
x 10’
cysts
1
x lo2cysts
Cryptosporidium 2 x lo2oocysts
ND*
Helminths
8 x 10’
ova
3
x
10
ova
*
ND
=
no data.
Estimate of Percent Removal of Selected Microbial Pathogens Using
Conventional Treatment Processes
Primary Secondary Digested
Microbial Agent Treatment Treatment Sludge
Salmonella 50
99 99
Enteric virus 70
99 15
Giardia cysts 50
75 30
Helminth ova
90
99.99 30
118
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Collection
Miles of pipes connect homes to wastewater
treatment plants Some are gravity systems and
some are pressure systems These systems must
operate
proper
to protect public health and
the environment
119
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DESIGN FLOW
RATES
The average daily flow (volume per unit time), maximum daily
flow, peak hourly flow, minimum hourly and daily flows, and
design peak flow are generally used as the basis of design for sew-
ers, lift stations, sewage (wastewater) treatment plants, treatment
units, and other wastewater handling facilities. Definitions and
pu rpos es of flow are given as follows.
T h e design average flow is the average of the daily volumes to
be received for a continuous
1
-monthperiod of the design year.
T h e average flow may be used to estimate pu m pin g and chemical
costs, sludge generation, an d organic-loading rates.
T h e maximum daily flow is the largest volume of flow to be
received durin g a continuous 24 -ho ur period. It is employed in
the calculation of retention time for equalization basin a nd chlo-
rine contact time.
T h e peak hourly flow is the largest volume received d urin g a
1-hour period, based o n annual data. It is used for die design of
collection and interceptor sewers, wet wells, wastewater pum ping
stations, wastewater flow measurements, grit chambers, settling
basins, chlorine contact tanks, and pipings. T h e design peak flow
is the instantaneous maximum flow rate to be received. T h e peak
hourly flow is commonly assumed to be three times the average
daily flow.
T h e minimum daily flow is the sm allest volume
of
flow received
du ring a 24-ho ur period. T h e minimum daily flow is important in
the sizing of conduits where solids might be deposited at low-flow
rates.
The minimum hourly flow is the smallest hourly flow rate
occurring over a 24-hour period, based on annual data. It is
important
to
the sizing of wastewater flowmeters, chemical-feed
systems, and pu m pin g systems.
120
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Example
Estimate the average and maximum hourly flow for a comniunity
of 10,000persons.
Step
1.
Estimate wastewater daily flow rate.
Assume average water consumption = 200 L/(capita-day)
Assume
80
of water consumption goes to the sewer.
average wastewater flow = 200 L/(c*d)
x
0.80
x 1O OOO persons x
0.001
m3/L
=
1,600 m3/day
Step 2. Compute average hourly flow rate.
average hourly flow rate = 1,600m3kd.y x
1
day/24 hr
= 66.67m3/hr
Step 3. Estimate the maximum hourly flow rate.
Assume the maximum hourly flow rate is three times the
average hourly flow rate, thus
maximum hourly flow rate
=
66.67 m3/hr
x 3
c
aa
.-
u
= 200m3/hr
Minimum Slopes for Various Sized Sewers
at
a Flowing Full Velocity of
2.0 ft/sec and Corresponding Discharges*
s
Flowing Full Discharge
Sewer Diameter, Min imum Slope,
in. w1m f t ft3/sec:
gpm
8 0.33 0.7 310
10 0.25 1.1 490
12 0.19 1.6 700
15 0.14 2.4 1,080
18 0.11 3.5 1,570
21 0.092 4.8 2,160
24 0.077 6.3 2,820
27
0.066
8.0 3,570
30 0.057 9.8 4,410
36 0.045 14.1 6,330
Courtesy
of
Pearson Education, Inc.
*Basedon Manning s ormula with
n =
0.013.
121
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Velocity
Formula
c1istaiic.e
ttaveletl, t t
iiirie ot'test. scc
velocity
tt/sec
=
Area
of
Partly Filled Circular Pipes
d/D Factor
0 01
0 02
0 03
0
04
0 05
0
06
0 07
0
08
0
09
0
10
0 11
0
12
0 13
0
14
0
15
0 16
0 17
0 18
0 19
0
20
0
21
0
22
0 23
0
24
0 25
0 0013
0 0037
0 0069
00105
0 0174
00192
0 0242
0 0294
0 0350
0 0409
0 0470
0 0534
0 0600
0
0668
0
0739
00811
0 0885
0
0961
0
1039
01118
0
1199
0 1281
0
1365
0 1449
0
1535
d/D
Factor
0 26
0 27
0 28
0
29
0 30
0 31
0 32
0 33
0 34
0 35
0
36
0
37
0
38
0 39
0 40
0 41
0 42
0
43
0
44
0
45
0
46
0
47
0
48
0
49
0
50
0 1623
0
1711
0 1800
0
1890
0 1982
0 2074
0 2167
0 2260
0 2355
0 2450
0
2545
0 2642
0
2739
0 2836
0 2934
0 3032
03130
0
3229
0 3328
0
3428
0 3527
0
3627
0
3727
0
3827
0
3927
d/D Factor
0 51
0 52
0 53
0
54
0 55
0
56
0 57
0 58
0 59
0
60
0 61
0
62
0
63
0
64
0 65
0 66
0 67
0 68
0
69
0 70
0
71
0 72
0 73
0 74
0 75
0 4027
04127
0 4227
0
4327
0 4426
0 4526
0 4625
0 4724
0 4822
0 4920
0
5018
05115
05212
0 5308
0
5404
0
5499
0 5594
0 5687
0
5780
0 5872
0 5964
0 6054
0
6143
0 6231
0
6319
d10
Factor
0 7 6 0 6 4 0 5
0 7 7 0 6 4 8 9
0 7 8 0 6 5 7 3
0 7 9 0 6 6 5 5
0 8 0 0 6 7 3 6
0 8 1 0 6 8 1 5
0 8 2 0 6 8 9 3
0 8 3 0 6 9 6 9
0 8 4 0 7 0 4 3
0 8 5 0 7 1 1 5
0 8 6 0 7 1 8 6
0 8 7 0 7 2 5 4
0 8 8 0 7 3 2 0
0 8 9 0 7 3 8 4
0 9 0 0 7 4 4 5
0 9 1 0 7 5 0 4
0 9 2 0 7 5 6 0
0 9 3 0 7 6 1 2
0 9 4 0 7 6 6 2
0 9 5 0 7 7 0 7
0 9 6 0 7 7 4 9
0 9 7 0 7 7 8 5
0 9 8 0 7 8 1 6
0 9 9 0 7 8 4 1
1 0 0 0 7 8 5 4
d =depth, inches
D =
diameter, inches
122
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FLOW
MEASUREMENT
Collection system operators need
to
know the fundamentals
of
wastewater flow measurement in
a
sewer pipe. There are many
devices available for flow measurem ent.
All
of
these flow meters
are based on the simple principle that the flow rate equals the
velocity of flow multiplied by the cross-sec tional areas of the flow.
T h is p rinciple is expressed by the following formula:
Q,
cubic feet pe r second
=
(area, ftz)(velocity, ft2)
Calcu lation of the cross-sectional area
of
flow in a sewer line
can be made by using a factor found in the table on page 122. Th is
procedure is explained in the example below.
Example
T h e depth offlow in a 12-in. diameter sewer is
5
in. Determine the
cross-sectional area
of
the flow.
Known
Unknown
D o r diameter, in.
=
12 in.
d o r depth, in.
=
5 in.
Cross-sectional area, ft2
c
aJ
.-
-
T o determine the cross-sectional area for a sewer pipe flowing
s
partially full, use the following steps:
1. Find the value for the depth , d , divided by the diameter,
D.
d. in. 5 in.
~-
D,
in . 12in.
=
0.42 in.
2. Find the correct factor for 0.42 in the table on page 122.
factor = 0.3130 (number
unknown)
_ -
0.42
D
123
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3. Calculate the cross-sectional area.
Pipe cross-sectional
-
(factor)(diameter,
in.)
-
area, sq ft 144 in.Z/ftz
=
(0.3130)(12 n.)2
144 in.2/ft2
=
0.313
ft2
1,200
1.100
1.000
800
900
700
6
500
300
:::L
Midnight 2
1,200-
1.100
Average Flow, 720 gpm
200
100
0
Midnight 2
4 6 8 10 12 2 4
6
8 10
Midnight
Noon
Typical Municipal Wastewater Flow Pattern
-
' ' 1 ' ' ' ' ' '
I
4 6 8 10 12 2 4
6
8 10
Midnight
Noon
Typical Municipal Wastewater Flow Pattern
Midnight 2 4 6 8
10
12 2 4 6 8 10 Midnight
Noon
Variation in Concentrationof BOD in the Wastewater and
Resulting BOD Loading Pattern
*BOD = Biological oxygen demand
Courtesy
of
Pearson Education Inc.
Wastewater Flow and Strength Variations for a Typical Medium-Sized
City
124
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.g
r
.
;
E
a
m
E
NOTE:n an actual water system environment, correction factors may b e
needed in the use of this nomograph.
-
5
4
3
2
- 1 1
-10
- 9
-8
7
6
-5
a . rc4
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
Flow Rate Nomograph
for
Venturi Meter
125
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Typical Wastewater Flow Rates for Miscellaneous Facili ties
Gallons per Person
per Day (unless
Type of
Establishment otherwise
noted)
Airports (per passenger) 5
Bathhouses and swimming pools
Camps
Campground with central comfort station
With flush toilets, no showers
Construction camps (semipermanent)
Day camps (no meals served)
Resort camps (night and day) with limited plumbing
Luxury camps
Cottages and small dwellings with seasonal occupancy
Country clubs (per resident member)
Country clubs (per nonresident member present)
Dwellings
Boarding houses
(additional for nonresident boarders)
Rooming houses
Factories (gallons per person, per shift, exclusive of industrial wastes)
Hospitals (per bed space)
Hotels with laundry (two persons per room) per room
Institutions other than hospitals including nursing homes (per bed
space)
Laundries-self-service (gallons per wash)
Motels
(per bed) with laundry
Picnic parks (toilet wastes only per park user)
Picnic parks with bathhouses, showers and flush toilets (per park user)
Restaurants (toilet and kitchen wastes per patron)
Restaurants (kitchen wastes per meal served)
Restaurants (additional for bars and cocktail lounges)
Schools
Boarding
Day (without gyms, cafeterias, or showers)
Day (with gyms, cafeterias, and showers)
Day (w ith cafeterias, but without gyms or showers)
Service stations (per vehicle served)
Theaters
Movie (per auditorium seat)
Drive-in (per car soace)
10
35
25
50
15
50
too
75
100
25
50
10
40
35
250
150
125
30
50
5
10
10
3
2
100
15
25
20
5
5
10
Table continued on next page
126
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Typical Wastewater Flow Rates for Miscellaneous Facili ties (continued)
Gallons per Person
per Day (unless
Type of Establishment otherwise noted)
Travel trailer parks without individual water and sewer hookups 50
(per space)
100
Workers
Travel trailer parks with individual water and sewer hookups (per space)
Offices. schools, and business establishments (per
shift)
15
Approximate Wastewater Flows for Various Kinds of Establishments
and Services
Pounds
of
Biological
Gallons
per
Oxygen Demand per
TYpe Person per Day Person per Day
Domestic wastewater from residential areas
Large single-family houses
Typical single-family houses
Multiple-family dwellings (apartments)
Small dwellings or cottages
Domestic wastewater from camps and motels
Luxury resorts
Mobile home parks
Tourist camps or trailer parks
Hotels and motels
Boarding schools
Day schools with cafeterias
Day schools without cafeterias
Each employee
Each patron
Each meal served
Transpoitation erminals
Each employee
Each passenger
Schools
Restaurants
Hospitals
Offices
Drive-in theaters (per stall)
Movie theaters (per seat)
Factories, exclusive of industrial and cafeteria
wastes
120 0.20
80
0.17
60-75 0.17
50 0.17
100-1 50 0.20
50 0.17
35 0.15
50 0.10
75 0.17
20 0.06
15 0.04
30
0.10
7-10 0.04
4 0.03
15 0.05
5 0.02
150-300 0.30
15
0.05
5 0.02
3 5
0.02
15-30 0.05
~~
Courtesy of Pearson Education, Inc.
127
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Average Characteristicsof Selected industrial Wastewaters
Milk Meat Synthetic Chlorophenolic
Processing Packing Textile Manufactu re
Biological oxygen demand,
1,000 1,400 1,500 4,300
mg/L
Chemical oxygen demand, 1,900 2,100 3,300 5,400
mg/L
Total solids,
mg/L
1,600 3,300
8,000
53,000
Suspended solids, mg/L
300 1,000 2,000 1,200
Nitrogen, mg WL 50
150 30
0
Phosphorus, mg P/L
12 16
0 0
PH 7 7
5
7
Temperature, C
29 28
Grease,
mg/L
-
500
27,000
hloride,
mg/L
140
henols,
mg/L
17
Courtesy of Pearson Education, Inc.
128
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SEWER
CONSTRUCTION
Conduit material for sewer construction consists
of two
types:
rigid pipe and flexible pipe. Specified rigid materials include
asbestos-cement, cast iron, concrete, and vitrified clay. Flexible
materials include ductile iron, fabricated steel, corrugated alumi-
num, thermoset plastic (reinforced plastic mortar and reinforced
thermosetting resin), and thermoplastic. Thermoplastic consists
of
acrylonitde-butadiene-styrene (ABS), ABS
composite, poly-
ethylene
(PE),
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Nonpressure sewer pipe is commercially available in the size
range from
4
to
42
in. 102 to
1,067
mm) in diameter and
13
ft
4.0 m) in length. Half-length sections
of
6.5 ft (2 m) are available
for smaller size pipes.
Guard Stake
o+oo
7s
Marking on Guard Stake
Facing Sewer Line
(painted on pavement)
,.
.
Marking on Guard Stake
Facing Sewer Line
(painted on pavement)
v
Control Points for Sewer Construction (continued on next page)
129
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/
/
/
Control
Points
for Sewer Construction (continued)
130
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Clsanolrt Box (see not
mped
BacMill 90% RehINe
InstallVenically and Cut lo Length
Long-RadiusFining Vs-in.
Bend
Buiklino
Sewer
Long-RadiusFining (Win. Bend) at Terminus
Only
Terminate
cleanout at
cbsesl joint
lo
surface with temporary plug. After all backfill is complete and
subgrade
made in areas
lo
be
paved, the Final riser pipe and
box
shall be installed as shown.
Cleanout at Property L ine
_I
Ln
D
m
Engineer TWO- are onen made with a
modate line cleaning equipment.
Typical Connection o Deeper
Lonaitudinal Buildina Sewer
TypicalTwo-Way Cleanout to Grade
(All residential uses when under paving
andlar covered area: and
far all
indusl&l
and commercial
uses)
E
FimshedGrade
Typical Connection o Building Sewer Where Addit ional Depth Is Required
NOTES:
1 . Cleanouts should be extended to suriace
so
they are accessible without
excavation in order
to
reduce maintenancecosts and customer complaints
regarding yard disturbance.
2.
It
may be difficult to push equipment through two-way cleanout fittings
because of the right-angle entrance instead of a gradual entrance.
Types and Locations
of
BuildingSewer Cleanouts
131
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low-Pressu re Collection System
Where the topography and ground conditions of an area are not
suitable for a conventional gravity collection system due to flat
terrain, rocky conditions, or extremely high groundwater, low-
pressure collection systems are now becoming a practical alterna-
tive. Pressure sewers may be installed instead of gravity sewers in
an area because 1) a pipe slope is not practical to maintain gravity
flow, (2) smaller pipe sizes can be used due to pressurization, and
(3)reduced pipe sizes can be installed due to a lack of infiltration
and inflow because the pipeline has no leaks and water does not
enter the system through manholes. Operation and maintenance
considerations when comparing pressure sewers with gravity sys-
tems include the facts that pressure systems have
(1)
higher energy
costs for pumping;
(2)
greater costs for pumping facilities; (3)
fewer stoppages;
(4)
o root intrusion; (5) no extra capacity for
infiltration and inflow;
(6)
no deep trenches or buried pipe; and
(7)
no inverted siphons for crossing roads or rivers. The principal
components of a low-pressure collection system include gravity
sewers, holding tanks, grinder pumps, and pressure mains.
Gravity sewers connect a building’s wastewater drainage sys-
tem
to a buried pressurization unit (containing a holding tank)
located on the lot as illustrated in the accompanying figure.
Holding tanks serve as a reservoir for grinder pumps and have
a capacity ofapproximately
50
gallons. The figure also illustrates a
typical pressurization unit with a holding tank.
Grinder pumps serve both as a unit to grind the solids in the
wastewater (that could plug the downstream small-diameter pres-
sure sewers and valves) and to pressurize the wastewater to help
move it through the collection system. The figure also illustrates
the location of the submersible grinder pump in the holding tank.
Pressure mains are the “arteries” of the low-pressure collection
system and convey the pressurized wastewater to a treatment
plant. Because the wastewater is “pushed” by pressure, the mains
132
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Control Panel
Pressurization Unit Contains: Holding Tank, Grinder Pump, Float Switches, and Gats
Plan
Control Panel
Pressurization Unit Contains: Holding Tank, Grinder Pump, Float Switches, and Gats
Plan
Unit
Profile
Valve
Principal Components of a Typical Low-Pressure Collection System
-
are not dependent on a slope
to
create a gravity flow and can be
laid at a uniform depth following the natural slope
of
the land
along their routes. Low-pressure collection systems must have
access for maintenance. Th is means line access where a pig can be
inserted into a line for cleaning and also removed from the line.
“Pig” refers
to
a poly pig, which is a bullet-shaped device made of
hard rubber or similar material. Manholes or boxes must have
valves and pipe spools (2- to 3-ft-long flanged sections of pipe)
that can be removed for cleaning the pipe o r for pum ping into o r
out of the system with a portable pump. Refer to the figures that
illustrate the profile
of a
typical low-pressure main and a typical
low-pressure collection system.
133
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Air Relief Valve at
Valve and
Cleanout
f High Points in Main
II\\W
.
Pressure Sewer Main
(following contour of land)
NOTE: Vertical scale is exaggerated.
Profile of a Typical Low-Pressure Main
.
Pressurization Unit ...Connector
-Service Line Valves and Cleanouts
-Pressure Main
Schematic of a Typical Low-Pressure Collection System
134
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Vacuum Collection Systems
II__
Vacuum
Cleanout
Plan
Vac
Bra
umll -Center Line
inch I
Gravity Vacuum
Vacuum
Sewer
Branch Main
Profile
Principal Components of a Typical Vacuum Collection System
Transport Pocket Cleanout
about 2004 ntervals)
NOTE: ertical scale is exaggerated.
Profile
of
a Typical Vacuum Collection System
Vacuum Interface Unit -Vacu um Sewer Main
-Vacuu m Branch Transpo rt Pocket Cleanou t
Schematic of a Typical Vacuum Collection System
135
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Backfill Loads in Pounds per Linear Foot on 8-in. Circular Pipe in a Trench Inst
Clay Fill
Height of Backfill H
A bo veTo oo fPio e.f f 1 f t 6 i n . 1 f t 9 i n . 2 f t O i n . 2 f t 3 i n . 2 f t 6 i n . 2 f t 9 i n . 3 f
Trench Width at Top of Pipe
6
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
i
559
649
712
736
757
774
608
683
7aa
aoi
a1 1
a1 9
a27
a33
a38
846
a49
a51
a54
842
694
761
a1 9
a68
91 1
948
979
1 007
1 030
1 051
1 068
1 083
1 096
1 107
1 117
1 125
1 133
1 139
1 144
1.149
724
847
969
1,088
1 119
1 170
1 215
1 254
1 319
1 346
1 369
1 390
1 408
1 424
1 438
1 450
1 461
1 470
1 289
1.478
1,213
1,332
1,458
1 513
1 560
1 603
1 640
1 674
1 703
1 730
1 754
1 775
1 793
1 810
1 825
1 838
1,575
1,698
1,818
1,942
1 993
2 034
2 070
2 103
2 133
2 159
2 184
2 205
2 225
2,065
2,182
2,308
2,429
2,553
2 545 2
2.607 2
2 578 2
2 635 3
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Backfill Loads in Pounds per Linear
Foot
on 8411. Circular Pipe in aTrench Inst
Clay Fill (continued)
Height o f Backfi l l
H
A bo veTo po fPip e,f t 1 f t 6 i n . 1 f t 9 i n . 2 f t O i n . 2 f t 3 i n . 2 f t 6 i n . 2 f t 9 i n . 3
lYench Width at Top
of
Pipe
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
855 1,153
857 1,156
858 1,159
859 1,162
860 1,164
861 1,166
862 1,167
862 1,169
862 1,170
863 1,171
863 1,172
863 1,173
864 1,173
864 1,174
864 1,174
1,486
1,492
1,498
1,502
1,507
1,511
1,514
1,517
1,519
1,522
1,524
1,525
1,527
1,528
1,529
1,850
1,861
1,870
1,878
1,886
1,892
1,898
1,904
1,908
1,913
1,916
1,920
1,922
1,925
1,927
2,242
2,258
2,273
2,286
2,297
2,308
2,317
2,326
2,333
2,340
2,346
2,352
2,357
2,362
2,366
2,659
2,682
2,702
2,721
2,738
2,753
2,767
2,780
2,791
2,802
2,811
2,820
2,828
2,835
2,842
Source: American Concrete Pipe Association,<www.concrete-pipe.org>.
The bold printed igures are the maximum oad at the transition width for any given height of backf
t The trench width at which the backfill fill load on
the pipe
is a maximum and remains constant rega
Collection
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A
sewer laser
can
be set up
on
a tripod or
a three-point trivet plate in the excavation,
above it, or
on
the pipe. The laser target is
mounted
on
a pole and adjusted to give
the distance from the beam to the pipe
invert.
A
level vial
on
the pole indicates a
vertical position.
Over the Top
The versatility and flexibility of a sewer
laser permits a varietyof open-excavation
setups with the beam projected down the
center line of the pipe or over the top.
pen Excavation
A
sewer laser can be set up in a manhole
utilizing a transit to set the sewer line
accurately The transit is plumbed over the
laser on a mount that clamps
to
the
manhole edge The laser beam IS
projected along the pipe center line
n the Manhole
Some sewer lasers can be set directly
inside pipes as small as 6
in.
in diameter.
This allows fast setups the second day
as
well as the versatility to meet situations in
which the laser cannot be set up in a
manhole.
In Small Pipe
s
.-
a
For large pipe, a laser can be set up
directly
on
the invert of the pipe using the
In Large Pipe
=
Electronic self-leveling sewer lasers can
also be
used
to provide line and grade
control in pipe-jacking operations. The
laser IS set up in the jacking pit, and the
target is mounted
on
the cutting shield.
Pipe Jacking
Grade Control
Using
Fixed-Beam Laser
139
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1. In lieu of a shoring system, the sides or walls of an excavation or trench may be
sloped, provided equivalent protection is thus afforded. Where sloping is a substitute
for shoring that would otherwise be needed, the slope shall be at least %horizontal
to 1 vertical unless the instability of the soil requires a slope flatter than 3/4 to
1.
_ _ _ _
\
\
\ // Flatter Than
\
3/4 to 1
\
Exceptions: In hard, compact
soil
where the depth of the excavation or trench is 8 ft
or less, a vertical cut of 3% ft with sloping of 3/4 horizontal to 1 vertical is permitted.
In
hard, compact soil where the depth of the excavation or trench is 12 ft or less, a
vertical cut of 3% f l with sloping of 1 horizontal o 1 vertical is permitted.
2. Benching in hard, compact soil is permitted provided hat a slope ratio of % horizontal
lo 1 vertical, or flatter, is used.
2 ft Minimum (typical)
Sloping or Benching Systems
140
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EacMil
12 in.
(3M)mm)
Hand-
Minimum Placed
Backfill
Bedding
Bedding
Load Faaon
2.2
Wive baddill material ightly tamped
2.8
ASTM D448=
67 crushed Stone
3.4
Reinforced
concrete,
p = 0.4%
Class A-l
Hand-
placed
Backfill
Bedding
Load Factor 1.5
Shaped
M o m
classc
Backfill
12m
-(3Wmm)
Minimum
classB
12
in
3M) m)
Minimum
€I
inimum
8 4
in.
(103
mm)
Load Factor
1 5
Minimum
class c
Load Factor 1.1
Fbt or Unshsped
Trench Bottom
Class D
NOTE:he standard classes of rigid sewer-pipe bedding and their load factors
(bedding factors) are shown. For example, an 8-in. vitrified clay pipe that has a
three-edge bearing load supporting strength
of
2,200
Ib/ft
will have a supporting
strength of
(2,200 Ib/ft x 1.5)
= 3.300 IbM when laid
on
a class C type
of
bedding.
Classeso f
Bedding
141
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Courtesy of SRECO-Flexible, Inc.
Power Bucket Machines and Set Up
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Highway
Loads
on Circular Pipe in Pounds per Linear Foot
Height o f Fill
HAb
Pipe Diameter, Trench Width,
in
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
12 1.33 3,780 2,080 1,470 1,080
760 550
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
48
54
60
66
72
i
1.63 4,240
1.92 4,110
2.21 3,920
2.50 4,100
2.79 3,880
3.08
3,620
3.38 3,390
3.67 3,190
3.96 3,010
4.25 2,860
4.83 2,590
5.42 2,360
6.00 2,170
6.58
2,010
7.17 1,870
2,360
2,610
2,820
3,010
2,940
2,830
2,930
2,810
2,670
2,550
2,330
2,150
1,990
1,850
1,730
1,740
1,970
2,190
2,400
2,590
2,770
2,950
2,930
2,850
2,770
2,620
2,490
2,450
2,520
2,580
1,280
1,460
1,620
1,780
1,930
2,070
2,200
2,330
2,440
2,560
2,480
2,360
2,250
2,160
2,190
900
1,030
1,150
1,270
1,380
1,480
1,580
1,670
1,760
1,840
1,990
2,050
1,960
1,880
1,810
660
750
840
930
1,010
1,080
1,160
1,230
1,290
1,360
1,470
1,580
1,680
1,640
1,570
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
78 7.75 1.750 1.630 2.630 2.240 1.770 1.520 1
Collection
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Highway
Loads
on
Circular Pipe in Pounds per Linear Foot (continued)
Height
of
Fill HA
Pipe Diameter, Trench Width,
in
f t
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5
3 0
84
8.33 1,650 1,540 2,730 2,290
1,810
1,460
90
8.92 1,550 1,460 2,530 2,330 1,850
1,470
96
9.50
1,470 1,380 2,410 2,290 1,880 1,500
102
10.08 1,390 1,320
2,300 2,190 1,910 1,530
108
10.67 1,320 1,260
2,200 2,090
1,830
1,560
114
11.25 1,260
1,200
2,110 2,010
1,760
1,540
120
11.83 1,210 1,150 2,020 1,930
1,700
1,480
126 12.42 1,160 1,100 1,940 1,860 1,640 1,430
132
13.00 1,110
1,060
1,870 1,800
1,580
1,380
138
13.58 1,070 1,020
1,800
1,730 1,530
1,340
144
14.17
1,020 980 1,740 1,670 1,480
1,300
Source
American Concrete Pipe Association, cwww.concrete-pipe,org>.
DATA 1. Unsurfaced roadway.
2. Loads: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials HS 20, t w o 16,00
12,000-lb dual-tired wheels, 4 ft on centers with impact included.
NOTES:
1.
Interpolate for intermediate pipe sizes and/or fill heights.
2. Critical loads:
a. For H = 0.5 and 1 O
fl
a single 16,000-lb dual-tired wheel.
b. For H= 1 . 5 4 0
l
two 16.000-lb dual-tired wheels, 4
fl
on centers.
c For H 4.0 ft, alternate loading.
3. Truck live loads for H = 10.0 fl or more are insignificant.
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Recommended Impact Factors for Calculating Loads on Pipe With Less
Than 3-ft Cover Subjected to Highway Truck Loads
HeigM
of Cover H
Impact Factor
0 to 1 f t 0 in.
1.3
1
ft
1 in.
to
2
f t 0
in. 1.2
2 f t l i n . t o Z f t 1 1
in.
1.1
3 ft 0 in. and greater
1 o
Source:
StandardSpecifications or Highway Bridges.
by the American Association
of
Sfate
Highway and VansportationOfficials, Washington,D Usedby permission.
Crushing Strength Requirements for Vitrii ied Clay Sewer Pipe Based on
the Three-Edge Bearing Test
Nominal Size, in.
Standard Strength, /b//in. f f Extra Strength, /b//in.
f f
4 1,200 2,000
6
8
1,200
1,400
2,000
2,200
10 1,600 2,400
12 1,800 2,600
15 2,000 2,900
18 2,200 3,300
21 2,400 3,850
24 2,600 4,400
27 2,800 4,700
30 3,300 5,000
33 3,600 5,500
36 4,000
6,000
Source: ASTM Specification
C700,
Standard and Extra Strength Clay Pipe. CopyrightASTM
INTERNATIONAL. Reprinted wi th permission.
145
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Strength
Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete
Sewer
Pipe
Based
on
the
Three-Edge Bearing
Test (in pounds per linear foot
of inside
pipe
diameter)
Classification
D Load to Prod uce D Load Pipe Size
0.01-in. Crack
at
Failure Diameter, in.
Class
I
800 1,200
Concrete strength
4,000
psi
60-96
Concrete strength 5,000
psi
102-1 08
Class
II 1,000 1,500
Concrete strength
4,000
psi
12-96
Concrete strength
5,000
psi
102-108
Class 111
1,350 2,000
Concrete strength
4,000
psi
12-72
Concrete strength
5,000
psi
78-1 08
Class IV
2,000 3,000
Concrete strength 4,000 psi
12-66
Concrete strength 5,000 psi
60-84
Class V
3,000 3,750
Concrete strength 6,000 psi 12-72
Source: ASTM SpecificationC76 667: opyright ASTM INTERNATIONAL. Reprinted wi th
permission.
146
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MANHOLES
M anholes provide an access to the sewer for inspection and main-
tenance operations. T he y also serve as ventilation, multiple pipe
intersections, and pressure relief. M ost m anholes are cylindrical in
shape.
T h e m anhole cover must be secured
so
that it remains in place
and avoids a blowout during peak flooding periods. Leakage
from around the edges
of
the manhole cover should be kept to
a
minimum.
For small sewers, a m inimum inside diameter
of 4
t
(1.2
m) at
the bottom tapering
to
a cast-iron frame that provides a clear open-
ing usually specified as
2
ft
(0.6
m)
has been widely adopted. For
sewers larger than 24 in. (600 mm), larger manhole bases are
needed. Sometimes a platform is provided at one side, or the man-
hole is simply a vertical shaft over the center of the sewer.
Manholes are commonly located at the junctions
of
sanitary
sewers, at changes in grades o r alignment except in curved align-
ments, an d at locations that provide ready
access
to the sewer for
preventive maintenance and emergency service. Manholes are usu-
Manhole spacing varies with available sanitary sewer mainte-
nance methods. Typical manhole spacings range from
300
to
500 ft (90 to
150 m) in straight lines. For sewers larger than 5
ft
(1.5
m), spacings
of
500 to 1,000 ft (15 0 to
300
m) may be used.
Where the elevation difference between inflow and outflow
sewers exceeds about 1.5 ft (0.5 m), sewer inflow that is dropped
to the elevation of the outflow sewer by an inside o r ou tside con-
nection is called a drop manhole (or d ro p inlet). Its purpose is to
protect workers from the splashing of wastewater, objectionable
gases, and odors.
.-
lly installed at street intersections.
2
s
147
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8-in. Minimum
NOTE
Channel wihh may be made wider
to
accommodate agency's type
of
cleaning equipment.
BandedRubberCoupling
(All
asbestoscementpipe
and vitrified
clay pipe)
6-,, ,rn,,rn
Set manhole sections
with steps in this
quadrant when channels
enter from two sides
Plan of
Bottom
Water
stop as recommended
b
pipe manufacturers all
pLt, pipe material)
NOTE:
Thls is
a
typical manhole
for
small-diametersewers
Manholeswill vary for
large-diametersewers
and wdlh different
agencies.
Precast Concrete Manhole
148
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PIPE CHARACTERISTICS
Pressure Pipe
AWWA
C900
refers to a category of standard dimension ratio
SDR)
pipe that is the same diameter as ductile-iron
DI)
pipe
A N S I / A W A C900,
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Pressure Pifie, and
Fabricated Fittings,
4
in.-1 2 in. (1
00mm 300mm),for
WaterDis
tribution). T he following are
all
classified as
C900
pipe.
SDR/14
is
pressure class
200, SDR/18
is pressure class
150, SDR/25
is pres-
sure class
100.
T h e class signifies working pressure.
SDR
refers to a ratio ofwall
thickness to actual pipe outside diameter
OD).
For example,
SDR/18
pipe x
6.90 in.
(the actual
OD of 6-in. DI
pipe) has a wall
thickness of
6.90118 = 0.38 in.
Mechanical oints on
C900
fittings
are used with
C900
pipe.
SDR/21
and
SDR/26
have class designations that correspond
to rated working pressure. T h e ratings incorporate a lower service
factor than
C900
pipe, w hich explains why
SDR/21
and
SDR/26
list a higher class rating
for
a given wall thickness.
SDR/21
is
class
200; SDR/26is
class
160.
T h e SDR numbers relate to wall thickness. SDR/21 X
6.63
in.
(actual6-in. steel pipe OD) has a wall thickness of 6.63/21 = 0.32 in.
i
z
$
Workine: Pressure,
f i s i
Y .*
Pipe
Size,
Schedule
40
Schedule
80
ila socket socket Threaded
‘ p
3/4
1
1 4
1
12
2 ’ p
2
3
4
6
600
480
450
3
70
330
300
280
260
220
180
850
690
630
520
47
1
425
400
375
324
280
420
340
320
260
240
210
200
190
160
140
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Schedules 40 and
80
have the same diameter as steel pipe. The
pressure ratings vary with the diameter of the pipe. The larger the
diameter, the lower the rating.
SDK/21, SDK/26,
and all Schedule pipe can be used with
Schedule 40 and Schedule
80
fittings because they conform to
steel pipe dimensions.
C900, SDR/21 and
26,
and Schedule 40/80, can be used for
sewer lines.
SDR/35
and SDR/41 are used exclusively for sewer drain only.
Their outside dimensions are different from SDR pressure pipe
and are different from each other in sizes other than 4
in
and
6
in.
Flange
Guide
Gasket and Machine Bolt Dimensions for 150-lb Flange
Gasket
Dimensions
Machine Bolt
Pipe Size, Bolts Dimension, Ring, Full Face,
in.
Needed
in. in. in.
2 4
2v2 4
3
4
3’12 8
4
8
5
6
1 0 1 2
12 12
518 x 2314
5/8
x 3
518 x 3
518
x
3
518 x 3
314
x
3l14
314 x
3l14
3/4
x 3l/2
718 x 3314
718 x 4
2318 4118
2718 4718
3l/2
x
53/8
4
x 6318
4l12
x
g7/8
59/16
X
7314
6516 x a314
a518 x 11
103h x 13
12
x
16’/8
2318 x 6
2718
7
3
x
7’12
4
x
a112
4’12
x 9
59/i6
x
10
65/8
x 11
8518
x 13’/2
10314
x 1 6
12314 x
1 9
150
Next Page
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Pumps
Two basic categories
o
pumps are used in
wastewater operations: velocity pumps and
positive-displacementpumps. velocitypumps
which include centrifugal and vertical turbine
pumps are used
or
most wastewater distribution
system applications. Positive-displacement
pumps are most commonly used in wastewater
treatment plants
or
chemical metering.
185
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ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
A simple explanation of electrical measurements can be made by
comparing the behavior of electricity to the behavior ofwater.
Volts
potential) can be compared to the pressure in a water
pipe psi).
Amperage current) can be compared to quantity of flow in
Resistance ohms) can
be
likened to the friction loss in a
pipe.
a pipe wm).
FREQUENTLYUSED FORMULAS
kilowatts=
1 horsepower = 746 W power
1
horsepower = 0.746 kW power
disk-watt hours constant
x
revolutions
x
3,600
seconds
x
100
horsepower output
horsepower supplied
efficiency =
x
100
brake horsepower
motor horsepower
efficiency =
x
100
water horsepower
brake horsepower
water horsepower
motor horsepower
efficiency = x 100
efficiency = x 100
power, ft-lb/min = head, ft x flow rate, Ib/min)
gallous
pumping rate =
inute
volts = amperes x resistance
watts = volts
x
amperes
watts = amperes*x resistance
186
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flow rate, gpm x total head, ft
3,960
water horsepower =
Single-Phase Alternating Current
(AC)
Motor
horsepower volts
X
amps x efficiency X power factor
output) 746
volts x amps x power factor
1,000
ilowatts =
Two-Phase
AC
Motor
volts
x
amps
x
power factor
1,000
kilowatts =
Three-Phase
AC
Motor
horsepower 1.73
x
volts x amps x efficiency
x
pow er factor
output) 746
1.73
x
amps
x
power factor
x
volts
1,000
kilowatts =
cn
Sludge Pumping Head
Loss
h e Hazen-Williams calculation for head
loss
is based on a fluid
in turbulent flow.
As
the solids in sludge increase,
the
fluid
becomes increasingly thicker, changing the fluid characteristics
and increasing the velocity required for the fluid
to
become turbu-
lent. Velocities
of
5-6
ft/sec
are used
as
an economic balance
between pipe size and water head
loss.
Because sludge lines are
rarely sized to be less than
6
in.
150
mm) to prevent clogging and
ease cleaning, velocities of less than 2 ft/sec are common. T h e fig-
ure provides a comparison between the flow of water an d that of
sludge. Water has a shear stress of zero; therefore, at even the
smallest amount
of
energy, water w ll flow. Sludge will not flow
until a threshold amount of pressure or yield stress is applied.
Even when it is moving, the am ount of energy required to increase
Q
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sludge velocity is greater than for water and is defined by the coef-
ficient ofrigidity.
T h e Bingham plastic model is a good predictor of sludge head
loss
in laminar flow. T h e equation may be written
as
follows:
6s q v
H / L =A -
3wD wD
Where:
D
= diameter
of
pipe, in
ft
S
=
shear stress at the yield poin t w here sludge begins to
q =
coefficient
of
ridigity, in Ib/ft-sec
H =
head loss measured in feet ofwater height
L
= length
of
pipe, in ft
z, = average velocity, in ft/sec
w =
weight ofwater,
64 4
b/cu ft
flow, in Ib/ftz
12
OO
200
400
600 800 1,000
1,200
Flow,
gpm
C=pip e friction factor.
NOTE:
urv es are plotted for waste-activated, digested, and pr imary
sludges at
3.5
water at
C 100
and w ater at
C
120 with no solids.
Courtesy
o
Pearson
Education
Inc.
Head
Loss
Versus
Flow
for 100 ft
of
6-in.
Pipe
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HORSEPOWER AND EFFICIENCY
.
Power Loss Due to Motor and Pump Inefficiency
Molor Efficiency Pump Efficiency
82
67
Wire-to-Water
Efficiency
(82 )(67 ) = 55
ire-to-Water Efficiency
90
8
70
60
5
50
3
40
_
30
2
10
0
Capacity gpm
Example Pump Performance Curve
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Approximate Full Load Current and Fuse Size Required
by
AC Motors*
115 V 230 V, Single-Phase
Ordinary Time Delay Ordinary Time Delay
hD AmDeres Fuse
Fuse
AmDereS Fuse Fuse
I16
4.4
15 8 2.2
I4 5.8 20 10 2.9
It3 7.2 25 12 3.6 16
12 9.8 30 15 4.9 25
314
13.8
45 20 6.9 25
1 16 50 25 8 25
1112 20 60 30
10 30
2 24 80 35 12 40
3 17 60
5 28 90
7'12 40 125
10
50 150
'Assumes motors
running
at usual
speeds
with normal
torque
characteristics.
Three-Phase Induction Motors
6
8
12
15
15
20
25
40
60
80
~
220
v
460
v
Ordinary Time Delay Ordinary Time Delay
hD
AmDeres Fuse Fuse
AmDeres Fuse Fuse
314
1
1 12
2
3
5
7'12
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
2
2.8
3.6
5.2
6.8
9.6
15.2
22
28
42
54
68
80
104
130
154
192
248
312
360
15
15
15
15
25
30
50
75
90
125
175
225
250
350
400
500
600
4 1
4 1.4
6 1.8
8 2.6
10 3.4
15 4.8
25 7.6
35 11
40 14
60 21
80 27
100 34
125 40
150 52
200 65
250 77
300 96
400 124
450 156
180
15 2
15 3
15 3
15 4
15 5
15 8
25 15
35 20
45 20
70
30
90 40
110 50
125 60
175 80
200 100
250 125
300 150
400 200
500 250
600 300
4nn
00 480 240
190
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Standard Classification of NEMA Enclosures for Nonhazardous Locations'
2
3
R
4
4x
6
12
13
b P e Intended Use
Intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection from
persons
or
equipment contacting the electrical components.
Intended for indoor use, to provide some protection against limited
amounts of falling water and dirt.
Intended for outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection
against windblown dust, rain and sleet, and ice on the enclosure.
Intended for outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection
against falling rain and sleet; undamaged by the formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Intended for indoor or outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of
protection against windblown dust and rain, splashing water, and hose-
directed water; undamaged by the formation of ice on the enclosure.
Intended for indoor or outdoor use, primarily to provide a degree of
protection against corrosion, windblown dust and rain, splashing water,
and hose-directedwater; undamaged by the formation of ice on the
enclosure.
Intended for use indoors or outdoors where occasional submersion is
encountered.
Intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against
dust, galling dirt, and dripping noncorrosive liquids.
Intended for indoor use, primarily to provide a degree of protection against
dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive coolant.
*These descriptions are in summary form only and
are
not complete representationsof the
ational Electric ManufacturersAssociation (NEMA) standards for enclosures.
191
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Wet Well
Water
Level
Static
Discharge Total
Head Static
Head
Static Negative Center Line
Suction Head or
of
Pump
Suction Lift Impeller
Static Heads (Pump
Is
Not Operating)
Total Dynamic Head
(From Suction EGL
to Discharge EGL)
EGL
=
Energy Grade Line
HGL
=
Hydraulic Grade Line
=
Velocity
Head,,,
V
= Velocity, Wsec
g
=
Gravity,32.2 n/sec2
z
Dynamic Heads (Pump
Is
Operating)
NOTE:his figure illustrates a pum p with a suction lift. Pumps s hou ld have a suction
hea d which means the wet well water level sho uld be higher than th e pum p impeller.
This pu m p will have difficulty starting unless it is a self-priming pum p because the
water level in the wet we ll IS below the pump.
Also,
if air gets into the suction line, the
only way
it
can get
out
is through the pump.
Controls
may be m odified to allow the
pump to operate only when a suction he ad exists if flooding
of
the service area will
not
result.
Static and Dynamic Heads
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Fill
Lube
FLng
1. Front Bearing Bracket 6. End Cover 11. Back Bearing
2. Front Air Deflector 7. Stator 12. Back Bearing Bracket
3.
Fan
8.
Screens 13. Oil Lubricuation Cap
4.
Rotor
9.
Conduit Box
5. Front Bearing
10. Back Air Deflector
Electric Motor Lubrication
New
Smooth surface. May be bright or
dull and somewhat discolored
due to oxidation or tarnishing.
Used
Surface may be pitted and have
discolored areas of black, brown,
or may have blue heat) tint. If
half of the thickness mass) of
the silver points is still intact, they
are usable. This is the time to
order a backup set.
Severeor Long-time Use
Surface badly pitted and eroded
with badly feathered and lifting
edges. Replace entire contact
set.
Visual Inspectionof Contact Points
193
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Photo supplied by Siemens Energy and Automation Inc.
Three-Phase Magnetic Starter
194
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PUMP VOLAGE
North
American Standard System Voltages
Type
Minimum Minimum
Nominal Maximum
Maximum (phase)
o f
Tolerable
Favorable System
Favorable Tolerable System
107
200
21 41428
2441422
400
2,100
3,630
6,040
12,100
12,600
30,000
60,000
100,000
120,000
140.000
110
21 0
2201440
2501434
420
2,200
3,810
6,320
12,600
13,000
120 125
240 240
240/480 250/500
2651460 2271480
480 480
2,400 2,450
4,160 4,240
6,900 7,050
13,200 13,800
14,400 14,500
34,500
69,000
115,000
138,000
161,000
127
1
250 3
2541508 1
288/500 3
500 3
2,540 3
4,400 3
7,300 3
14,300 3
15,000 3
38,000 3
72,500 3
121,000 3
145,000 3
169.000 3
195
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North Ameri can Standard Nominal Voltages
Nominal Generator Transformer Switchgear Capacitor
System Rated Secondary Rated Rated
Single Phase Systems
120 120 120 120
1201240 120/240 120/240
240 230
208/120 208/120 208/240
240 230
Three Phase Systems
240 240 240
240 230
480/277 480/277
480/277 480 460
480 480/277
48
0
277
480 480
2 400 2 400/1 388 2 400 2 400 2 400
4 160 4 160/2 400 4 160/2 400 4 160 4 160
6 900 6 900/3 980 6 900/3 980 7 200 6 640
7 200 6 900/3 980
7 200/4 160 13 800 7 200
12 000 12 500/7 210 12 00016 920 13 800 12 470
13 200 13 800/7 970 13 800/7 610 13 800 13 200
14 400 14 00018 320 13 800/7 970 14 400 14 400
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Current Ratings for Low-Voltage Switches, in amperes
1201240
v 230 V
240 v
30 30 30
60
60 60
100 100 100
200 200 200
400 400
600 600
800 800
1,200 1,200
6OOV
30
6
100
200
400
600
800
1,200
MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING
Pump
and Motor Maintenance Checkl ist
Refer to the manufacturer’s operations and maintenance recom-
mendations for specific guidance. T hes e suggestions are general in
nature. T h e type ofequipm ent that is in operation determines how
and when maintenance takes
place.
Water quality and equipment
history play a predominant role in scheduling maintenance. Above
all, safety is the main concern when performing any duty on
equipment. Electrical, mechanical, and confined-space safety
practices must be a part of an y preventive maintenance checklist.
1 .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Daily
or
during
routine
visits
when pump
is
in
operation)
B
f
Visually observe pu m p and m otor operation.
Read the amperage, voltage, flows, run hours, and other
information from motor control center.
Inspect mechanical seals.
Check operating temperature.
Check warning indicator lights.
Check oil levels.
Note any unusual vibration.
197
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Weekly
1.
Test per-square-inch levels
of
the relief valve system; these
should be set just above the normal operating pressure of
the system.
2. Inspect stuffing box and note the amount
o
leakage;
adjust or lubricate packing gland as necessary.
A
leakage
rate
o
20 to 60 drops
o
seal water per minute is normal for
a properly adjusted gland; inadequate or excessive leakage
are signs of trouble.
Do
not overtighten packing gland
bolts. Clean drain line if necessary.
3. Check valve lubricant levels.
4. Test the priming system and perform preventive main-
tenance as necessary.
5.
Inspect motor for indications of overload or electrical
failure. Check for burnt insulation, melted solder, or dis-
coloration around terminals and wires.
6. Check for and remove any obstructions in or around the
impeller, screens, or intake, as appropriate. Be sure to
shut off the pump.)
7.
Test transfer valve, if applicable.
Monthly
1. Check bearing temperatures with a thermometer.
2.
Clean strainers on system piping including strainers-on
automatic control valves.
3.
Perform dry vacuum test.
4. Check oil level in pump gearbox; add oil
as
necessary.
5. Inspect gaskets.
6. Check motor ventilation screens and clean or replace as
7. Check pressure gauge reliability.
8. Check foundation bolts.
9. Clean pump control sensors may be required weekly,
10. Check drive flange bolts, i f applicable, and tighten as
necessary.
depending on water quality).
necessary.
Next Page
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Flow
The movement of water and wastewater is
dynamic with many variablesfor monitoring
and measuringflow. Maintaining the firol- er
flow
is
critical to wastewater ofierations.
Wastewater uses spec ic devices unique
to the industry.
221
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Summary of Pressure Requirements
60
1 ,440
f tVmin
~~ ~
Value
Requirement
psi kPaJ
Location
W/day
Minimum pressure 35 (241) All points with in distribution system
20 (140) All ground level points
Desired maximum 100
(690)
All points within distribution system
Fire flow minimum 20 (140) All points with in distribution system
Ideal range
5&75 (345-417) Residences
35-60 (241-414) All points within distribution system
60 1 ,440
QPS QPm
QPd
flow, gpm = flow, cfsX 448.8 gpm/cfs
flow,
gpm
flow, cfs =
448.8
gpm/cfs
222
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2
pipe diameter, in. =
area,
ft
x 12
in./ft
0.785
leak rate, gpd
length,
mi. x
diameter, in.
actual leakage, gpd/mi./in.
=
NOTE minimum flushing velocity: 2.5 fps
maximum pipe velocity: 5.0
f p s
key conversions:
1.55
cfs/mgd; 448.8 gpm/cfs
KEY
FORMULAS FOR FLOWS
AND
METERS
Velocity
flow, cfs
=
area, ft
x
velocity,
fps
2
distance, ft
gpm = 0.785
X
diameter,ft
X .
448.8 gpm/cfs hme, sec
flow
cfs
velocity,
fps
=
rea, ft2
flow,
cfs
velocity, fps
area,
ft'2
=
Head Loss Resulting From Frict ion
Darcy-Weisbach Formula
hL = f L/D) P2/2g)
Where (in any consistent set of units):
h~ =
headloss
= friction factor, dimensionless
L = length
ofpipe
D = diameter of the pipe
V =
averagevelocity
g =
gravityconstant
223
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Hazen-Williams Formula
Where:
j = head loss, in ft
k1
= 4.72,
in units of secondsl.85 per feet0.68
L
= pipelength,inft
Q = flowrate, incfs
C =
Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient
D
=
pipe diameter, in ft
The value of C ranges from 60 for corrugated steel to
150
for
clean, new asbestos-cement pipe.
Manning Formula
2
w = .486R3sz
n
Where:
w =
flowvelocity,infps
n = Manning coefficientof channel roughness
R
= hydraulic radius, in ft
S
= channel slope (for uniform flow) or the energy
slope (for nonuniform flow), dimensionless
The energy slope is calculated as
-dH/dx
where
H
is the total
energy, which is expressed as
Where (in any consistent set of units):
=
elevation head
y = waterdepth
v = velocity
g
= gravitational constant
x = distance between any two points
224
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Approximate Flow Through Venturi Tube
Q =
19.05
d f h
for an y Ve nturi tube.
Q =
1 9 . 1 7 d f h
for a Venturi tube in which d l = '/3 d2
Where:
Q =
flow,ingpm
dl
= diameter ofVentu ri throat, i n in.
H
= difference in head between upstream e n d and
throat, in ft
d2
=
diameter of main pipe, in in .
These formulas are suitable for any liquid with viscosities
similar to water. T h e values given here are for water.
A
value of
32.17 4 ft/sec2 was used for the acceleration ofgra vity and a value
of 7.48 gal/ft3 was used in com puting the constants.
225
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Q
A
General Case, Open Channel
Cubic-Feet-per-Second Flow
Depth,
ft
Velocity,
ftlday
Width,
I
fi
Width,
n
Q A Q
A
V
Wday
Cubic-Feet-per-Minute Flow Cubic-Feet-per-Day Flow
Velocity,
Wtime
Diameter,
n
V
Velocity,
ri&;?)
0,785
Diameter . i t ] wtlme ]
1
Q
A
- t
General Case, Circular Pipe Flowing Full
The
Q=
AVEquation
As It
Pertains to Flow in an Open Channel
226
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5,000
4,000
0.04-
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
8.2<
0.8
1 -
2 -
3 -
4 -
5 -
6 -
8 -
10
20
36 3 000
24 1,500
400
300
200
10
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Flow
Loss
of Head, Pivot Nominal Discharge,
Coefficient f fper Line Pipe Size,
gpm
(C) Value 1 000 t
in.
Draw a line between two known values and extend it so that it touches the
pivot line. Draw a line between the point on the pivot line and the other known
value. Read the unknown value where the second line intersects the graph.
Flow of Water in Ductile-Iron Pipe
227
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WEIRS
V-notch Weir
Angle
of
Weir
Rectangular Weir
Courtesy
of
Public Works Magazine.
Types of Weirs
T h e tw o niost co mm only used w eir types are the V-notch and rect-
angular, illustrated in the figure above.
To
read a flow rate grap h
or
table per tain ing to a weir, you m ust know two measurements: (1)
the heigh t
H
of the water above the weir crest; a n d
(2)
the
angle
of
the w eir (V-notch weir)
o r
the
length
of the crest (rectangu lar weir).
flow, gpd
weir length, ft
weir overflow rate
=
Example
A
nomograph for
60
and
90
V-notch weirs is given in the figure
on page
229.
Using this nom ograp h, de termine (a) the flow rate in
gallons per minute if the height of water above the
60
V-notch
weir cre st is
12
in.; an d ( b) the gallons-per-day flow rate over a
90
V-notch weir when the height of the water is 12 in. over the
crest.
(a) T h e scales used on this graph are logarithmic. This
information
is
important because it determines how
interpolation sho uld be performed w h en the indicated
flow falls between two known values.
First, draw a horizontal line from 12 o n the
height
scale o n theleft to 1 2 o n the
height
sca le on the r igh t .
T h e n o n t h e s ca le f o r a
60
V-notch, read the flow rate
228
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F 7 000
=
6 000
5
=
5:OOO
21 4,000
40
z- 30
20
I
3 -
2 -
10
8
-6
- 4
c
1 - g 2
400
r
300
10
8
6
4
3
2
1.5
1
25
21
18
15
12
10
9
.s
7
.
a,
I
2
Courtesy of Public
Works Magazine
Flow Rate Nomograph o r 60 and
90"
V-notch Weirs
indicated by a 12-in. head. T h e
flow
rate falls between
600
and
700
gpm at approximately 650 g pm .
b)
O n the scale for a
90
V-notch, the indicated
flow
rate
is
between 1,000 and 2,000 gpm. More precisely, it falls
between 1 100 and
1,200
gpm at a reading of about
1 150
gpm. Convert the gallons-per-minute rate to
gallons per day:
1,150 gpm ) 1,440 min/day)
=
1,656,000 gpd
229
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Discharge From a V-Notch Weir With End Contractions'
Discharge Over Weir, gpm
Head (H) Weir Angle,
degrees
in.
10th
of
foot 22.5 30 45
60 90
1 ,083 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.2 2.0
1
14
,104 0.8 1.0 1.6 2.2 3.9
1
I2
,125 1.2 1.7 2.6 3.5 6.1
1314 ,146 1.8 2.4 3.8 5.2 9.1
2 ,167 2.6 3.4 5.3 7.3 12.7
2l14 ,188 3.4 4.6 7.1 9.8 17.1
2112 ,208 4.4 5.9 9.1 12.7 22.0
2314 ,229 5.6 7.5 11.6 16.1 27.9
3 .250 7.0 9.4 14.4 20.1 34.8
3'14 ,271 8.7 11.4 17.9 24.9 43.1
3'12 ,292 10.3 13.8 21.3 29.6 51.3
3314 ,313 12.3 15.4 25.3 35.2 61.0
4 ,333 14.4 19.2 29.6 41.1 71.2
4l/4 ,354 16.7 22.3 34.5 47.8 83.0
4'12 ,375 19.3 25.8 39.8 55.3 95.8
4314 ,396 22.1 29.5 45.6 63.3 109.9
5 ,417 25.2 33.6 51.8 71.9 124.8
5 14 ,437 28.3 37.8 58.4 81.1 140.6
5'12 ,458 31.9 42.5 65.6 91.1 158.0
5314 ,479 35.6 47.4 73.3 101.7 176.4
6 ,500 39.7 53.0 81.8 113.6 196.9
*The distance
(0)
on either side
of
the weir must
be
at least 314 L
230
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Example
The table on page 232 pertains
to
the discharge
of
45 V-notch
weirs. Use the table to de termine (a) flow rate in cubic feet per sec-
ond when the head above the crest is 0.75
ft;
(b) the gallons-per-
day flow rate when the head is 1.5 ft.
(a) In the table, part o fthe head (0.7) is given o n the vertical
scale, and the rem ainder (0.05) is given o n the horizon-
tal scale
(0.7 +
0.05
=
0.75). T h e cubic-feet-per-second
flow rate indicated by a head of
0.75 ft
is 0.504 I?/sec.
b)
A
head of 1.5
ft
is read as 1.5 on the vertical scale and
0.00
on the horizon tal scale (1.5 +
0.00
= 1.50). The
million-gallons-per-day low rate indicated by this head is
1.84 mgd. Th is is equal
to
a flow rate
of
1,840,000 gpd.
(The
mgd
column was read in
this
problem because it is
easier to convert to gallons per day
from
million gallons
per day than from cubic feet per second.)
231
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Discharge of
45
V-notc h Wei rs
.oo .01 .02 .03 .04 .05
Head,
f t
f W e c mgd ft3/sec mgd ft3/sec mgd W s e c mgd W/sec mgd W s e c mg
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
.o
003
,019
.051
,105
,183
289
,425
.593
,796
1.04
,002
,012
,033
,068
,118
,187
.274
,383
,514
,669
,004
,021
,055
1 1 1
,192
,301
.440
,611
,818
1.06
,003
,014
,036
,072
,124
194
284
-395
,529
686
,005
,024
.060
,118
.202
,313
,455
,630
,841
1.09
,003
,015
.039
,077
,130
,203
,294
,407
,543
.703
.006
,026
065
.126
,212
326
,471
,650
,864
1.11
.004
,017
.042
,081
,137
,211
,305
,420
,558
-721
,008
,029
.070
.133
,222
339
,488
,670
,887
1.14
.005
,019
.045
,086
,143
219
,315
-433
,573
,738
,009
,032
.075
.141
.232
,353
.504
,690
,911
1.17
,00
,02
.04
.09
,15
.22
.32
,44
,58
.75
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Discharge of
45
V-notch Weirs (continued)
oo
.01 M .03 .04 -05
Head
f t
M h e c
mgd
W s e c
mgd
fP/sec
mgd
fP/sec
mgd
@/set
mgd
M/sec
mgd
1.1 1.31 ,849
1.34 ,869
1.37 888
1.41 908 1.44 ,929
1.47 ,949
1.2 1.63 1.06 1.67 1.08
1.70 1.10 1.74 1.12
1.77 1.15 1.81 1.17
1.3 1.99 1.29 2.03 1.31
2.07 1.34 2.11 1.36
2.15 1.39 2.19 1.42
1.4 2.40 1.55
2.44 1.58 2.49 1.61
2.53 1 64
2.58 1.66 2.62 1.69
1.5 2.85 1.84 2.90 1.87
2.95 1.91 3.00 1.94 3.05 1.97
3.10 2.00
1.6 3.35 2.17 3.41 2.20 3.46 2.23 3.51 2.27 3.57 2.30 3.62 2.34
1.7 3.90 2.52 3.96 2.56 4.02 2.60
4.08 2.63 4.13 2.67
4.19 2.71
1.8 4.50 2.91 4.56 2.95 4.63 2.99
4.69 3.03 4.75 3.07
4.82 3.11
1.9 5.15 3.33 5.22 3.37 5.29 3.42 5.36 3.46
5.43 3.51 5.50 3.55
2.0 5.86 3.79 5.93 3.83 6.00 3.88 6.08 3.93 6.15 3.98 6.23 4.03
Adapled
f rom
Leupold and Stevens Inc.
PO
Box
688
Beaverton Oregon
97005
f rom
Stevens Water
R
'fta/sec
=
1.035
H5n;
ngd
=
ft3/sec
x
0.646
Flow
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P
p
OL
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Discharge From a Rectangular Weir With End Contractions*
Discharge
Over
Weir,
gpm
Length
1)
of
Weir,
t
ead (H)
Add itional gpm for Each
in.
T M h o f f o o t
1
3 5
Foot
Over
5 f t
1 .083 35.4 107.5
179.8 36.05
11/4 ,104 49.5 150.4
250.4 50.4
1112 .125
64.9
197
329.5 66.2
1314
,146
81 240
415 83.5
2 .167
98.5
302 506
102
Z1/4 .188 117 361
605 122
2112 .208
136.2 422
706 143
2%
.229
157 485
815 165
3
.250 177.8 552
926 187
3l14 ,271
199.8
624
1,047 21 1
3 /2 .292
222 695
1,167 236
3314 ,313
245
769
1,292 261
4 .333
269
846
1,424 288
4114 .354
293.6 925
1,559 31 6
q1/2 .375
318
1,006
1,696 345
4314 .936 344 1,091 1,835 374
5'14 ,437 395.5 1,262 2,130 434
5314 .479 449 1,442
2,440 495
5
417
370 1,175 1,985 405
S1/2
.458
421.6 1,352 2,282 465
6
,500
476.5 1,535 2,600 528
The distance (0)
on
either side of the weir
must
be at least 3H.
235
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Example
A
nomograph for rectangular weirs (contracted an d suppresse d) is
show n o n page 237. Using this nomo graph , determ ine (a) the flow
in gallons per minute over a suppressed rectangular weir if the
length o f the weir is
3
ft an d the heigh t of the water over the weir is
4
in.; (b ) the flow in gallons pe r m inu te over a contracted rectangu-
lar weir for the same weir length a n d head as in (a).
T o use die nomograph,
you
m ust know th e difference betwee n
a contracted rectangular weir (one
with
en d contractions) an d a
suppressed rectangular weir (one
without
end contractions).
A
contracted rectangular weir comes in somewhat
from
the side of
the chan nel before the crest cutou t begins. O n a suppres sed rect-
angular weir, however, the cres t cutout stretches from o ne s ide of
the channel to the other.
T o determine the flow over the su ppres sed weir, dra w a
line from
L = 3
ft on the left-hand scale through
H =
4
n. (right side of the middle scale).
A
flow ra te o f
850
gpm
is
indicated where the line crosses the right-
han d scale. T h i s is the flow over the supp ressed rectan-
gular weir.
T o determ ine the flow rate over a contracted rectangular
weir using the no mo graph , first dete rm ine the flow rate
over a suppressed weir given the weir length and h ea d ,
as in (a). T h e n subtract the flow indicated o n the m iddle
scale.
In th is example, the flow rate over a 3-ft-long supp ressed weir
with a he ad of
4
n. is 850 gpm.
To
determ ine th e flow rate over a
contrac ted weir
3
ft long with
a
head of
4
n., a correction factor
must
be
subtracted from the
850
gpm.
As
indicated by the m id dl e
scale,
the
correction factor is
20
gpm.
850
gpm supp ressed rectangular weir
20
gpm
830 gp m contracted rectangular weir
236
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005
01
1
/s
E
0
a
I
.
Courfesyof Public Works
Magazine.
Flow Rate Nomograph or Rectangular Weirs
Example
Use the table o n pages 238-240 to determine the flow rate (in mil-
lion gallons per day) over
a
contracted rectangular weir if the
length of the weir crest is 3 ft and the head
is 0.58
ft.
Enter the table under the head column
at
0.58; mov e right until
you come und er the 3 heading for length of
weir
crest. T he indi-
cated flow r a te is 2.739 mgd.
237
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Flow Through Contracted Rectangular Weirs
W
Length of
Weir
Crest
1
1%
2
Head,
ft @/see mgd
ft3/sec
mgd
fP/sec
mgd
W s e
.36 ,667 ,431 1.026 ,663 1.386 ,895 2.105
.37 ,695
3 8 ,721
.39 ,748
.40 .775
.41 ,802
.42 ,830
43 ,858
.44 ,886
.45 ,915
.46 .943
.47 ,972
.48 1.001
.49
1.030
.50
1.059
448
465
483
500
518
536
554
572
591
609
628
646
665
684
1.070
1.111
1.153
1.196
1.239
1.283
1.327
1.372
1.417
1.462
1.508
1.554
1.601
1.647
,690
,717
,745
,772
,800
,829
,857
,886
,915
,945
,974
1.004
1.034
1.064
1.445
1.501
1.559
1.617
1.676
1.736
1797
1.858
1.920
1.982
2.045
2.108
2.172
2.236
,932 2.195
,969 2.28
1.006 2.37
1.044 2.459
1.083 2.55
1.121 2.642
1.160 2.73
1.200 2.83
1.240 2.925
1.280 3.02
1.320 3.11
1.361 3.21
1.403 3.31
1.444 3.41
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Flow Through Contracted Rectangular Weirs (continued)
length of
Weir
Crest
1 1 2
Head,
f f
@/SIX
mgd
Wsec
mgd
fP/sec
mgd
fP/se
.51 108 9 ,703 1.695 1.095 2.302 1.486 3.515
,722 1.743
,742 1.791
,761 1.838
-781 1.888
,800 1.938
,820 1.986
,840 2.035
,859 2.085
,879 2.136
,899 2.186
,920 2.237
,940 2.287
,960 2.339
1.126 2.368
1.156 2.434
1.188 2.499
1.219 2.567
1.251 2.636
1.282 2.703
1.314 2.771
1.347 2.840
1.380 2.910
1.412 2.980
1.444 3.050
1.477 3.120
15 10 3 192
~ ~
.980 2.390 1.544 3.263
.52 1.119
5 3 1.149
.54 1.178
.55 1.209
.56 1.240
.57 1.270
.58 1.300
.59 1.331
-60 1.362
.61 1.393
.62
1.424
.63 1.455
64 1.487
,651 1.518
1.529
3.61
1.571 3.71
1.614
3.82
1.658 3.92
1.701 4.03
1.745 4.136
1.790
4.24
1.830 4.34
1.879 4 45
1.924 4.56
1.970
4.67
2.015
4.78
2.061 4.89
2.107 5.00
Flow
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Flow Through Contracted Rectangular Weirs (continued)
len gt h of Weir Crest
~~~~~~~~
1
1
2
Head,
ft fP/sec
mgd
fP/sec
mgd
fP/sec
mgd
fP/se
.66 1.550 1.001
2.443 1.577
3.336
2.153 5.12
.67 1.581 1.021
2.494
1.611 3.407
2.200 5.23
E
.68 1.613 1.042 2.546 1.644 3.480 2.247 5.34
5.46
69 1.646 1.062 2.600 1.680 3.555 2.295
.70
1
677 1.083 2.652 1.713 3.627 2.342 5.57
.71 1.709 1.104 2.705 1.747 3.701 2.390 5.69
.72 1.741 1.124 2.758 1.781 3.775 2.438 5.80
.73 1.774 1.145 2.812 1.816 3.851 2.486 5.92
Adapted from Leupold and Stevens Inc.
PO
Box
688
Beaverton Oregon 97005 from Stevens
Water
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Wastewater
Treatment
Wastewater treatment is a biological system tha t
must
be kept
in
balance. I t is a scientific ar t
requiring knowledge of multip le disciplines.
N ew technologies are m ak ing treatment more
complex as
greater
regulatory demands
are required f o r the ind ustry .
261
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
6
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6
3
:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
i
t
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KEY FORMULAS
Weir
Overflow
for Rectangular Clarifier
volume
of
tank
flow rate
detention time
=
flow, gpd
2
urface overflow rate
=
tank surface, ft
flow, gpd
weir overflow rate =
weir length,
ft
Calculat ions fo r Pounds of Bio log ical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
and Suspended Solids loading in a Prim ary Clarifier
Influent
BOD, mg/L
252 mg/L
Effluent
BOD, mg/L
141
mg/L
Removed
BOD, mg/L
111 mg/L
solids applied,)
solids flow, ingd X 8.34 X MLSS, mg/L)
Ib/day
loading =
rate
surface area, ft2
0.785 x
d )
Where:
MLSS
=
mixed liquor suspended solids
264
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Filters
flow, mgd
x
8.34 X BOD , mg/L
ft
hydraulic load ing rate =
recirculation flow, mgd
primary effluent flow, mgd
ecirculation flow ratio =
Contactors
total flow app lied , gpd
area, ft
2
ydraulic lo adin g rate
=
flow, mgd x
8.34
x soluble BOD ,
mg/L
media area,
1,000
ft'
organic loadin g rate =
Ponds
2
flow,gpdhydraulic load ing rate,
gpd/fl
=
area, ft
flow, acre-ft/day
area, acre
hydraulic loa din g rate, acre-ft/day/acre
=
BOD, lb
=
flow x
8.34
Ib/gal x mg/L
% BO D B O D influent, mg/L B O D efnuent, mg/L
removal B O D influent, mg/L
- x
1
organic load ing rate, flow, mgd X 8.34 Ib/gal x B O D , mg/L
1b BO D/day /acre acre
volume of po nd , gal
flow rate,
gpd
detentio n time, days
=
BOD
g
z
nitial dissolved oxygen (D O ), mg/L - inal D O , mg/L
sample volume, mL/bottle volume, mL
I-
ce
-
265
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Filter Loading Rate
flow, gpm
filter area, ft
2
ilter loading rate
=
inches of water fall
minute
filter loading rate =
Filter Backwash Rate
flow, gpm
2
ilter backwash rate =
filter area,
ft
inches
of
water rise
minute
filter backwash rate
=
Force
force = pressure
x
area
Head
ft-lb
head =
-
lb
V P
2
elocity head
=
64.4 ft/sec
actual flow rate
x
100
C
value
equivalent flow rate =
266
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Recvcle
, ,
Clariiier
erobic
Stages Stages Stages
influent
Anaerobic
Anoxic
Recycle
Recycle
1
Recycle
2
Clariiier
Recycle
2
Clarifier
Stages
Return Sludge
' Waste Sludg e
VIP Process
Containing P
_ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - -
Source:Met cal f e a nd Eddy Inc. 1991.
Combined Biological Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal Processes
268
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Aeration
nfluent Primary
Clarifier
Pr imary
anAs
ludge
---
Supernatant
Return
to
hosphorus-Deficient
Return Sludge
Source:
Water
and
Wastewater Calculations Manual,
copyrjght2007,
The McGraw-Hill Companies.
PhoStrip Process for Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal
Mixed Anaerobic Aerobic Anoxic Settle Decant
Fill Stir Stir Stir
Source:Water
and
Wastewater Calculations Manual, copyright2007,
The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Sequencing Batch Reactor for Carbon Oxidation Plus Phosphorus and
Nitrogen Removal
269
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Wuhrmann Process for Nitrogen Removal
Chemicals Used in Wastewater Treatment
Produces calcium carbonate in wastewater which acts as
ime-calcium
oxide, CaO
Ferrous sulfate-
F e ( W 3
Alum or filter alum-
A12(S04)3*14H20
Ferric chloride-
FeCl3
Polymer
a coagulant for hardness and particulate matter. Often
used
in
conjunction with other coagulants, because by
itself, large quantities of lime are required for
effectiveness, and lime typically generates more sludge
than other coagulants.
Typically used with lime to soften water. The chemical
combination forms calcium sulfate and ferric hydroxide.
Wastewater must contain dissolved oxygen for reaction to
proceed successfully.
Used for water softening and phosphate removal. Reacts
with available alkalinity (carbonate, bicarbonate, and
hydroxide) or phosphate to form insoluble aluminum salts.
Reacts with alkalinity or phosphates to form insoluble iron
salts.
High-molecular-weight compounds (usually synthetic)
which can be anionic, cationic, or nonionic. When added to
wastewater, can be used for charge neutralization for
emulsion-breaking, or as bridge-making coagulants, or
both. Can also be used as filter aids and sludge
conditioners.
270
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Commercial Forms of Chemical Precipitation Chemicals
Chemical Commercial Characteristic
Alum
Alum is an off-white crystal that, when dissolved in water,
produces acidic conditions. As a solid, alum may be supplied in
lumps but is available in ground, rice, or powdered form.
Shipments range from 100-lb bags to bulk quantities of
4,000
Ib.
In
liquid form, alum is commonly supplied as a 50% solution
delivered in minimum loads of
4,000
gal. The choice between
liquid and dry alum depends on the availability of storage space,
the method of feeding, and economics.
Ferric chloride, or FeCl3, is available in either dry (hydrate or
anhydrous) or liquid form. The liquid form is usually 35 -45
FeCl3. Because higher concentrationsof FeCl3 have higher freezing
points, lower concentrations are supplied during the winter. It is
highly corrosive.
Lime can be purchased in many forms, with quicklime (CaO) and
hydrated lime (Ca(0H)z) being the most prevalent forms. In either
case, lime is usually purchased in the dry state,
in
bags, or in bulk.
Polymers may be supplied as a prepared stock solution ready for
addition to the treatment process or as a dry powder. Many
competing polymer formulations with differing characteristics are
available, requiring somewhat different handling procedures.
Manufacturers should be consulted for recommended practices
and use.
kck j
Lime
Polymer
271
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Approximate Nutrient Composition
of
Average Sanitary Wastewater
Based on 120 gpcd (450 Uperson-day)
Parameter
After Biologically
Raw Settling Treated
Organic content, mg/L
Suspended solids
240 120 30
Biochemical oxygen demand 200 130 30
Nitrogen content,
mg/f as N
Inorganic nitrogen 22 22 24
Organic nitrogen 13
8
2
Total nitrogen 35 30
26
Phosphorus content, mg/L as
P
Inorganic phosphorus 4 4 3
Organic phosphorus 3 2 2
Total phosphorus 7 6
5
Courtesy
of
Pearson Education, Inc.
Approximate Composition of Average Sanitary Wastewater (mg/L)
Based on
120
gpcd
(450
Uperson-day)
After Biological
Parameter Raw Settlin g Treated
Total solids
800
680 530
Total volatile solids 440 340 220
Suspended solids 240
120
30
Volatile suspended solids
180 100
20
Biochemical oxygen demand 200 130 30
Inorganic nitrogen as N 22 22 24
Total nitrogen
as
N 35 30
26
Soluble phosphorus as P 4 4 4
Total phosphorus as P
7 6 5
COUrteSY
of
Pearson Education, Inc.
272
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Grit
The volume
of
grit
removed using a vortex grit unit can be calcu-
lated as follows:
1) x
670
peak flow, rngd
average flow, rngd
grit, lb/mgd = (
Grit Concentrator
Grit
Grit Dewatering Screw
Grit Washing and Dewatering
Settled Grit
Pump
Grit Washer
Return Water
Mixer
Motor
Settled
Grit Chamber
N0TE:The vortex suspends organic solids while grit settles in the lower chamber
The grit pump removes settled grit to be dewatered and held in a dumpster prior
to disposal in a landfill.
Courtesy
of
Pearson Education
Inc.
S
E
orced
Vortex
Unit for Removing Grit
m
273
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Typical Design Criteria for Primary Clarifiers
Average
Monthly
Flow Peak Flow
Overflow rates,
gpd/f?
USEPA
GLUMRB'
USEPA with secondary solids
Side water depth,
R
USEPA
GLUMRB
USEPA with secondary solids
Weir loading,
gpoYR
USEPA
GLUMRB
800-1,200 2,000-3,000
1,000 1,500
600-800 1 20l31,500
l l 3 1 3
7
13-1
6
10,000-40,000
10,000
Courtesy of Pearson Education, Inc.
Environmental Managers.
*
GLUMRB
=
Great Lakes-Upper MississippiRiver Board of State Public Health and
Typical Design Parameters for Primary Clarifiers
Surface Settling Rate,
d/n?.day (gal/dav.ftz)
Type of
Treatment Source Average Peak Depth,
m
(ff)
Primary settling USEPA 1975a 33-49 81-122 3-3.7 (1 l3 12)
followed by (800-1,200) (Z.OOC-3,OOO)
600
econdary
treatment GLUMRETen
States
Standards and Illinois
Minimum 2.1
(7)
EPA 1998
24-33 49-61 3.7 -4.6
Primary settl ing USEPA 1975a (600-800) (1,200-1,500) (12-15)
with waste-
activated
sludge
Ten States Standards, s41
(51,000)
561 (~ 1, 50 0) Minimum 3.0
return GLUMRB 1996
(10)
.Source:
Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual,
copyright 2001, The McGraw-
Hill Companies.
274
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FILTERS
Anaerobic Aerobic
Filter
Med ium
Air
Dissolved
Oxygen
Organic
Matter
Products
nd Wastewater
Flow
Biological Layer Liquid Film
Courtesy
o f
Pearson Education, Inc.
Biological Process in a Filter Bed
Distributor Arms
Filter Medium
Cover
Blocks
of
Center Column Effluen t Channel
Feedpipe
Ventilation Riser Underdrains
Effluent Channel
$
&
5
Courtesy
of
Pearson Education, Inc.
Cut-Away View of Stone-Media Trickling Filter With Concrete Side Walls
275
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biological oxygen - settled wastewater BOD
dem and (BOD ) loading
volume of filter media
Where:
B O D loading = poun ds of BO D applied per 1,000 ft /day
settled BO D
=
wastewater BO D remaining after primary
(g/n13 day)
sedim entation, in Ib/day (g/day)
vo lum e of media = volume of sto ne in the filters, in thousands
offt3
In3)
Q Q H
hydraulic loading =
Where:
hyd raulic loading = mil gal/acre/day (m3/1n2.day)
3
Q
=
wastewater flow, in mgd
(m
/day)
QR
= recirculation flow, in mgd (m /day)
A
=
surface area of filters, in acres (m )
2
R = - K
Q
Where:
R = recirculation ratio
QR
and
Q =
(same
as
above)
276
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Typical Loadings for Trickling Filters With a 5-to-7-ft Depth of Stone or
Slag Media
High
Rate Two Stage
Biological oxygen demand loading
Ib/l ,000 ft3.day'
30-90 45-70
Ib/acre-ft.day
1,300-3,900 2,000-3,000
Hydraulic loading
mil gal/acredayt
10-30 10-30
SPW$
0.16-0.48 0.16-0.48
Recirculation ratio 0.5-3.0 0.5-4.0
Courtesy of Pearson Education, Inc.
* 1.O Ib/l ,000 ft3.day
=
16.0 g/m3.day.
t 1.Omil gavacreday
=
0.935 m3/m2.day.
Primary Direct Recirculation
Q n
a+an+aH
o,
settling
Treated
Final Wastewater
Combined
Sludge
to Digestion Trickling
Flow a Filter
Gravity
Humus
siudge Return and R~crrcu a on
Pro fil e of a s in gl e-stag e trickling filter show ing relat ed wastewater flow diagram s
including implant recirculation
General f low patterns:
Q =
wastew ater influent flow ; Q+ OH= nfluentplu s humus return
from the bottom o f the clarifier;and
Q
R OH=
low to th e filter with direction and
indirect recirculation
Courtesy
o f
Pearson Education Inc.
s
E
Single-Stage Trick ling Filter Plant
L
Q
-I
277
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3UJ
6Y
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Mixed Aeration Basin
DO' COn
DO
COn
;
nfluent Wastewater
B a % k u
New i
[
r g a r G r i i i t h
cT
zg l
Recycled cellular org anics
.
released by death and cell lysis Wastewater
Waste organics are incorp orated nto biolog ical floc
i
i
by bacterial synthesis and predatory protozoa
;
Settled biological loc returned in recirculation
'DO =dissolved oxygen.
.....................................................................
Effluent
Biological
Sludge
Courtesyof PearsonEducation, lnc.
Generalized Biological Process in Aeration (Activated-Sludge)Treatment
The following equation calculates the
F M
value as BOD
applied/day/unit mass of MLSS in the aeration
tank:
F -
Q x B O D
M V x M L S S
- _
Where:
F/M
= food-to-microorganism ratio, in lb BOD /day
per lb M LSS (g BOD/day per g M LSS)
3
Q
=
wastewater flow, in rngd
(m
/d)
BOD
= wastewater BOD, in mg/L (g/rn3)
V = liquid volume of aeration tank, in mil gal (m )
MLSS = mixed liquor suspended solids in the aeration
3
basin, in mg/L (g/rn3)
279
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T h e following equa tion calculates sludge age on the basis of the
mass of
MLSS
in the aeration tank relative
to
the mass of SUS-
pen ded solids in the wastewater e flue nt an d waste sludge:
MLSSx
V
SSex Q, -I-SS,,
x W
sludgeage
=
Where:
sludge age = mean cell residence time, in days
Y
MLSS =
mixed liquor sus pend ed solids, i n mg/L (g/m )
3
V
=
volume of aeration tank, in mil gal (m )
SS,
= susp end ed solids in wastewater eflu ent, in mg/L
Qe =
quantity ofwastewater eflue nt, in mgd (m /day)
SS,
=
susp end ed solids in waste slud ge, in mg/L (g/m )
3
(g/m )
3
3
Qn quan tity ofw aste sludge, in mg d (m /day)
280
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Summary
of
Loadings and Operational Parameters for eration Processes
Bio log ical Oxygen Food-to-
Demand BOD)
Mixed Liquor Microorganism
Loading, Suspended Solids
F/M)
Ratio,
b
BOD/day
MLSS), b
BOD/day Sludge A
Process
per
I OW
r mg/L
per
6
MLSS days
Conventional 20-40 1,000-3,000
0.2-0.5 5-1 5
Step aeration
40-60 1,500-3,500
0.2-0.5 5-1 5
Extended aeration
10-20 2,000-8,000
0.05-0.2 220
High-purity oxygen 2120 4,000-8,000 0.6-1.5 3-1
0
ourtesy of Pearson Education, Inc
1.0
lb/l,000
ft3
day = 16.0 g/m3 day
1 O b/day/lb
MLSS = O
g/day
g/MLSS
Wastew ater T rea tmen t
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Extended
Aeration
(endogenous
growth)
Poor settleability
Approximate Relationship Between Activated-Sludge Settleabil ity and
Operating Food-to-Microorganism Ratio
Conventional
and Step
Aeralion High Rate
(declining (accelerated
growth) gowth)
Reaerationby
Free Board W'nd
Hlgh
Water
Level
Low Water Lev el
R
2 R
Courtesy of Pearson Education, Inc.
Facultative Stabil ization Pond Showing the Basic Biological Reactions
of
Bacteria and Algae
282
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Minimum National Performance Standards for Publicly Owned
Treatment Works (Secondary Treatment and It s Equivalency)
Parameter Shall Not Exceed Shal l Not Exceed
30-Day Average 7-Day Average
Conventional Secondary Treatment Processes
5-day biochemical oxygen demand: BOD5
Effluent, mg L 30 45
Percent removalt 85
Effluent, mg L 25 40
5-day carbonaceous BOD,' CBOD5
Percent removal+ a5
Effluent, mg L
30 45
Percent removat a5
Suspended solids
6.0-9.0 at all times
PH
Whole effluent toxicity Site specific
Fecal coliform,
M f N h O O
mL
200
400
5-day biochemical oxygen demand,. BOD5
Stabilization Ponds and Other Equivalent
of
Secondary Treatment
Effluent, mg L 45 65
Percent removal+
65
-
5-day carbonaceous BOD,' CBOD5
Effluent, mg L 40 60
Percent removalt 65
-
Suspended solids
Effluent, mg L 45 65
Percent removal+ 65
6.g9.0 at all times
Fecal coliform, M f N l o o mL 200
400
*Chemical oxygen demand (COD) or total organic carbon TOG)may be substituted
for BOD5 when a long-term BOD5:COD or BOD5:TOC correlation has been
t Percent removal may be waived on a case-by-case basis for combined sewer ser-
Vice areas and for separated sewer areas
not
subject to excessive inflow and infil-
tration (111) where the base flow plus infiltration is
5120
gpcd and the base flow
-
PH
Whole effluent toxicity Site specific
-
E
m
demonstrated. E
PIUS fI is C275 gpcd.
m
MPN
=
most probable number.
283
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SETTLING
Settling Zone
V
vo
V
vs
Inlet
Zone
H
Outlet
Zone
Source:
Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual
copyright
2001,
The McGra
w-Hill
Companies.
~~
Discrete Particle Settling in an Ideal Settling Tank
The
flow rate of wastewater
is
Where:
s
Q =
flow, in gpd (m /day)
A
=
surface area of the settling zone, in ft (rn
)
Vo = overflow rate or surface loading rate, in gal/(ft .d ay )
L
= width and length of the tank, in
ft m)
2 2
2
(ms/[m2*day])
284
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Clear Water Region
\
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Discrete Settling Reg ion
Flocculanl Settling Region
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
\
Hindered (Zone) Se ttling Region
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - -
Compression Region
Source:
Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual,
copyright
2007
The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Settling Regions for Concentrated Suspensions
Stationarv
(0
(u
-
2
E,
k
z
ot
4
iz
s
z
285 s
Time
.I .
m
Source:Water and Wastewater CalculationsManual, copyrigbt2001
The McGraw-Hill Companies.
&
4
m
Bacterial Density With Growth Time
4
v
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Guidelines for Return-Activated Sludge Flow Rate
Type of Process
Conventional
Carbonaceous stage of separate-stage
nitrification
Step-feed aeration
Complete-mix
Contact stabilization
Extended aeration
Nitrification stage of separate-stage
nitrification
Percent
of
Design Average
Flow
Minimum Maximum
15 100
15 100
15 100
15 100
50 150
50
150
50 200
Typical Design Parameters for Secondary Sedimentation Tanks
Hydraulic loadin g, Solids loading:
Ib
solids/(daay.ff
'
al/ dayff
'
Type of Depth,
Treatment Average Peak Average Peak
f t
Settling following
400-600 1,000-2,000 0
0
10-12
tracking filtration
Settling following
air-activated sludge
(excluding extended
aeration)
Settling following
extended aeration
Settling following
oxygen-activated
sludge with primary
settling
400-800 1,000-1,200 20-30 50 12-15
200-400 800 20-30 50 12-15
40'3800 1,000-1,200 25-35
50
12-15
*gal/(day
ft )
x
0
0407
= m 3/ m 2
day), Ib/(day
ft )
x
4 883
=
kg/(day
m2)
t
Allowable solids loading area generally governed by sludge thickening
characteristics associated with cold weather operations
286
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Recommended Design Overflow Rate and Peak Solids Loading Rate for
Secondary Settl ing Tanks Following Activated-Sludge Processes
Surface Loading
at Design Pea Peak Solids
Hourly
Flow, Loading
Rate,'
Treatment Process
gal/d.ft ' (m3/d-day ) Ib/d.ft2 (k g /( d d )
Conventional 1,200 (49) 50 (244)
Step aeration
Complete mix
Contact stabilization
Carbonaceous stage of
separate-stage nitrification
or
1,000 (41)
Extended aeration 1,000 (41)'
35
(171)
Single-stage nitrification
Two-stage nitrification 800
(33)
35 (171)
Activated sludge with 900 (37)§ As above
chemical addition to mixed
liquor for phosphorus removal
*Based on influent low only.
t For plant effluent TSS 620 mglL.
3
Computed on
the
basis of design maximum daily flow rate plus design maximum
5
When effluent P concentration of 1
.O
mglL or less is required.
return sludge rate requirements, and the design
MLSS
under aeration.
281
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Recommended Chlorine Dosing Capacity for Various Types of Treatment
Based on Design Average Flow
Type
of
Treatment mg/L mg/L
Illinois
EPA
Dosage,
GLUMRB’
Dosage,
Primary settled effluent
Lagoon effluent (unfiltered)
Lagoon effluent (filtered)
Trickling filter plant effluent
Activated sludge plant effluent
Activated sludge plant with
chemical addition
Nitrified effluent
Filtered effluent following
mechanical biological treatment
20
20
10
10
6
4
4
10
8
6
6
* GLUMRB
=
Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and
Environmental Managers.
DIFFUSERS
So m e adv anta ges an d disadvantages of various fine pore diffusers
are listed in the following sections.
Advantages
Exh ibi t h igh oxygen-transfer efficiencies
Exh ibi t high aeration efficiencies (mass oxy gen transferred
C a n satisfy high oxygen dem ands
A r e easily adaptable
to
existing basins fo r plant upgrad es
R es ul t in lower volatile organic com po und emissions t h an
per
unit power p er unit time)
no np o ro us diffusers or mechanical aeration devices
Disadvantages
F i n e pore diffusers are susceptible to chem ical or biological
fou ling , wh ich may imp air transfer efficiency and gen erate
h ig h head loss.
As
a result, they require ro u ti ne cleaning.
(Alth oug h no t totally without cost, cleaning does not n ee d
to b e expensive
or
troublesome.)
288
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Fine p ore diffusers may be susceptible to chemical attack
(especially perforated membranes). The refore, care must be
exercised in the pr op er selection of materials for
a
given
wastewater.
Because of the high efficiencies of fine por e diffusers at low
airflow rates, airflow distr ibution is critical
to
their perfor-
mance, an d selection o fp ro per airflow control orifices is
important.
requ ired airflow in an aeration basin (normally at the efflu-
en t en d ) may be dictated by mixing, not oxygen transfer.
Aeration basin design must incorporate a mean s to easily
dew ater the tank for cleaning. In small systems where no
redundan cy ofaeration
tanks
exists, an in situ, non-process-
interruptive method of cleaning must be considered.
Becau se of the high efficiencies of fine po re diffusers,
SEQUENCING
BATCH REACTORS
Som e advantages a nd disadvantages of sequencing batch reactors
(SBRs) are list ed in the following sections.
Advantages
Equal ization , prim ary clarification (in most cases), biologi-
cal treatment, an d seco ndary clarification can be achieved in
a sin gle reac tor vessel.
O pe ra tin g flexibility an d con trol
Minimal footprint
Potential capital cost savings by eliminating clarifiers and
other equipment
Disadvantages
A h ig h e r level of sophistication of timing units a nd controls
is req ui red (compared to conventional systems), especially
S
E
for la rg er systems
m
H ig her level of maintenance (compared to conventional
systems) associated with more sophisticated controls,
au to m at ed switches, and automated valves
4
a,
I=
&
z
4
m
4-
289 E
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Potential ofdischarging floating or settled sludge dur ing the
draw or decan t phase with some
SBR
configurations
Potential plugging of aeration devices dur ing selected op er -
ating cycles, depending on the aeration system used by the
manufacturer
Potential requirement for equalization after the SBR,
SBR
manufacturers will typically provide a process guarantee
10
mg/L biological oxygen dem and
10 mg/L total suspended solids
5-8 mg/L total nitrogen
1-2
mg/L total ph osp ho rus
dep end ing o n the downstream processes
to p ro duce an efRuent of less than
Key Design Parametersfor a Conventional Load
Parameter
Municipal Industrial
Food to mass
(F:M) 0.1
5-0.4/day
0.1
5-0.6/day
Treatment cycle duration
4 hours 4-24 hours
Typically low water level mixed 2,000-2,500
mg/L
2,000-4,000 mg/L
liquor suspended solids
Hydraulic retention time 6 1 hours Varies
290
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Case Studies for Several SBR Installations
Reactors Blowers
Flow, Volume,
mgd
No.
Size,
ff
milgal No.
Size,
hp
0.01 2 1 1 8 x 12
0.021 1 15
0.10 2 24
x
24
0.069 3 7.5
1.2 2
80 x
80
0.908 3 125
1
o
2 58
x
58 0.479 3 40
1.4 2 69
x
69 0.678 3 60
1.46
2
78
x
78
0.910 4 40
2.0 2 82
x
82 0.958 3 75
4.25 4 104
x 80
1.556 5 200
5.2 4 87
x
87
1.359
5
125
Source:
Courtesy of Aqua-Aerobic Systems, Inc.
NOTE:
hese case studies and sizing est imates are site specific to individual treatment
systems.
Installed Cost per Gallon of Wastewater Treated
Design
Flow
Rate,
mgd
Budget
Level
Equipment Cost,
/gal
0.5-1
.O
1.965.00
1.1 1.5 1.83-2.69
1.5-2.0 1.65-3.29
Source:
Courtesy of Aqua-Aerobic Systems, Inc.
291
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INTERMITTENT SAND FILTERS
Pretreatment
Filter medium
Material
Effective size
Uniformity coefficient
Depth
Underdrains
Slope
Size
Type
Hydraulic loading
Organic loading
Pressure distribution
Pipe size
Orifice size
Head on orifice
Lateral spacing
Orifice spacing
Frequency
Volume/orifice
Dosing tank volume
Dosing
Typical Design Criteria for Intermittent Sand Filters
Item Design Criteria
Minimum level: septic tank or equivalent
Washed durable granular material
0.25-0.75 mm
<4.0
18-36 in.
Slotted
or
perforated pipe
0%-0.1%
3-4 in.
2-5 gal/ft*.day
0.0005-0.002 Ib/ft2,day
1-2 in.
V3--1/4 in
3-6 ft
1-4
ft
1-4 ft
12-48 times/day
0.1 5-0.30 gallorificefdose
0.5-1.5 flow/dav
292
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Some advantages and disadvantages of intermittent sand fdters
(ISFs) are listed in the following sections.
Advantages
ISFs prod uc e a high-quality efUuent that can be used
for dr ip irrigation o r can be surface-discharged after
disinfection.
Drainfields can be small and shallow.
ISFs have low-energy requirements.
ISFs are easily accessible for monitoring an d d o not require
No
chemicals are required.
If san d is not feasible, othe r suitable media can be
Construction costs for ISFs are moderately low, and the
T h e treatment capacity can be expanded through modular
ISFs c an be installed to blend into the surround ing
skilled personne l to operate.
substitu ted and may be found locally.
labor is mostly manual.
design.
landscape.
T h e lan d area required may be a limiting factor.
Regular (bu t minimal) maintenance is required.
O d o r problem s could result from open-filter configurations
Ifap propriate filter media are not available locally, costs
Clogging of the filter media is possible.
an d may require buffer zones from inhabited areas.
could be
higher.
293
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SEPTAGE
Some advantages and disadvantages of septage are listed in the
following sections.
Advantages
Use of treatment plants provides regional solutions to sep-
tage management.
Disadvantages
May need a holding facility du rin g periods of frozen or satu-
Need a relatively large, reniote land area for the setup
of
the
Capital and operation and maintenance costs tend to be
So m e limitations to certain m anagement options of
rated soil.
septic system.
high.
untreated septage include lack of available sites and poten-
tial odor and pathogen problems. T hes e problems can be
reduced by pretreating and stabilizing the septage before it
is applied to the land.
Septage treated at a wastewater treatment facility has the
potential
to
upset processes if the septage addition is no t
properly regulated.
294
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Characteristicsof Septage Conventional Parameters’
Concentration
Parameter Minimum Maximum
Total solids 1,132 130,475
Total volatile solids 353 71,402
Total suspended solids
310 93,378
Volatile suspended solids 95 51,500
Biochemical oxygen demand
440 78,600
Chemical oxygen demand 1,500 703,000
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
66 1,060
Ammonia nitrogen 3 116
Total phosphorus 20 760
Alkalinity 522 4,190
Grease
PH
208 23,368
1.5 12.6
Total coliform 107/100 L 109/1
0
mL
Fecal coliform
10
00 mL
IO /IOO
mL
*Measurements are in milligrams per liter unless otherwise indicated.
295
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Sources of Septage
Description Rate Removal Pump-out Char
Septic tank
Cesspool
Privies/portable toilets
Aerobic tanks
2-6
years, but can vary with
location and local ordinances
Conc
meta
2-1
0
years
1 week to months
Months to
1
year
Holding tanks (septic tank with no drainfield,
typically a local requirement)
Dry pits (associated with septic fields)
Miscellaneous-may exhibit characteristics
of septage
Days to weeks
2-6 years
Private wastewater treatment plants Variable
Boat
pump-out station Variable
Conc
some
Varia
chem
Varia
solid
Varia
raw w
Varia
Sept
Porta
Grit traps
Grease traps
Variable
Weeks
to
months
Oil, g
Oil, g
Courtesy of Water Environment Federation.
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Biosolids
At
the
end
of
every wastewater system
i s
the
residue of the process the biosolids. Disposal of
biosolids
i s
becoming a n environmental concern.
New treatments disinfection processes and
disposal methods are available to help systems
comply with increased regulations.
297
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SLUDGE PROCESSING CALCULATIONS
Percent Solids and Sludge Pumping
T h e two basic equations used to calculate percent solids are
total solids,
g
sludge sample,
g
solids, lb/day
sludge, lb/day
% solids = x 100
% solids = x
100
The basic equation for sludge thickening and sludge volume
changes is
lb solids in unthickened sludge = Ib solids in thickened sludge
or
( unthickened )(%Solids)
= ( thickened
) % solids)
sludge, lb/day sludge, lb/day
Gravity Thickening
T h e two basic equations for determining gravity thickening are
flow, gpd
hydraulic loading rate, gpd/ft2
=
area, ft
solids, lb/day
area, ft
2
so lids loading rate, lb/day /f8 =
If the pounds-per-day solids is not given directly, it can be calcu-
lated using pounds-per-day sludge and percent solids. The for-
mula follows.
solids, lb/day x % solids
area, ft
2
ol ids loading rate, Ib/day/ft'
=
The basic equation
to
determine the proper wasting rates for
activated sludge processes to maintain
a
desired food-to-niirco-
organism F/M) ratio is
biological oxygen demand
entering the aeration tank, Ib
mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
under aeration, lb
F/M
=
298
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Mean Cell Residence Time
T h e two basic equations for determining mean cell residence time
(MC RT) are
clarifier
rn
( s u s ~ ~ % ~ ~ l k ,otal suspended solidsb emuent suspended v
suspended solids, Ib
MCRT
= (
wastes, lb/day
(
solids, lb/day
mil gal x 8.34 x mg/L
mgd
x
8.34
x
mg/L
RAS
mil gal X 8.34 X
mgd
x
8.34
x
( MLSS
(
suspended solids
MCRT = (
suspended solids
(
suspended solids
Sludge Age
T h e basic equation for determining sludge age is
MLSS, lb
suspended solids added, lb/day
sludge age, days
=
or
Iudge
age,
=
days
aeration volum e, mil gal
x 8.34 x
M LSS, mg/L
mgd x 8.34 x mg/L primary efnuent suspended solids
Vacuum Fil ter Dewatering
Equations fo r determ ining filter loading rates, filter yield, and per-
cent solids recovery are
solids to filter, lb/h r
surface area,
ft
lb/hr
(cake,1oO
filter area,
ft
2
ilter loading rate, Ib/hr/ft2
=
( w e t cake flow,)
2
filter yield , lb /hr/f? =
( w e t cake flow,)
(
lb/hr cake,loo
lb/day
%
solids recovery =
(sludge
99
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Volume
Reduction
Sludge Thickening
Sanitary
I
I
I Stabilization
I
I Land
I
I t
Source:Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual, copyright2007,
The
McGraw-Hill
Companies.
Sludge Processing Alternatives
Plate and Frame Filter Press Dewater ing
Sludge can be dewatered using a plate and frame filter press. It
works by pressing water out of sludge through the use of plates.
Sludg e flows in the space s between the plates an d water is pre sse d
out. The plates are then separated and the cake falls out into
a
h o p p e r
or
onto
a
conveyor belt.
The
equation s for determinin g the solids loading rate an d the
net filter yield o f a plate an d frame filter pre ss a re
%
solids
sludge, gp h x
8.34 lb.gal X
(-)
plate area, ft
so lids loading
100
2
rate, Ib/hr/ft2
-
Ib /hr filtration run time
X
net filt er yield,
lb/hr/ft2
-
f t2 total cyc le time
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Plates
Clear
Filtrate
Inlet
Feed
of Slurry
Filter Cloth Captured
Particles
Source: Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual, copyrightZOO1,
The McGraw-HillCompanies.
Schematic Cross-Section of a Plate and Frame Filter Press Chamber
Area During Fil l Cycle
Belt Filter Press Dewatering
Sludge can be dewatered using a belt fdter press. T h e sludge is
pressed betw een belts into a cake. Th e cake is fed in to
a
hopper or
onto a conveyor belt.
T h e eq ua tio ns for determining the hydraulic loading rate and
the sludge feed rate o fa belt filter press are
flow, gprn
belt width, ft
hydraulic loading rate
=
sludge fed into press, lb/day
operating time, hr/day
sludge feed rate
=
volatile
lb/day
100
solids, = sludge, gpd
x 8.34 x
301
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Digester Loading Rate
Sludge is sent
to
the digester to stabilize the organic (volatile) por-
tion of the sludge.
100
igester sludge, gpd X
8 34
X
loading =
rate
3 14 x r
x
r x sludge depth, ft
Volatile Acids/Alkalinity Ratio
The anaerobic digestion process requires an intricate balance
between the acid and alkalinity stages. Therefore, by determin-
ing
the volatile acidslalkalinity ratio, the digestion process can b e
tracked.
volatile acids, mg/L
alkalinity, mg/L
volatile acids/alkalinity ratio
=
Digester Gas Production
Gas produ ced d uring anaerobic digestion can be used as fuel for
heating the digesters and buildings, for driving gas engines, an d
so
forth. T h e volume
of
gas produced is an important indicator of the
progress
of
the sludge digestion process.
digester gas production
=
gas produced, ft /day
%
solids
gpd x
8 34
x
(-)
(% volyii solids
day
%
volatile solids reduced
100
302
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Percent Volatile Solids Reduct ion
T h e percent volatile solids reduction is one
of
the best indicators
of
the effectivenessof the anaerobic digester process. T his reduc-
tion can be as high as
70
percent.
x
100
n
-
out
in
-
in
x
out)
volatile so lids reduction =
Settleable Solids
T h e basic equation for determining settleable solids in milligrams
per liter is
final
weight, mg - nitial weight, mg) x 1 000mL/L X 1,000mg/g
mL/sec
filtered
Total Solids and Volatile Solids
T h e basic equations for determining percent total solids, percent
volatile solids, and percent fixed matter are
mass
of
dry solids
M 3 M 1)
x
100
mass ofwet sludge
M 2 -M
1 )
mass
of
volatile solids
M 3 M 4 )
x
100
mass of dry solids
(M3 M 1
)
%
total solids
=
%volatile matter
=
mass
of
fixed matter
M 3
-
M
1
) x
100
mass of dry solids
M 3 -
M 1 )
%
fixed matter
=
Where:
All weights are in grams.
M1
= mass of the d ish
M2
= mass of the dish and wet sample
M 3
= mass of the dish and dry sample
M 4
=
mass of the dish and fixed matter
303
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2-rn Grout
T , iaM* EIAuenI
Weir
MaximumWaler
Sultdce
I 3 m Minimum ~inuenl
aunder
Top
01
Tank
I ~ I I U B ~ I
anie
Dove
Cage
Gravity Thickener
GRA VITY THICKENING
Som e advantag es an d disadvantages of gravity thickening are listed
in
the
following sections.
Gravity thickening equipm ent is simple to operate and
Gra vity thickening ha s lower ope rating costs than other
maintain.
thickening meth ods such as dissolved a i r flotation
(DAF),
gravity belt, o r centrifuge thickening. For example, an effi-
cient gravity thickening opera tion will save costs incurre d i n
down stream solids handling steps.
In addition, facilities that land-apply liquid biosolids can benefit
from th ickening in several ways, as follows:
T ru c k traffic at the plant and the farm site can be reduce d.
Trucking costs can be reduced.
Exi st in g storage facilities can hold more days of biosolids
product ion .
Sm all e r storage facilities can be used.
304
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Less time will be required to transfer solids to the applicator
vehicle and to incorporate o r surface-apply the thickened
solids.
C ro p nitrogen dem and can be met with fewer passes of the
rn
m
-
rn
applicator vehicle, reducing soil com paction.
Disadvantages 0
s
Scu m bu ildup can cause odors. T his buildup , which can
occu r because o flo ng retention times, can
also
increase the
torque required in the thickener. Finally, scu m buildup is
unsightly.
Grea se may build u p in the lines and cause a blockage. T h is
can b e prevented by quick disposal or a backflush.
Septic conditions
will
generate sulfur-based odors. T hi s
can b e mitigated by m inimizing detention times in the
collection system and
at
the plant, o r by using oxidizing
agents.
Supernatant does not have solids concentrations
as
low as
those produced by a DAF o r centr ihg e thickener. Belt thick-
eners may produce supernatant with lower solids concentra-
tions depending on the equipment and solids characteristics.
More lan d area is needed for gravity thickener equipment
than fo r a DAF gravity belt o r centrifuge thickener.
Sol id s concentrations in the thickened solids are usually
lower than for a DAF gravity belt or centrifuge thickener.
Maintenance Checklist
Weekly
C he ck all oil levels an d ensure the oil fill cap vent is open.
C he ck condensation drains and remove any accumulated
moisture.
Examine drive control limit switches.
Visually examine the skimmer
to
ensure that it is in proper
co nt ac t with the scum bame and the scum box.
Visually exam ine instrumentation and clean probes.
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Performance of Conventional Gravity Thickening
Type
of
Solids
Feed, Thickened Solids,
%
total
solids
% total solids
Primary (PRI)
Trickling filter (TF)
Rotating biological contactor (RBC)
Waste-activated sol ids (WAS)
PRI + WAS
RPI +
TF
PRI
+
RBC
PRI + l ime
PRI + (WAS + iron)
PRI + (WAS
+
aluminum salts)
0.6-6
1-4
1-3.5
0.2-1
3-6
2-6
2-6
3-4.5
1.5
0.2-0.4
5-1 0
3-6
2-5
2-3
8-1 5
5-9
5 - 8
10-1
5
3
4 .54 .5
Anaerobically digested PRI + WAS 4 a
Adapted w ith permission from Water Environment Federation
(1 996)
Operation of
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants,
5th ed.; Manual of Practice No.
11
;
Alexandria, Virginia.
Monthly
Inspect skimmer wipers for wear.
Adjust drive chains or belts.
Annually
Disassem ble the drive and examine
all
gears,
oil
seals, and
C heck oil for the presence of metals, which may be a warn-
Replace any part with an expected life o f le s s than 1 year.
bearings.
ing sign o f future problems.
306
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Factors Affecting Gravity Thickening Performance
Factor
Effect
Nature of the solids feed
Freshness of feed solids
High volatile solids
concentrations
High hydraulic loading rates
Solids loading rate
Temperature and variation in
temperature of thickener
contents
High solids blanket depth
Solids residence time
Mechanism and rate of solids
withdrawal
Chemical treatment
Presence of bacteriostatic
agents or oxidizing agents
Cationic polymer addition
Use of metal
salt
coagulants
Affects the thickening process because some
solids thicken more easily than others.
High solids age can result in septic conditions.
Hamper gravity settling due to reduced particle
specific gravity.
Increase velocity and cause turbulence that will
disrupt settling and carry the lighter solids past the
weirs.
If
rates are high, there will be insufficient detention
time for settling. If rates are too low, septic
conditions may arise.
High temperatures will result in septic condlions.
Extremely low temperatures will result in lower
settling velocities. If temperature varies, settling
decreases due to stratification.
Increases the performance of the settling by
causing compaction of the lower layers, but it may
result in solids being carried over the weir.
An
increase may result in septic conditions.
A
decrease may result in only partial settling.
Must be maintained o
produce a smooth and
continuous flow. Otherwise, turbulence, septic
conditions, altered settling, and other anomalies
may occur.
Chemicals-such as potassium permanganate,
polymers, or ferric chloride-may improve settling
and/or supernatant quality.
Allows for longer detention imes before anaerobic
conditions create gas bubbles and floating solids.
Helps thicken waste-activated solids and clarify
the supernatant.
Improves overflow clarity but may have little
impact on underflow concentration.
307
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Grav i ty Th icken ing Troub lesho ot ing Guide
Indic ators Probable Cause Check
or
M
Septic odor, rising solids
Thickened solids pumping rate is
too slow; thickener overflow rate
Check thickened soli
system for proper op
is too low.
check thickener colle
mechanism for prope
Thickened solids not thick
Overflow rate is too high;
thickened solids pumping rate is
through tank.
Heavy accumulation of solids;
mechanism: improper alignment
of mechanism.
Check overflow rate;
other tracer to check
enough too high; short-circuiting of flow circulation.
Torque overload of solids
collecting mechanism foreign object jammed in arms.
Probe along front of
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Gravity Thickening Troubleshooting Guide (continued)
Indicators Probable Cause Check
or M
Surging flow Poor influent pump programming Pump cycling
Excessive biological growths
on surfaces and weirs
(slimes, etc.)
Oi l leak Oil seal failure
Oil
seal
Noisy or hot bearing or Excessive wear: improper Alignment; lubricatio
universal joint alignment; lack of lubrication
Pump overload
Fine solids particles in
eff bent
Adapted
with permission from Water Environment Federation (1996) Opefationof Municip
Inadequate cleaning program
3
Improper adjustmentof packing;
clogged pump pump.
Waste-activated solids
Check packing; chec
Portionof waste-act
(WAS) in thickener e
No.
11; Alexandria, Virginia.
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DEWATERING
Act ivated
Variable
P0l mer Orifice
Bioso l idd
Residuals
Flow (1 4 )
Mixer
Ben
Wash
Slal ion
Gravlty
Zone
High Pressure Zone
Low Pressure
(Wedge) Zone
Ben
Wash
Slalion
Dewalered
Bioso l idd
Residuals(1
%-35%)
Courtesy o f Ashbrook
Simon-Hartley, Houston, Texas.
Operational Diagram and Photograph of a Belt Fil ter Press With
Two Continuous Belts for Gravity and Pressure Dewater ing With
Uniform-Diameter Rollers
310
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Typical Data for Various Types of Sludges Dewatered on Belt Filter Presses
~~~ ~~ ~
Type
of
Wastewater Sludge
Raw primary
Raw waste-activated solids (WAS)
Raw primary +WAS
Anaerobically digested primary
Anaerobically digested WAS
Anaerobically digested primary
+
WAS
Aerobically digested primary
+
WAS
Oxygen-activated WAS
Thermally conditioned primary + W A S
~ ~ ~~
Total Feed Solids,
%
3-1 0
0.5-4
3-6
3-1 0
3-4
3-9
1-3
1-3
4-8
~ ~
Polymer, g/kg Total Cake Solids, %
1-5 28-44
1-10 20-35
1-10 20-35
1-5 25-36
2-1 0
2-8
2-8
12-22
18-44
12-20
4-1 0
15-23
0 25-50
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Typical Operating Parameters for Belt Fil ter Press Dewatering
of
Polymer Floc
Type of Sludge % g p m h
eed Solids, Hydraulic loadin
Anaerobically digested primary only 4 - 6 40-60
Anaerobically digested primary plus waste activated
2-5 40-6 0
Aerobically digested without primary 1-3 30-45
Raw primary and waste activated
3-6 40-50
Thickened waste activated
3-5 40-50
Extended aeration waste activated
1-3 30-50
Courtesy
of
Pearson Education, Inc.
*
1
.Ogpm/m =
0.225
m3/m.hr
t 1 O Ib/m/hr
= 0.454
kg/m.hr
$
1
O
lb/ton
=
0.500
kg/tonne
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Controlled Differential Head in Vent
by Restricting Rate
of
Drainage
Vent
Partition to Form Vent
Wedgewire Septum
Outlet Valve to Control
Rate
of
Drainage
Cross-Section of a Wedgewire Drying Bed
Unit
Elfluent
Recycle Flow
Sludge Removal Mechanism
Polymer
Feed
Sludge
Discharge
Recycle
Flow
Unit Slud ge
Feed
Bottom Sludge Collector
Unit Elfluent Thickened
Flotation Unit Discharge
Sludge
or plant efflu ent)
Recycle Flow
ecirculationPump
Retention Tank
(air d issolution)
Air Feed
Reaeration Pum p
Dissolved
Air
Flotation Thickener
313
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Scum Layer
Supernatanl Layer
Active
Digestion
Sludge
ln le ls
Digested Sludge
Single-Stage Anaerobic Digester
Gas Removal
Supernatant
Outlets
Sludge
Outlets
Mixed
Digeslion
I t
U
supernatant
supernatant Layer Outlets
Digested Sludge
Sludge
0 lleIs
Fin1
Stage Second Stage
Completely
Mixed
Unmixed
Sludge
Tw-Stage Anaerobic Digester
Configuration of Anaerobic Digesters
Anaerobic
lagoons
So m e advantages an d disadvantages
of
anaerob ic lagoons are listed
in the follow ing sections.
Advantages
M o r e effective for ra pid stabilization of stro ng organic
wa stes, making higher influent o rganic loading possible
P ro d uc e methane, which can be used to heat buildings, ru n
en gin es, o r generate electricity, but m eth an e collection
increases operational problems
P ro d uc e less biomass pe r unit of organic material pro-
ce sse d. Less biomass prod uced equates to savings in s lud ge
h an d lin g an d disposal costs.
314
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Do
not require additional energy, because they are not
Less expensive to construct and operate
Pon ds can be operated in series.
Disadvantage
aerated, heated, or mixed
T h ey require a relatively large area of land.
CENTRIFUGES
Range of Expected Centrifuge Performance
Polymer,
Feed, Ib/dry ton
Cake,
Type of Wastewater
Solids
%
total solids of solids % total solids
Primary undigested
Waste-activated solids (WAS)
undigested
Primary
+
WAS undigested
Primary + WAS aerobic digested
Primary + WAS anaerobic digested
Primary anaerobic digested
WAS aerobic digested
High-temperature aerobic
High-temperature anaerobic
Lime stabilized
4-8
1-4
2-4
1.5-3
2-4
2-4
1-4
4-6
3-6
4-6
5-30
15-30
5-1 6
15-30
15-30
8-1 2
20
20-40
20-30
15-25
25-40
16-25
25-35
16-25
22-32
25-35
18-21
20-25
22-28
20-28
v
v
.-
.-
a
315
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Cove
DifferentialSpeed
Gear Box
Rotating Bowl
Centrate
Discharge
Main Drive Sheave
Feed Pip es
(sludge and
chemical)
Bearing
(Base Not Shown)
Rotating Conveyor
Sludge Cake
Discharge
Solid Bow l Scroll Centrifuge
Polymer
Skimmings
Feed
Knife
Cake
Cake
Imperforate Basket Centrifuge
316
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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Management
1. Prepare and maintain a field management plan.
Storage
J
Field Storage (Stockpile) Checklist (involving dewatered cake, dried,
or
composted class A or class B biosolids)
2.
Train employees to properly operate the site according
to
plan; conduct
spill drills.
3.
Critical Control Point
1
Work with wastewater treatment plant
to
maximize biosolids stability, consistency, and quality; direct batches
to
appropriate sites.
4. Critical Control Point 2: Transportation; clearly mark site access routes
and stockpile areas; conduct spill drills.
5. Maintain accurate and well-organized records.
I
6.
Designatea competent public relations person; maintain communication
with stakeholders; notify agencies of reportable incidents; explain
actions taken to respond to citizens’ concerns or complaints.
Operations
1.
Us e biosolids that stay consolidated and nonflowing; shape stockpiles
whenever possible to shed water.
2. Minimize ponding and storage time to the extent feasible during hot,
humid weather; manage accumulated water appropriately.
3.
Inspect and maintain upslope water diversions.
4. Inspect buffer zones to ensure runoff is not moving out of bounds.
I
5.
Restrict public access and use temporary fencing to exclude livestock,
6. Clean all vehicles and equipment before they exit onto public roads.
where applicable; install signs; secure site appropriately.
I
. Train employees to use appropriate sanitation practices; inspect
for use.
8. Inspect for odors and conditions conducive to odors; apply chemicals
or Surface covering material to suppress odors if needed; consider the
meteorological conditions and the potential for off-site odors when
scheduling opening the storage pile and spreading of biosolids.
317
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Key Design Concepts for Constructed Biosolids Storage Facili ties
Liquidilhickened,
DewateredlDry Biosoli
1 -12 solids 129640 olids/w50
Issue
lagoons Pads/Basins
Design Below-ground excavation. Above ground. Impermeable Roof
Impermeable liner of liner of concrete, asphalt, or enclo
concrete, geotextile, or compacted earth. conc
compacted earth. comp
Capacity Expected biosolids volume Expected biosolids volume, Expe
2 plus expected precipitation unless precipitation is
plus freeboard retained; then, biosolids
volume plus expected
precipitation plus freeboard
Accumulated
Pump
out
and spray-irrigate Sumps/pumps if facility is a
Roof
water or land-apply the liquid,
basin for collection of water enclo
management haul to wastewater for spray irrigation; land- diver
treatment plant
(WWrP),
or
mix with biosolids
apply or haul
to
WWTP
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Key Design Concepts for Constructed Biosolids Storage Facilities (continued)
Liquidnhickened,
DewateredlDry Biosoli
1 -12 solids 12 -30 solids/>50
Issue
Lagoons Padsmasins
Runoff Diversions to keep runoff Diversions to keep runoff Enclo
management out of lagoon out of sight; curbs andlor diver
umps to collect water for
removal or downslope filter
strips or treatment ponds
W
Biosolids
consistency
Safely
Liquid or dewatered.
Removal with pumps,
cranes, or loaders.
Drowning hazard. Post Drowning hazard. Post Post
warnings; fence; locked warnings; fence; locked remo
gates and rescue gates and rescue gates
equipment on site. equipment on site.
If no side walls, material
must stack without flowing.
Mate
enou
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Constructed Facilit ies Checklist
(involving
agoons, pads, or storage
tanks)
Operations
1.
Minimize ponding and storage time; manage accumulated water
2.
Inspect and maintain up- and downslope water diversion/collection
3.
Inspect and maintain tanks, ponds, curbs, gutters, and sumps used to
4.
Inspect buffer zones to ensure flow is not moving out of bounds.
properly.
systems.
collect runoff.
J
roject Management
1.
Prepare and maintain a storage site management plan with spill plan.
I
J
2. Critical Control Point
1:
Work closely with the wastewater treatment
plant on stability and consistency.
3.
Critical Control Point 2: Transportation-clearly mark site access routes
and unloading areas.
I
.
Train employees to properly operate the storage facility and
to
perform
inspections; conduct spill drills.
5. Maintain accurate and well-organized records.
I
6. Designate a competent public relations person; maintain
communications with stakeholders; notify agencies of reportable
incidents; explain actions taken to respond to citizens' concerns or
complaints.
5. Install signs and implement security measures to restrict public access1
6.
Inspect concrete, wood, earth, walls, foundation, and monitoring wells
7. Meet nutrient and hydraulic loading limits and statellocal requirements
8.
Clean a ll vehicles and equipment before they exit onto public roads.
9.
Train employees
to
use appropriate sanitation practices; ensure
PraCtiCeS are properly followed.
10.
f the characteristics of the biosolids have changed significantly during
Storage, retest nutrient and solids content prior
to
land application to
recalculate land-application rate of biosolids.
appropriately.
at constructed storage facilities.
when land-applying accumulated water from storage.
11.
Inspect for odors and conditions conducive to odors; mitigate
12.
Attend to site aesthetics.
320
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Practices to Prevent Mud or Biosolids From Being Tracked Onto Public
Roadways
~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~
Vehicles transporting biosolids should be cleaned before they leave the
wastewater treatment plant.
equipment clean and make cleanup of drips or spills easier.
The storage facility should have provisions
to
clean trucks and equipment when
the need arises. Mud on tires or vehicles can be hand-scraped or removed with
a high-pressure washer or with compressed air (as long as this does not
exacerbate an existing dust problem).
v
=
v
.-
oncrete or asphalt
off
-loading pads at the storage facility will help keep
.-
m
All
vehicles should be inspected for cleanliness before leaving the site.
Use mud flaps on the back of dump trailers to preclude biosolids getting on tires
Install a temporary gravel access pad as necessary at the entrance/exit o avoid
Public roadways accessing the site should be inspected each day during
or undercarriage during unloading operations.
soil ruts and tracking of mud onto roads.
operational periods and cleaned promptly (shovel and sweep).
Minimizing Odor During Storage
Stabilize biosolids at wastewater treatment plant as much as possible.
Avoid use of polymers that lead to malodor.
Maintain proper pH during treatment.
Meet the vector attraction reduction requirements of the USEPA Part
503
Locate storage at remote sites.
Minimize duration of storage
Assess meteorological conditions before loading and unloading.
Ensure good housekeeping.
Biosolids Rule.
321
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Prevention and Management of Odorous Emissions Associated With Biosolid
Stabilization and Potential Causes of
Processing Methods Odorous Emissions
Anaerobic diaestion
“Sour,” overloaded, or thermophilic digester;
Optimize
volatilization of fatty acids
and
sulfur
compounds
Low solids retention time; high organic
loading; poor aeration
Incomplete digestion of biosolids being dried
g Compost Poor mixing of bulking agent; poor aeration;
improperly operating biofikers
Aerobic digestion
Drying beds
N
Alkaline stabilization
Addition of insufficient alkaline material
so
pH drops below
9,
microbial decomposition
may occur with generation of odorous
compounds. Check compatibility of polymer
with high pH and other additives (e.g., FeC13).
High-temperature volatilization of fatty acids
hermal conditioning and
drying and sulfur compounds
Increase
lower org
Optimize
Mix bette
aeration
function.
Increase
grade of
better to
with bios
Use seco
primary
more od
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Other Important Factors at the Wastewater Treatment Plant That Affect
the Odor Potentialof Biosolids
Periodic changes
in
influent characteristics (e.g., fish wastes, textile wastes, and
Type of polymer used and i ts susceptibility to decomposition and release of
other wastewaters with high-odor characteristics).
v
n
v
.-
intense and pervasive odorants such as amines when biosolids are heated or
treated with strong alkaline materials.
i
Blending of primary and secondary biosolids that may create anaerobic
conditions or stimulate a resumption of microbial decomposition.
Completeness
of
blending and mixing, and quality of products used for
stabilization (i.e., type of lime and granule size).
Effectiveness and consistency of vector attraction reduction
WAR
method, use of
USEPA Part
503
Biosolids Rule
VAR
options
1-8
(treatment at wastewater
treatment plant [wwrpl) versus
VAR
options
%lo
(at land application site).
Handling, storage time, and storage method when stabilized biosolids are held at
the WWTP prior to transport (e.g., anaerobic conditions developing in enclosed
holding tanks when material is held for several days during hot weather).
323
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Practices to Reduce the Potentialfor Unacceptable Off-Site Odors
Ensure that the wastewater treatment plant has used processes that minimize
Minimize storage time
Monitor and manage any water to prevent stagnant septic water accumulations.
Avoid or minimize storage of biosolids during periods of hot and humid weather,
if possible. During warm weather, check for odors frequently. Use lime or other
materials to control odors before they reach unacceptable levels off-site.
Empty constructed storage facilities as soon as possible in the spring for
cleaning and inspection; keep idle until the following winter, if possible.
Select remote sites with generous buffers between sensitive-neighbor areas,
Consider weather conditions, prevailing wind directions, and the potential for Off-
site odors when scheduling and conducting cleanoutlspreading operations. For
example, operations on a hot, humid day, with an air inversion layer and wind
moving in the direction of a residential area on the day of the block party, greatly
increases the risk of odor complaints.
Conduct loadinglunloadingand spreading operations as quickly and efficiently as
possible to minimize the time that odors may be emitted. Surface crusts on
stored biosolids seal
in
odors, but they break during handling and odors can be
released.
Enclosed handling or pumping systems at constructed facilities may reduce the
potential for odors on a day-to-day basis, but these facilities still have the
potential for odors during
off
-loading operations when active ventilation is used.
Observe good housekeeping practices during facility loading and unloading.
Clean trucks and equipment regularly to prevent biosolids buildup that may give
rise
to
odors. If biosolids spills occur, clean them up promptly.
Provide local government and state agency representatives with a contact name
and number. Ask them to call the storage facility operator immediately if they
receive citizen questions, concerns, or odor complaints resulting from storage of
biosolids. Operator staff should politely receive citizen questions or complaints,
Collect the individual's name and phone number, conduct a prompt investigation,
undertake control measures, if necessary, follow up with the person who filed
the Complaint, and document the event and actions.
odor during processing.
324
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Odor Remediation Measures for Use During Handling Operations
~~~
Immediately correct any poor housekeeping problems (such as dirty equipment).
Immediately treat any accumulated water that has turned septic with lime,
chlorine, potassium permanganate, or other odor-control product; remove the
rn
rn
e
.P
m
ater as quickly as possible to a suitable land application site.
If odors are arising from lime-stabilized biosolids, pH should be measured. If it
has dropped below
9.0, lime can be topically applied to dewatered material, or,
in
highly liquid systems, lime slurry can be blended into the biosolids by
circulation. The pH should be monitored and dosed with lime until the desired pH
has been achieved. Raising pH halts organic matter decomposition in the
biosolids that can generate odorous compounds.
For most types of biosolids (digested, lime stabilized, liquid, dewatered), applying
a topical lime slurry will raise surface pH levels, create a crust, and reduce
odors. Topical spray applications of potassium permanganate (KMn04) or
enzymatic odor control products to neutralize odorous compounds may also be
effective in some situations.
Cover biosolids with compost or sawdust.
If the odor i s due to the combination of wind and weather conditions (hot, humid)
and agitation and circulation of biosolids as part of unloading operations, it may
be advisable to cease unloading operations until weather conditions are less
likely to transport odors to sensitive off-site receptors
Spread and incorporate or inject odorous material as quickly as possible.
For enclosed storage faciliies, absorptive devices (charcoal or biofilters)
incorporated into a ventilation system may be a feasible option for reducing
odorous emissions.
Cause the wastewater treatment plant to change its processes to produce less
odorous biosolids.
325
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Selected Odorous Compounds Observed in Association With Manure,
Compost, Sewag e Sludge, and Biosol ids With Corresponding Ranges of
Odor Threshold Values
Odor Threshold
Compound Odor Character W L P m
Nitrogenous compounds
Ammonia Sharp pungent
Butylamine Sour, ammonia-like
Dibutylamine Fishy
Diisopropylamine
Fishy
Dimethylamine Putrid, fishy
Ethylamine
Ammonical
Methylamine Putrid, fish
Triethylamine Ammonical, fishy
Trimethylamine
Ammonical, fishy
Nitrogenous heterocyclics
lndole Fecal, nauseating
Pyridine Disagreeable, burnt,
Skatole Fecal, nauseating
pungent
Sulfur-containing compounds
Ally1 mercaptan
Strong garlic, coffee
Amy1 mercaptan
Unpleasant, putrid
Benzyl mercaptan
Unpleasant, strong
Crotyl mercaptan
Skunk-like
Dimethyl disulfide
Vegetable sulfide
Dimethyl sulfide
Decayed vegetables
Diphenyl sulfide
Unpleasant
Ethyl mercaptan Decayed cabbage
Hydrogen sulfide
Rotten eggs
5.2' (150)
1.8' (6,200)
(0.01 6)
1.8' (1,300)
0.13 (470)
0.95' (4,300)
3.2' (2,400)
0.48 (0.42)
0.00044'
(0.00012-0.0015)t
0.17
(0.95)
(0.000355.001
2)'
(0.000005)t
(0.0003)t
(0.01 3)'
(1.00)t
(0.00000043)t
(0.0003-0.01 6)+
(0.0026)t
0.00076' (0.0000075)
8.1' (0.000029)
Table continuedon next page
326
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Selected Odorous Compounds Observed in Association With Manure,
Compost, Sewage Sludge, and Biosolids With Corresponding Ranges of
Odor Threshold Values (continued)
Odor Threshold
v
E
Methyl mercaptan Decayed cabbage, 0.0016' (0.000024)
n-butyl mercaptan Skunk, unpleasant 0.00097 (0.000012)
Propyl mercaptan Unpleasant 0.0000025-0.000075
Compound Odor Character lrUL lrm -
sulfidy is
Sulfur dioxide Pungent, irritating
1.1'
(0.11)
Thiocresol Skunk, rancid
(0.0001)'
Thiophenol Putrid, garlic-like
(0.0001 4)'
Other chemicals
or
compounds
Acetaldehyde Pungent, fruity 0.050' (0.034)
Chlorine Pungent, suffocating
0.31' (0.0020)
m-Cresol Tar-like, pungent
0.0000494.0079 (37)
n-butyl alcohol Alcohol
0.84̂
*Microliters per liter
is
the odor threshold for dilutions in odor-free air, and micro-
grams per liter is the odor threshold; both units are equivalent to parts per million.
t
Converted from weight-by-volume concentration (milligrams per cubi meter)
to
micrograms per liter.
327
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Nutr ient Content of Various Organic Materials
Percentage
Material
N
h o 5
K20
Ca
.2
pple pomace 2
Blood (dried) 12-1 5 3.0
Bone meal (raw)
3.5 22.0 22.0
Bone meal (steamed)
2.0 28.0 0.2 23.0
.
Brewers grains (wet)
Common crab waste
Compost (garden)
Cotton waste from factory 1.3
0.4
0.4
Cottonseed meal 6-7
2.5 1.5
0.4
Cotton motes
2.0
0.5
3.0
4.
Varies with feedstoc
owpea forage 0.4 0.1 0.4
Dog manure
Eggs
.0 10.0 0.3
2.1 0.4 0.2
gg shells
1.2
0.4
0.2
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Nutrient Content of Various Organic Materials (continued)
Percent
Mate ia N
405
K20
Feathers
15.0
Fermentation sludges 3.5 0.5 0.1
Fish scrap (dried) 9.5 6.0
Fly ash
Coal 0.3 0.1
Wood 9.8
.7
Frittercake
.2
itric acid production
nzyme production 2.2
Garbage tankage 2.5 1.5 1
o
Greensand 1-2 5.0
air
1
2-1 6
Legumes 3.0 1.5 1 o
rass 0.8 0.2 0.2
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Nutrient Content of Various Organic Materials (continued)
Percent
Material
N
p205
K20
Oak leaves 0.8 0.4 0.2
Oyster shell siftings
0.4
10.4 0.1
Peanut hull meal 1.2 0.5
0.8
PeaVmuck 2.7
Pine needles 0.5 0.1
Dissolved air flotation sludge
8.0
1.8 0.3
Potato tubers
0.4
0.2 0.5
Potato leaves and stalks 0.6
0.2
Potato skins, raw ash
0.2awdust 0.2
Sea marsh hay 1.1 0.2
0.8
Seaweed (dried)
0.7
0.8 5.0
Sewage sludge (municipal) 2.6
3.7 0.2
Shrimp waste 2.9 10.0
5.2
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Nutrient Content
of
Various Organic Materials (continued)
Percenta
Material
N p205
K20
Soybean meal
7.0 1.2
1.5
oot from chimney
0.5-1 1
pent brewery yeast 7.0
0.4
Sweet potatoes 0.2
0.1 0.5
Tankage
7.0 1.5 3-1 0
extile sludge
2.8
2.1 0.2
Wood ashes 0.0
2.0 6.0
Wood processing wastes 0.4
0.2
Tobacco stalks, leaves
3.7-4.0 0.5-0.6 4.5-6.0
Tobacco stems
2.5 0.9 7.0
Tomatoes, fruit leaves
0.2-0.4 0.1 0.4
NOTE:
pproximate values are given. Have materials analyzed for nutrient content before u
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Major Pathogens Potentially Present in Munic ipal Wastewater and
Manure'
Pathogen DiseaselSymptoms or Organism
Bacteria
Salmonella spp.
Shigella spp.
Yersinia spp.
Vibrio cholerae
Campylobacter ejuni
Escherichia coli
(enteropathogenic)
Poliovirus
Coxsackievirus
Echovirus
Hepatitis
A
virus
Rotavirus
Norwalk agents
Reovirus
Cryptosporidium
Enfamoeba histolytica
Giardia lamblia
Balantidium coli
Toxoplasma gondii
Helminth Worms
Ascaris lumbricoides
Ascaris suum
Trichuris trichiura
Toxocara canis
Taenia saginata
Taenia
solium
Necator americanus
Hymenolepis nana
Viruses
Protozoa
Salmonellosis (food poisoning), typhoid
Bacillary dysentery
Acute gastroenteritis (diarrhea, abdominal pain)
Cholera
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis
Poliomyelitis
Meningitis, pneumonia, hepatitis, fever, etc.
Meningitis, paralysis, encephalitis, fever, etc.
Infectious hepatitis
Acute gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea
Epidemic gastroenteritis with severe diarrhea
Respiratory infections, gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis
Acute enteritis
Giardiasis (diarrhea and abdominal cramps)
Diarrhea and dysentery
Toxoplasmosis
Digestive disturbances, abdominal pain
Can have symptoms: coughing, chest pain
Abdominal pain, diarrhea, anemia, weight loss
Fever, abdominal discomfort, muscle aches
Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia
Nervousness, insomnia, anorexia
Hookworm disease
Taeniasis
*Not a ll pathogens are necessarily present in all biosolids and manures, a i l the
time.
332
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CornpostingBasics
During composting, microorganisms break down organic matter
in wastewater solids into carbon dioxide, water, heat, and com-
post. To ensure optimal conditions for microbial growth, carbon
and nitrogen must be present in the pro pe r balance in
the
mixture
being com posted. T h e ideal carbon-to-nitrogen ratio ranges from
25
to 35 parts carbon for each
1
part of nitrogen by weight. A
lower ratio can result in ammonia odors. A higher ratio wll not
create optimal conditions for m icrobial growth causing degrada-
tion to occur at a slower rate and temperatures to remain below
levels required for pathogen destruction. Wastewater solids are
primarily a source
of
nitrogen and must be mixed with a higher
carbon-containing material such as wood chips, sawdust, news-
paper, or hulls. In addition to supplying carbon to the composting
process, the bulking agent serves to increase the porosity of the
mixture. Porosity is important to ensure that adequate oxygen
reaches the com posting mass. Oxygen can be supplied
to
the com-
posting m ass through active means such as blowers and piping o r
through passive means such
as
turning to allow more air into the
mass. T h e p ro per amount of air along with biosolids and bulking
agent is imp ortant.
v
‘S
333
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Comparison
of
Composting Methods
Aerated Static Pile Windrow
Highly affected by weather (can be lessighly affected by weather
(can
be lessened
by covering, but at increased cost)
Extensive operating history, both small and
large scale
Large volume of bulking agent required,
leading to large volume of material to handle
at each stage (including final distribution)
Adaptable to changes in biosolids and bulking
Wide-ranging capital cost
Moderate labor requirements
Large land area required
Large volumes of air to be treated for odor
control
w
3 agent characteristics
Moderately dependent on mechanical
equipment
Moderate energy requirement
by covering, but at increased cost)
Proven technology on small scale
Large volume of bulking agent required
leading to large volume of material to h
at each stage (including inal distributio
Adaptable to changes in biosolids and b
agent characteristics
Low capital costs
Labor intensive
Large land area required
High potential for odor generation durin
turning; difficult to capturekontain air f
treatment
Minimally dependent on mechanical
equipment
Low
enerav reauirements
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REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
Methods
for
Meeting
40
CFR 504 Pathogen Requirements
T h e USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations, specifically 503.32(a) and
(b ), require biosolids intended for agricultural use to meet certain
pathogen and vector attraction reduction conditions. T he intent of
a Class
A
pathogen requirement is to reduce the level of patho-
genic organisms in the biosolids to below detectable levels. T h e
intent of the Class B requirements is to ensure that pathogens have
been reduced
to
levels that are unlikely to pose a threat to public
health and the environm ent under the specific use conditions. For
Class B material that is land applied, site restrictions are imposed
to
minimize the potential for human and animal contac t with the
biosolids for a period of time following land application until envi-
ronm ental factors have further reduced pathogens.
N o site
restric-
tions are required with Class
A
biosolids. Class
B
biosolids cannot
be sold o r given away in bags or other containers. T h e criteria for
meeting Class
A
requirem ents are show n in the table on page 336 ,
and the criteria for Class B are shown in the table o n page 336 .
v
8
i
m
335
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Criteria for Meeting Class A Requirements
Parameter Unit Lim it
Fecal coliform or SalmoneNa MPN/g
TS'
1,000
MPNI4 g TS
3
AND one of the following process options:
Temperature/time based on % solids
Prior test for enteric virushiable
helminth ova
Composting Heat drying
Heat treatment Thermophilic aerobic digestion
Beta ray irradiation
Pasteurization
Alkaline treatment
Post-test for enteric virushiable helminth
Gamma ray irradiation
Process to further reduce pathogens
equivalent process
*Mos t probable number per gram dry weight of total solids.
Criteria fo r Meeting Class
6
Requirements
Parameter Unit Limit
Fecal coliform MPN or cfuig TS* z,ooo,ooo
OR
one of the followinq process options.
Aerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion
Lime stabilization
Air-drying
~
Composting
Process to significantly reduce pathogens
eauivalent
*Most probable number or colony-forming units per gram dry weight of total solids.
336
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Summary o f Requirements for Vector Attraction Reduction Options
Option
Requirement
Volatile Solids VS) Reduction
238% VS reduction during solids treatment
Anaerobic bench-scale test
Aerobic bench-scale test
Specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR)
Aerobic process
4 7 % VS loss, 40 days at 30°-37 C (86O-99O
4 5 % VS reduction, 30 days at 20°C (68°F)
SOUR at
20°C (68°F)
is
11.5
mg oxygen/hr/g t
214
days at
>40T (104°F)
with an average
>
pH adjustment
212 measured at 25°C (77'F),' and remain at
2 hours and 21 1.5 for 22 more hours
Drying without primary solids
Drying with primary solids
275% Total Solids (TS) prior to mixing
290%
TS
prior
to
mixing
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Sum mary of Requirements for Vector Attract ion Reduct ion Options (cont inu ed
Option Requirement
Soil injection
Soil incorporation
No significant amount of solids is present on th
1 hour after injection. Class A biosolids must b
8
hours after the pathogen reduction process.
6
hours after land application; Class A biosoli
applied on the land within
8
hours after being
the treatment process.
Daily cover at field site
Biosolids placed on a surface disposal site mus
with soil or other material at the end of each o
212 measured at 25°C (77°F); and remain at
30 minutes without addition of more alkaline m
pH adjustment of septage
*Or
corrected to
25°C
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Ideal Operating Ranges for Methane Fermentation
Parameter Optimum Extreme
Temperature, C 30-35 25-40
6.g7.6 6.2-8.0
v
H
Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3 2,000-3,000 1,000-5,000 -
z
Volatile acids,
mg/L as acetic
acid 50-500 2,000 0
is
.-
Performance for Various Types of Domestic Wastewater Solids
Feed Total
Solids, %
ype of Wastewater Solids
Primary + waste-activated solids 3-8
WAS)
Primary + WAS + trickling filter
Primary +WAS + FeCl3 5-8
Primary +WAS
+
FeCl3 digested 6-8
Tertiary with lime 8
Tertiary with aluminum 4-6
6-8
Typical Cycle
Time,
hr
2-2.5
1.5-3
3-4
3
1.5
6
Cake Total
Solids,
%
45-50
35-50
40-45
40
55
36
339
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Typical Design Criteria for Class
B
Alkaline Stabilization
Parameter Design Criterion
Alkaline dose
Retention time in mixer
Retention time in curing vessel
0.25
lbllb of wastewater solids at 20% solids
1 minute
30 minutes
Typical Biosolids Application Scenarios
Type
of
Sitel
Vegetation
Agricultural land
Corn
Small grains
Soybeans
Hay
Forest land
Range land
Reclamation sites
Application
Schedule Frequency Application Rate
April, May,
after harvest
March-June,
August, fall
April-June, fall
After each
cutting
Year round
Year round
Year round
Annually 5-1 0 dry tons/acre
Up
to
3 times
per year
Annually 5-20 dry tons/acre
Up
to
3
times
per year
Once every
2-5 years
Once every 2-60 dry tons/acre
1-2 years
Once 60-1
00
Urv tons/acre
2-5 dry tons/acre
2-5
dry tons/acre
5-1 00
dry tons/acre
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General Requirements for Land Application o f Sewage Sludge
(a) No person shall apply sewage sludge to the land except in accordance with
(b)
No
person shall apply bulk sewage sludge that is nonexceptional quality for
USEPA
Part 503 Biosolids Rule land application requirements.
pollutants (i.e., subject
to
cumulative pollutant loading rates in
503.13(b)(2))
to
agricultural land, forest, a public contact site, or a
503.1 3(b)(2) have been reached.
(c) No person shall apply domestic septage
to
agricultural land, forest, or a
reclamation site during a 365-day period if the annual application rate in
503.1 3(c) has been reached during that period.
(d) The person who prepares bulk sewage sludge that is applied to agricultural
land, forests, areas where the potential for contact with the public is high
(i.e., public contact site), or a reclamation site shall provide the person who
applies the bulk sewage sludge written notification of the concentration of
total
nitrogen (as N on a dry weight basis) in the bulk sewage sludge.
(e)(l) The person who applies sewage sludge to the land shall obtain information
needed
to
comply with applicable Part 503 requirements.
(e)(2)(i) Before bulk sewage sludge that is subject to cumulative pollutant loading
rates (CPLRs) in 503.1 3(b)(2) is applied to the land, the person who
proposes to apply the bulk sewage sludge shall contact the permitting
authority for the state in which the bulk sewage sludge is being applied, to
determine whether bulk sewage sludge subject
to
the cumulative pollutant
loading rates in 503.1 3(b)(2) has been applied to the site since July 20,
1993.
(ii) If bulk sewage sludge subject
to
CPLRs has not been applied
to
the site
since
July
20, 1993, the cumulative amount of each pollutant listed in
Table 2
of
503.13 may be applied
to
the site in accordance with
503.1 3(a)(2)(i).
(iii) Ifbulk sewage sludge subject to CPLRs in 503.13(b)(2) has been applied to
the site since July 20, 1993, and the cumulative amount of each pollutant
applied to the site since that date is known, the cumulative amount of each
POllUtant applied to the site shall be used
to
determine the additional
amount of each pollutant that can be applied to the site in accordance with
503.1 3(a)(2)(i).
(iV) If
bulk sewage sludge subject to CPLRs in 503.13(b)(2) has been applied to
the Site since July
20,
1993, and the cumulative amount of each pollutant
applied
to the site since that date is not known, sewage sludge subject to
CPLRS may no longer be applied
to
the site.
Table continued
on
next page
rn
i
-
reclamation site if any of the cumulative pollutant loading rates in
3
341
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General Requirements for Land Application of Sewage Sludge
(continued)
(9
A person who prepares bulk sewage sludge shall provide the person who
applies the bulk sewage sludge notice and necessary information
to
comply with applicable Part 503 requirements.
(9) When the person who prepares sewage sludge gives the material to
another person who prepares sewage sludge, the person who provides the
sewage sludge shall provide
to
the person who receives sewage sludge
notice and necessary information to comply with the applicable Part 503
requirements.
(h) The person who applies bulk sewage sludge
to
the land shall provide the
owner/leaseholder of the land on which the bulk sewage sludge is applied
notice and necessary information to comply with applicable Part 503
requirements.
(i) Any person who prepares bulk sewage sludge that is applied to land in a
state other than the state in which the bulk sewage sludge is prepared,
sha ll provide written notice, prior
to
the initial application of bulk sewage
sludge to the land application site by the applier,
to
the permitting authority
for the state in which the bulk sewage sludge is proposed
to
be applied.
The notice must include
(1) The location by either street address or latitude/longitude of each land
application site.
(2) The approximate time period in which the bulk sewage sludge will be
applied
to
the site.
(3) The name, address, telephone number, and National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit number (if appropriate) for
the person who prepares the bulk sewage sludge.
(4) The name, address, telephone number, and NPDES permit number (if
appropriate) for the person who will apply the bulk sewage sludge.
0)
Any person who applies bulk sewage sludge subject to the
CPLRs
in
503.1 3(b)(2) to the land shall provide written notice, prior to the initial
application of the bulk sewage sludge to the application site by the applier,
to the permitting authority for the state in which the bulk sewage sludge
W i l l
be applied, and the permitting authority shall retain and provide access
to the notice. The notice must include
(1) The location, by either street address or latitude/longitude,
of
each land
application site.
2) he name, address, and NPDES permit number (if appropriate) of the
person who wil l apply the bulk sewage sludge.
342
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Pollutant L imi ts or the Land Application
of
Sewage Sludge
Concentration Limits
Pollu tant Concentrations (PC)
(Table
3
of
40
CFR
503.13)
Monthlyeiling Concentrations
(Table
1
of
40
CFR
503.13),
Average,
v
=
ollutant
mg/kg (dry weight) mg/kg (dry weight) -
2
Arsenic 75 41
0
G
Cadmium 85 39
Chromium 3,000 1,200
Copper 4,300 1,500
Lead 840
300
Mercury 57
17
olybdenum' 75
Nickel
420 420
Selenium 100 36
Zinc
7,500 2,800
loadin g Rates
Cumulative Pollutant Loading Annual Pollutant
Rates (CPLRs) (Table 2 of
40 CFR 503.13)
Loading Rates (RPLRs)
(Table 4 of 40 CFR 503.13)
kg/ha/365-day Ib/acre3f -day
kg/ha (dry lb /acre (dry period (dry period
(Ury
Pollutant
weiah t) weiahtl weiah t) weight)
Arsenic 41 37 2.0 1.8
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Molybdenum'
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
39 35
3,000 2,677
1,500 1,339
300 268
17 15
420 375
100 89
2,800 2,500
1.9
150
75
15
0.85
21
5.0
140
1.7
134
67
13
0.76
19
4.5
125
*The pollutant concentration limit, cumulative pollutant loading rate, and annual
pollutant loading rate for molybdenum were deleted from Part 503 effectiveFeb-
ruary 19, 1994. USEPA will reconsider establishing these limits at a later date.
343
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Exclusions From USEPA Part 503
Biosolids
Rule
Part
503
Does
Not
Include
Requirements
for:
reatment of Biosolids-Processes used to treat sewage sludge prior to final use or
disposal (e.g., thickening, dewatering, storage, heat drying)
Selection of Use or Disposal Practice-The selection of a biosolids use or disposal
practice
Incineration of Biosolids With Other Wastes-Biosolids co-fired in an incinerator with
other wastes (other than as an auxiliary fuel)
Storage of Biosolids-Placement of biosolids on land for 2
years or leSS (or longer when
demonstrated not to be a surface disposal site but rather, based on practices, constitutes
treatment or temporary storage)
Industrial Sludge-Sludge generated at an industrial facility during the treatment of
industrial wastewater with or without combined domestic sewage
:
Hazardous Sewage Sludge-Sewage sludge determined to be hazardous in accordance
with
40
CFR Part
261,
Identification and Listing of Hazardous Waste
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Exclusions From
USEPA
Part
503 Biosolids
Rule (continued)
Part
503
Does Not Include Requirements for:
Sewage Sludge Containing PCBs 250 mg/kg-Sewage sludge with a concentration of
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) equal to or greater than
50
mg/kg of total solids (dry
weight basis)
Incinerator Ash-Ash generated during the firing of biosolids in a biosolid incinerator
Grit and Screenings-Grit (e.g., sand, gravel, cinders) or screenings (e.g., relatively large
materials such as rags) generated during preliminary treatment of domestic sewage in a
treatment works
Drinking Water Sludge-Sludge generated during the treatment of either surface water
or groundwater used for drinking water
Certain Nondomestic Septage-Septage that contains industrial or commercial septage,
including grease-trap pumpings
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Who Must
Apply
for a Permit?
Treatment works treating domest ic sewage (TWTDS)
required
to apply
for
a
permit
All generators of biosolids that are regulated by USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule
industrial facilities that
separate
treat domestic sewage and generate biosolids
All
surface disposal site owner/operators
All biosolids incinerator owner/operators
Any person (e.g., individual, corporation, or government entity) who changes the
quality of biosolids regulated by Part 503 (e.g., biosolids blenders
or
processors)’
Any other person or facility designated by the permitting authority as a TWTDS
TWTDS an d other persons not aufomatica//yequired t o apply for a permitt
Biosolids land appliers, haulers, persons who store, or transporters who do not
generate or do not change the quality of the biosolids
Landowners
of
property on which biosolids are applied
Domestic septage
pumpers/haulers/treaters/appliers
Biosolids packagers/baggers (who do not change the quality of the biosolids)
(including all publicly owned treatment works)
that are regulated by Part 503
*I f all t he biosolids received by a biosolids blender or composter are exceptional
quality (EQ) biosolids, then no permit will be required for the person who receives
or processes the EQ biosolids.
t
USEPA may request permit applications from these facilities when necessary to
protect public health and the environment from reasonably anticipated effects of
pollutants that may be present in biosolids.
346
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Types
o f
Land
Onto Which Different
Types of
Biosolids May B e Applied
Biosolids Pathogen VARt Type of
Option' Class Options l an d Other Restrictions
CPLR
None
rn
v
EQ A 1-8
All'
PC
A 9 or 10
All
except lawn and Management practices .=
home gardens5
6
1-10
All
except lawn and Management practices
m
home gardenss and site restrictions
A 1-10 All except lawn and Management practices
home garden
6
1-10 All except lawn and Management practices
home gardeng* and site restrictions
APLR A 1-8
All,
but most likely Labeling management
lawns and home practice
gardens
.-
E l l = exceptional qualily; PC = pollutant concentration; CPLR = cumulative pol-
t
VAR
=
vector attraction reduction.
*Agricultural land, forest, reclamation sites, and lawns and home gardens.
§It is not possible to impose site restrictions on lawns and home gardens.
**It is not possible to track cumulative additions of pollutants on lawns and home
lutant loading rate; APLR
=
annual pollutant loading rate.
gardens.
Solids Concentrations and Other Characteristics
of
Various
Types o f
Sludge
Advanced Tertiary),
Primary, Secondary, Chemical Precipitation,
Wastewater Treatment Gravity Biological Filtration
Sludge
Amounts generated, 2.5-3.5 15-20 25-30
Urn3 of
wastewater
Solids content,
%
3-7
0.5-2.0 0.2-1.5
Organic content, % 6&80 5 C M O 35-50
Treatability, relative Easy
Difficult Difficult
Dewatered
by
belt filter
Feed solids, % 3-7 3-6
Cake solids, % 28-44 20-35
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Summary
of
Class
A
and Class
8
Pathogen Reduction Requirements
Class
A
In addition to meeting the requirements in one of the six alternatives listed below,
fecal coliform or
SalmoneNa
sp. bacteria levels must meet specific density
requirements at the time of biosolids use or disposal, or when prepared for sale or
giveaway.
-
5:
.-
m
lternative
1
Thermally Treated Biosolids
Alternative 2: Biosolids Treated in a High pH-High Temperature Process
Alternative 3: For Biosolids Treated in Other Processes
Use one of four time-temperature regimens.
Specifies pH, temperature, and air-drying requirements.
Demonstrate that the process can reduce enteric viruses and viable helminth
ova. Maintain operating conditions used in the demonstration.
Demonstration of the process is unnecessary. Instead, test for pathogens-
Salmonella sp. or fecal coliform bacteria, enteric viruses, and viable helminth
ova-at the time the biosolids are used or disposed of, or are prepared for
sale or giveaway.
Biosolids are treated in one of the PFRPs (see the table titled Processes to
Further Reduce Pathogens-page 362).
Biosolids are treated in a process equivalent
to
one of the PFRPs, aS
determined by the permitting authority.
Alternative 4: Biosolids Treated in Unknown Processes
Alternative
5:
Use of Processes to Fulther Reduce Pathogens (PFRPs)
Alternative 6:
s e
of a Process Equivalent to PFRPs
Class
B
The requirements in one of the three alternatives below must be met.
Alternative 1 Monitoring of Indicator Organisms
Test
for
fecal coliform density as an indicator for all pathogens at the time of
biosolids use or disposal.
Biosolids are treated in one of the PSRPs (see the table titled Processes to
Significantly Reduce Pathogens-page 364).
Biosolids are treated in a process equivalent to one of the PSRPs, as
determined by the permitting authority.
Alternative
2:
Use of Processes to Significantly Reduce Pathogens (PSRPs)
Alternative 3: Use of Processes Equivalent to PSRPs
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Summary
of
Vector Attraction Reduction Options
Requirements in one of the following options must be met:
Option 1 Reduce the m a s of volatile solids by a minimum of
38%.
Option
2:
Demonstrate vector attraction reduction (VAR) with additional
anaerobic digestion in a bench-scale unit.
Option
3:
Demonstrate VAR with additional aerobic digestion in a bench-scale
unit.
Option 4: Meet a specific oxygen uptake rate for aerobically treated biosolids.
Option 5: Use aerobic processes at greater than
104°F (4OOC)
(average
temperatures 113°F
[45"C])
for
14
days or longer (e.g., during biosolids
composting).
Option 6: Add alkaline materials to raise the pH under specified conditions.
Option
7:
Reduce moisture content
of
biosolids that do not contain unstabilized
solids from other than primary treatment to at least
75%
solids.
Option
8:
Reduce moisture content of biosolids with unstabilized solids to at
least
90 .
Option
9:
Inject biosolids beneath the soil surface within a specified time,
depending on the level of pathogen treatment.
Option
10:
Incorporate biosolids applied to or placed on the land surface with in
specified time periods after application to or placement on the land surface.
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Restrictions for the
Harvesting
of
Crops and Turf, Grazing of Animals,
and
Public Access on Sites
Where
Class B Biosolids Are Applied
Restrictions for the harvesting of crops and turf:
Food crops, feed crops, and fiber crops, whose edible parts do not touch the
rA
urface of
the
soil, shall not be harvested until 30
days
after biosolids
application. 0
3
-
Food crops with harvested parts that touch the biosolids/soil mixture and are
totally aboveground shall not be harvested until
74 months
after application
of biosolids.
remain on the land surface for
4
months or longer prior to incorporation into
the soil shall not be harvested until 20
months
after biosolids application.
remain on the land surface for
less
than 4 months prior to incorporation shall
not be harvested until
38
months
after biosolids application.
Turf grown on land where biosolids are applied shall not be harvested until
year
after application of
the
biosolids when the harvested turf is placed on
either land with a high potential for public exposure or a lawn, unless
otherwise specified by the permitting authority.
Animals shall not be grazed on land until 30
days
after application
of
biosolids to the land.
Food crops with harvested parts below the land surface where biosolids
Food crops with harvested parts below the land surface where biosolids
Restriction for the grazing of animals:
Restrictions for public contact:
Access
to
land with a high potential for public exposure, such as a park
or
ballfield, is restricted for
7 year
after biosolids application. Examples of
restricted access include posting with no-trespassing signs and fencing.
farmland) is restricted for 30 days after biosolids application.An example of
restricted access is remoteness.
Access to land with a low potential for public exposure (e.g., private
351
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Examples
of
Crops Impacted by Site Restric tions
for
Class B Biosolids
Harvested Parts That
Usually Do Not Touch
Usually Touch the
Are
Below the
the
SoillBiosolids SoillBlosolids SoillBiosolids
Mixture
Mixture Mixture
Peaches Melons Potatoes
Apples Strawberries Yams
Oranges Eggplant Sweet potatoes
Grapefruit Squash Rutabaga
Corn Tomatoes Peanuts
Wheat Cucumbers Onions
Oats Celery Leeks
Barley Cabbage Radishes
Cotton Lettuce Turnips
Soybeans Beets
Procedure for the Applier to Determine the Amount of Nitrogen
Provided by the AWSAR Relative to the Agronomic Rate
Assum e that the an nual whole sludge (bioso lids) application rate
(AW SA R) for biosolids is 41
0
lb of biosolids p er 1,000 ft2 of land .
Ifbio sol id s were
to
be placed o n a lawn that ha s a nitrogen require-
nient
of
abou t
200
Ib* of available nitrogen p e r acre per year, the
following steps would determine the amo unt of
nitrogen p rov ided
by the AWSAR relative to the agronomic rate if the AWSAR was
used:
1.
T h e nitrogen content of the biosolids indicated on the label
is 1% total nitrogen and
0.4
available nitrogen the first
year.
2. T h e AWSAR is 41 0 Ib of biosolids per 1,000 ft2,which is
17 ,860 lb of biosolids p er acre:
410 lb
43 560 sq ft 17,860 Ib
X x
0.001
=
,00 0 sq ft acre acre
*
Assuniptions about crop nitrogen requirement, biosolids nitrogen
content,
and percent of that nitrogen that
is
available are for illustra-
tive
purposes
only.
352
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3.
T h e available nitrogen from the biosolids is 71 Iblacre:
17,860 lb biosolids 71 lb
acre acre
XO.004 =
4.
Because the biosolids application will only provide 71 Ib
of
the total 200
Ib
of nitrogen required, in this case the
AWSAR
for the biosolids will no t cause the agronom ic rate
for nitrogen
to
be exceeded and an additional 129 Iblacre of
nitrogen would be needed from som e other source to sup-
ply the total nitrogen requirem ent of the lawn.
5
Frequency
of
Monitoring
for
Pollutants, Pathogen Densities, and Vector
Attraction Reduction
Amount
of
Biosolids,*
short
tons
metric tons
per Average Per
=-day
period
per Day
365
Days Frequency
>O to <290
SO to <0.85 >O to <320 Once per year
2290 to <1,500
0.85 o
<4.5
320
to 4 ,65 0 Once per quarter
(4 times per year)
21,500 to <15,000 4.5 to <45 1,650 to 4 6 , 5 0 0 Once per 60 days
(6 times per year)
(12 times per year)
Amounts
of
Biosolids,
215,000 245 216,500 Once per month
'Either the amount of bulk biosolids applied
to
the land or the amount of biosolids
received by a person who preparesbiosolids or Sale or giveaway in a bag or other
container fo r application o the land (dry weight basis).
353
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USEPA Par t
503
Biosol ids Rule Land Application General Requirements
For Exceptional Qualtiy (EQ) Biosolids
None (unless set by USEPA or state permitting authority on a case-by-case basis
for bulk biosolids to protect public health and the environment).
For Pollutant Concentration (PC) and Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rate
(CPLR) Biosolids
The preparer must notify and provide information necessary to comply with the
Part 503 land application requirements
to
the person who applies bulk biosolids to
the land.
The preparer’ who provides biosolids to another person who further prepares the
biosolids for application
to
the land must provide this person with notification and
information necessary to comply with the Part 503 land application requirements.
The preparer must provide written notification of the total nitrogen concentration
(as N on a dry weight basis)
in
bulk biosolids to the applier of the biosolids
to
agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites.
The applier of biosolids must obtain information necessary to comply with the Part
503 land application requirements, apply biosolids to the land
in
accordance with
the Part
503
land application requirements, and provide notice and necessary
information to the owner or leaseholder of the land on which biosolids are applied.
Out-of-State Use
The preparer must provide written notification (prior to the initial application of the
bulk biosolids by the applier)
to
the permitting authority in the state where biosolids
are proposedto be land-applied when bulk biosolids are generated in one state and
transferred to another state for application to the land. The notification must
include a ll of the following:
application site
the location (either street address or latitude and longitude) of each land
the approximate time period the bulk biosolids wil l be applied
to
the site
the name, address, telephone number, and National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit number for both the preparer and the
applier
of
the bulk biosolids
additional information or permits
in
both states, if required by the permitting
authoritv
able
continued on next page
354
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USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule Land Application General Requirements
(continued)
Additional Requirements for CPLR Biosolids
The applier must notify the permitting authority in the state where bulk biosolids
are to
be applied prior to the initial application of the biosolids. This is a one-time
notice requirement for each land application site each time there is a new applier.
The notice must include each of the following:
v
8
-
m
the location (either street address or latitude and longitude) of the land
the name, address, telephone number, and NPDES permit number (if
application site
appropriate)
of
the person who will apply the bulk biosolids
The applier must obtain records (if available) from the previous applier, landowner,
or permitting authority that indicate the amount of each CPLR pollutant in biosolids
that have been applied
to
the site since July 20, 1993. In addition
When these records are available, the applier must use this information o
determine the additional amount of each pollutant that can be applied to the site
in accordance with the CPLRs in the table titled Pollutant Limits (page 343).
amount of
each pollutant he or she is applying
to
the site.
available, biosolids meeting CPLRs cannot be applied
o
that site. However,
EQ
or
PC biosolids could be applied.
If biosolids meeting CPLRs have not been applied to the site in excess of the limit
since July
20,
1993, the CPLR limit for each pollutant in the table titled Pollutant
Limits (page 343) will determine the maximum amount of each pollutant that can
be applied in biosolids
if
the following are true:
The applier must keep the previous records and also record the additional
When records of past known CPLR applications since July 20, 1993, are not
all applicable management practices are followed
the applier keeps a record of the amount of each pollutant in biosolids applied
to any given site
The applier must not apply additional biosolids under the cumulative pollutant
loading Concept to a site where any of the CPLRs have been reached.
*The preparer is either the person who generates the biosolids or the person who
derives a material from biosolids.
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USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule Land Application Management Practice
Requirements
For
Exceptional Quality (EQ) B ioso lids
None (unless established by USEPA or the state permitt ing authority on a case-by-case
basis for bulk biosolids
to
protect public health and the environment).
For Pollu tant Concentration and Cumulative Pollutant Loading Rate Biosolids
These types of biosolids cannot be applied
to
flooded, frozen, or snow-covered
agricultural land, forests, public contact sites, or reclamation sites in such a way that the
biosolids enter a wetland or other waters of the United States (as defined in 40 CFR Part
122.2, which generally includes tidal waters, interstate and intrastate waters, tributaries,
the territorial sea, and wetlands adjacent
to
these waters), except as provided in a permit
issued pursuant
to
Section 402 (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit)
or Section 404 (Dredge and
Fill
Permit) of the Clean Water Act, as amended.
These types of biosolids cannot be applied to agricultural land, forests, or reclamation
sites that are 33 ft (10 m) or less from US waters, unless otherwise specified by the
permitting authority.
If applied to agricultural lands, forests, or public contact sites, these types of biosolids
must be applied at a rate that is equal to or less than the agronomic rate for nitrogen for
the crop t o be grown. Biosolids applied to reclamation sites may exceed the agronomic
rate for nitrogen as specified by the permitting authority.
These types of biosolids must not harm or contribute to the harm of a threatened or
endangered species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of the species'
critical habitat when applied to the land. Threatened or endangered species and their
critical habitats are listed in Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act. Critical habitat is
defined as any place where a threatened or endangered species lives and grows during
any stage of its life cycle. Any direct or indirect action (or the result of any direct o r
indirect action) in a critical habitat that diminishes the likelihood of survival and recovery
of a listed species is considered destruction or adverse modification of a critical habitat.
For Annu al Pollution Loading Rate (APLR) Biosolids
A label must be affixed to the bag or other container or an information sheet must be
Provided
to
the person who receives APLR biosolids in other containers.At a minimum,
the label o r information sheet must contain the following information:
the name and address of the person who prepared the biosolids for sale or
a statement that prohibits application of the biosolids
to the
land except in
an annual whole sludge (biosolids) application rate, or annual whole sludge
the nitrogen content
giveaway in a bag or other container
accordance with the instructions on the label or information sheet
application rate, for the biosolids that do not cause the APLRs to be exceeded
There is no labeling requirement for EQ biosolids sold or given away in a bag or other
container.
356
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Record-Keeping and Reporting Requirements
Type of
B oso ds
Records That Must Be Kept
Exceptional quality
(EQ)
Pollutant concentrations
Pathogen reduction certification and description
Vector attraction reduction (VAR) certification and description
Pollutant concentration Pollutant concentrations
(PC)
Management practice certification and description
Site restriction certification and description (where class
B
pathogen requi
Pathogen reduction Certification and description
VAR certification and description
Cumulative pollutant Pollutant concentrations
loading rate (CPLR)
Management practice certification and description
Site restriction certification and description (if class
6
pathogen requireme
Pathogen reduction certification and description
VAR certification and description
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Record -Keep ing and Repor t ing Requ i rem ents (con t inued)
Type
of
Biosol ids ecords That Must Be Kept
Other information.
.
.
.
w
l
.
Certification and description of information gathered (information from th
applier, landowner, or permitt ing authority regarding the existing cumulati
at the site from previous biosolids applications)
Site location
Number of hectares
Amount of biosolids applied
Cumulative amount of pollutant applied (including previous amounts)
Date of application
Annual pollutant loading Pollutant concentrations
rate (APLR)
Management practice certification and description
Pathogen reduction certification and description
VAR certification and description
The annual whole sludge application rate for the biosolids
*Reporting responsibilities are only for publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) with a design flow
t The preparer certifies and describes VAR methods other than injection and incorporation of biosolids
$Records that certify and describe injection or incorporation of biosolids into the soil do not have to b
5Some of this information has
to
be reported only when 90% or more of any of the CPLRs is reached
sludge management facilities.
ration of biosoiids into the soil.
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Management Practices for Surface Disposal Sites
Biosolids placed on a disposal unit must not harm threatenedor endangered
species.
The active biosolids unit must not restrict base flood flow.
The active biosolids unit must be located in a geologically stable area:
must not be located in an unstable area
must not be located in a fault area with displacement in Holocene time (unless
allowed by the permitting authority)
if
located in
a
seismic impact zone, must be able
to
withstand certain ground
movements
The active biosolids unit cannot be located in wetlands (unless allowed in a permit).
Runoff must be collected from the surface disposal site with a system capability
to
handle a 25-year, 24-hour storm event.
Only where there is a liner, leachate must be collected and the owner/operator
must maintain and operate a leachate collection system.
Only where there is a cover, there must be limits on concentrations of methane gas
in air in any structure on the site and in air at the properly line
of
the surface
disposal site.
The owner/operator cannot grow crops on site (unless allowed by the permitting
authority).
The owner/operator cannot graze animals on site (unless allowed by the permitting
authority).
The owner/operator must restrict public access.
The biosolids placed in the active biosolids unit must not contaminate an aquifer.
359
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Pathogen and Vector Att raction Reduction Requi rements for Surface
Disposal Sites
Pathogen Reduction Requirements
Options (must meet one of these):
Place a daily cover on the active biosolids unit.
Meet one of six class
A
pathogen reduction requirements (see the table
titled Summary of Class A and Class B Pathogen Reduction
Requirements-page
349)
Meet one of three class B pathogen reduction requirements, except site
restrictions (see the table titled Summary of the Three Alternatives for
Meeting Class
B
Pathogen Requirements-page
362)
Vector Attraction Reduction Requirements
Options (must meet one of these):
Place a daily cover on the active biosolids unit.
Reduce volatile solids content by a minimum of
38% or
less under specific
laboratory test conditions with anaerobically and aerobically digested
biosolids.
Meet a specific oxygen uptake rate.
Treat the biosolids in an aerobic process for a specified number of days at
Raise the pH of the biosolids with an alkaline material to a specified level
Meet
a
minimum percent-solids content
Inject or incorporate the biosolids into soil
a specified temperature.
for
a
specified time.
360
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The Four Time-Temperature Regimes for Class A Pathogen Reduction Under A
Regime Applies to: R
A
Biosolids with 7% solids or greater (except those
covered by regime B) 20 minutes or longer
Biosolids with 7% solids or greater in the form
of
warmed gases or an immiscible liquid
Biosolids with less than 7% solids
Temperature of biosoli
B
Temperature of biosoli
small particles and heated by contact with either 15 seconds or longer
C
Heated for at least 15
30 minutes
D
Biosolids with less than 7% solids
Temperature of sludge
30 minutes or longer c
* D = time in days; t = temperature in degrees Celsius.
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Processes to Further Reduce Pathogens Listed in Appendix B of 40 CFR
Part 503
Composting
Using either the within-vessel composting method or the static aerated pile composting
method, the temperature of the biosolids is maintained at 55°C or higher for 3 days.
Using the windrow composting method, the temperature of the biosolids is maintained at
55°C or higher for 15 days or longer. During the period when the compost is maintained
at 55°C or higher, the windrow is turned a minimum of five times.
Biosolids are dried by direct or indirect contact with hot gases to reduce the mOiStUre
content of the biosolids
to 10%
or lower. Either the temperature of the biosolids particles
exceeds
80°C
or the wet bulb temperature
of
the gas in contact with the biosolids as the
biosolids leave the dryer exceeds 80°C.
Liquid biosolids are heated
to
a temperature
of
180°C or higher for 30 minutes
Liquid biosolids are agitated with air or oxygen
to
maintain aerobic conditions, and the
mean cell residence time of the biosolids is 10 days at 55 -60 C.
Heat Drying
Heat Treatment
Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion
Beta Ray Irrad iation
Biosolidsare irradiated with beta rays tiom an accelerator at dosages of at least 1
O
Mrad
at room temperature (ca. 20°C).
Biosolids are irradiated with gamma rays from certain isotopes, such as Cobalt
60
and
Cesium 137, at room temperature (ca. 20°C).
Gamma Ray Irradiation
Pasteurization
The temperatureof the biosolids is maintained at 70°C or higher for
30
minutes or longer.
Summary
of
the Three Alternatives for Meeting Class
B
Pathogen
Requirements
Alternative 1: The Monitoring of Indicator Organisms
Test for fecal coliform density as an indicator for all pathogens. The geometric mean of
seven samples shall be less than 2 million most probable numbers per gram per total solids
or less than 2 million colony-forming units per gram of total solids at the time of use or
disposal.
Alternative
2
Biosolids Treated i n Processes to Significantly Reduce Pathogens (PSRPS)
Biosolids must be treated in one of the
PSRPs
(see the table titled Process to Significantly
Reduce Pathogens Listed in Appendix 8
of
40
CFR
Part 503).
Alternative 3 Biosolids Treated in a Process Equivalent o a PSRP
Biosolids must be treated in a process equivalent to one of the PSRPs, as determined by the
permitting authority.
362
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Site Restrictions for Class B Biosolids Applied to the Land
Food Crops With Harvested Parts That Touch the Biosolids/Soil Mixture
Food crops with harvested parts that touch the biosolids/soil mixture and are
totally above the land surface shall not be harvested for
14
months after
application of biosolids.
Food crops with harvested parts below the surface of the land shall not be
harvested for 1 months after applicationof the biosolids when the biosolids
remain on the land surface for 4 months or longer prior to incorporation nto the
soil.
Food
crops with harvested parts below the surface of the land shall not be
harvested for 38
months
after application of biosolids when the biosolids remain
on the land surface for less than 4 months prior to incorporation into the soil.
rn
rn
P
m
-
Food Crops With Harvested Parts Below the Land Surface
.-
Food Crops With Harvested Parts That Do Not Touch the Biosolids/Soil
Mixture, Feed Crops, and Fiber Crops
Food crops with harvested parts that do not touch the biosolids/soil mixture,
feed crops, and fiber crops shall not be harvested for
30
days after application
of biosolids.
Animal Grazing
Animals shall not be grazed on the land for 30 days after application of
biosdids.
Turf Growing
Turf grown on land where biosolids are applied shall not be harvested for 1 year
after application of the biosolids when the harvested turf is placed on either land
with a high potential for public exposure or a lawn, unless otherwise specified
by the permitting authority.
Public access to land with a high potential or public exposure shall be restricted
for year after application of biosolids.
Public access
to
land with a low potential for public exposure shall be restricted
for
30
days after application of biosolids.
Public Access
363
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Processes to Signif icantly Reduce Pathogens Listed in Appendix B
of
40 CFR Part
503
Aerobic Digestion
Biosolids arc agitated with air or oxygen
to
maintain aerobic conditions for a
specific are mean cell residence time (MCRT) at a specific temperature. Values
for the
MCRT
and temperature shall be between
40
days at
20°C
and
60
days
at 15°C.
Air Drying
Biosolids are dried on sand beds
or
on paved or unpaved basins. The biosolids
dry for a minimum of
3
months. During
2
of the 3 months, the ambient average
daily temperature is above
0°C.
Anaerobic Digestion
Biosolids are treated in the absence of air for a specific MCRT at a specific
temperature. Values
for
the
MCRT
and temperature shall be between
15
days
at 35°C to 55°C and 60 days at 20°C.
Composting
Using either the within-vessel, static-aerated pile, or windrow-composting
methods, the temperature of the biosolids is raised to
40°C
or higher and
maintained for
5
days. For
4
hours during the 5-day period, the temperature n
the compost pile exceeds
55°C.
Lime Stabili zation
Sufficient lime is added to the biosolids to raise the pH of the biosolids to
12
after
2
hours of contact.
364
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Summary
of
Biosolids Sampling Considerations
Factors to Consider
in
Developing a Sampling Program
Who must sample?
What must be sampled?
Preparer, land applier, surface disposer, or incinerator of biosolids
Biosolids:
v
v
E
m
-
etals (land application, surface disposal, incineration)
Pathogens and vector attraction reduction (land application and surface disposal Sites
Nitrogen (land application only)
Total hydrocarbons (or carbon monoxide), oxygen, temperature, information needed
to
only)
Biosoiids Incinerator emissions:
determine moisture content, and mercury and beryllium, when applicable
Other:
Methane gas in air (surface disposal sites only)
How often should sampling
be
done?
From once per year to once per month, depending on the amount of biosolids used or
disposed.
Take either:
How should sampling be done and how many samples should be taken?
Grab samples' (individual samples) for pathogens and percent volatile solids
Composite samples' (several grab samples combined) for metals.
No
fixed number of individual samples required (except for clas
B
pathogens, alternative
1,
take seven samples). Enough material must be taken for the sample to be
representative. Take a greater number of samples if there is a large amount of biosoiids
or i f characteristics of biosolids vary significantly.
determinations, or
When to sample?
Before use or disposal. If biosolids are used
or disposed before sampling results are
available. and the results subsequently show that a regulatory limit is exceeded, the
responsible person will be in noncompliance with USEPA Part 503 Biosolids Rule.
Usually at site of preparer (e.g., treatment works). Sometimes samples must be collected at
land application or surface disposal sites.
Sample from moving biosolids when possible to obtain a weli-mixed sample. If you must
Sample from a stationary location, the sample should represent the entire area. Appropriate
Sampling points differ for liquid or dewatered biosolids (see the table titled Sampling Points
for Biosolids (page 366).
See the table tit led Proper Conditions for Biosoiids Sampling (page 367).
Part
503 requires that specific analytical methods be used for different types of Samples.
Where to collec t samples?
What size
of
sample, sample equipment, storage times?
What methods should be used to analyze samples?
For guidance only; not a Part 503 rule requirement.
365
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Sampling Points for Biosolids
Biosolids Type
Anaerobically digested
Aerobically digested
Thickened
Heat treated
Dewatered, dried,
composted, or
thermally reduced
Dewatered by belt
filter press, centrifuge,
vacuum fil ter press
Dewatered by
biosolids press (plate
and frame)
Dewatered by drying
beds
Compost pi les
Sampling Point
Collect sample from taps on the discharge side of
positive-displacementpumps.
Collect sample from taps on discharge lines from
pumps. If batch digestion is used, collect sample directly
from the digester. Cautions:
1.
If biosolids are aerated during sampling, air entrains
in
the sample. Volatile organic compounds may be
purged with escaping air.
2. When aeration is shut
off,
solids may settle rapidly.
Collect sample from taps on the discharge side of
positive-displacement pumps.
Collect sample from taps on the discharge side of
positive-displacement pumps afterdecanting. Be careful
when sampling heat-treated biosolids because of
1. High tendency for solids separation
2. High temperature of sample (temperature >60 C as
sampled) can cause problems with certain sample
containers due to cooling and subsequent
contraction of entrained gases.
Collect sample from material collection conveyors and
bulk containers. Collect sample from many locations
within the biosolids mass and at various depths.
Collect sample from biosolids discharge chute
Collect sample from the storage bin; select four points
within the storage bin, collect equal amount of sample
from each point, and combine.
Divide bed into quarters, grab equal amounts of sample
from the center of each quarter, and combine
to
form a
composite sample of the total bed. Each composite
sample should include the entire depth of the biosolids
material (down to the sand).
Collect sample directly from front-end loader while
biosolids are being transported or stockpiled within
a
few davs of use.
366
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Proper Conditions
for
Biosolids Sampling
Parameter
Wide-Mouthed
Container'
Preservative+
Metals
Solid and semisolid samples
P,
G
Cool, 4°C
Liquid (mercury only)
P, G
HNO3 to pH <2
Liquid (all other liquid metals)
P , G
HNO3 to pH <2
Pathogen Density and Vector Att raction Reduction
Pathogens
G. P, B. SS
1.
Cool
in ice and water
to
<lO°C if a
delayed
21
hour, or
2.
Cool
promptly to
< 4 T , or
3. Freeze and store samples
to
be an
for viruses at 0°C
Vector attraction reduction Varies$
* P = plastic (polyethylene,polypropylene,polytetrafluoroethylene);G = glass (nonetched, heat-resis
t
Preservativesshould
be
added
to
sampling containers prior to actual sampling episodes. Storage tim
.t
Varies with analytical method. Consult
40
CFR
Parts
136
and
503.
5Reduced at the laboratory in -300-mL samples.
** Do not freeze bacterial or helminth ova samples.
SS
=stainless steel (not steel- or zinc-coated).
ping of preserved samples to the laboratory may be, but is generally not, regulated under
US.
Dep
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Discharge and
Disinfect on
Thefinal
ischarge of wastewater requires
compliance with regulations. Profier treatm ent is
cri tical o r the disinfection of wastewater and for
environmental firotection.
369
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CHLORINE
Reaction With Ammonia
Chlorairiines are formed in three successive steps, as shown in the
following equations:
NHj + HOCl
-+
NHzCI
+
H20
(ammonia) (hypochlorous (monochloraniine)
acid)
NHzCI
+
HOCl -+ NHCIz + H20
(monochlorainine) (hypochlorous (dichloranline)
acid)
NHClz +
HOCl -+
NCI:j +
HzO
(dichloranline) (hypochlorous (trichloramine)
acid)
Reaction With Hydrogen Sulfide
When chlorine is used to reiiiove hydrogen sulfide (HzS), one of
two reactions can occur, depending on the chlorine dosage:
CI: +
H2S
-+
2HC1 + s
(chlorine) (hydrogen sulfide) (hydrochloricacid) (sulfur)
or
4C12 + H2S + 4Hy0
-
8HC1
f H z S 0 4
(chlorine) (hydrogen (water) (hydrochloric
(sulfuric
sulfide) acid) acid)
Available
Chlorine in
NaOCl
Solution
Percent Available Chlorine,
Available Chlorine Ib/gal
10.0
0.833
12.5 1.04
15.0
1.25
370
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When added to water, Ca OC1)2 reacts as follows:
Ca OC1)Z + 2 H z 0 2HOC1 + Ca 0H)y
calcium water) hypochlorous lime)
hypochlorite) acid)
Sodium hypochlorite reacts with water to produce the desired
HOCl as follows:
NaOCl + 2 H z 0
-+ HOCl
+
NaOH
c
sodium
water) hypochlorous
sodium .I
I
rn
.-
hypochlorite) acid) hydroxide)
.-
.-
n
Residual
A
basic equation for desired chlorine residual:
n
371
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Amounts of Chemicals Required to Obtain Various Chlorine Concentrations in 1
5%
Available Chlorine
10%
Available Chlorin
Desired Chlorine
Sodium Hypochlorite Req
Concentration
Required
i
Ill.*,,.
I ..1.r
mg/L
Ib
ks)
gal L) gal
N
2
1.7
(0.8) 3.9
(14.7)
2.0
(7.6)
10
8.3
(3.8) 19.4 (73.4) 9.9 (37.5)
50
42.0 (19.1)
97.0 (367.2)
49.6 (187.8)
'Amounts
of
sodium hypochlorite are based on concentrations
of
available chlorine
b y
volume For eith
storage of chemicals may cause a loss of available chlonne
w
2
Amounts
of
Chemicals Required to Obtain Various
Chlorine Concentrations in 2
Volume of Chlorine
Water Required
gal
L)
Ib ks)
10 (37.9)
0.02 (9.1)
50 (189.3)
0.1
(45.4)
100 (378.5)
0.2 (90.7)
200
(757.1)
0.4 (181.4)
Sodium Hypochlorite Req
5%
Available Chlorine
10%
Available Chlorin
gal
L)
gal
N
0.04 (0.15)
0.02 (0.08)
0.2
(0.76) 0.1 (0.38)
0.4 (1.51)
0.2
(0.76)
0.8 (3.031
0.4 (151)
* Amounts 01sodidm nypochlorite
are
DaSedo concenlrallons
of
available chlorlne by
volume
For eith
storage
1
cnemicals may cause a ass
of
available chlorlne
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Number of
5 9
Calcium Hypochlorite Tablets Required for Dose
of 25
mg/L'
length
of Pipe Section, f t
m)
Pipe Diameter
513
(4.0) 18 (5.5)
20
(6.1)
30 (9.1)
40
12.2)
in. mm) Number of 5-g Calcium Hypochlorite Tablets
4 (100)
1
1 1 1 1
6 (150) 1 1 1 2 2
8 ZOO) 1 2
2 3 4
10 (250) 2 3
3
4 5
12
(300)
3
4
4
6
aY
S
v)
.-
.I-
.-
.-
n
6
(400) 4 6
7
10 13
2
higher integer. m
F
Based on 3.25-9 available chlorine per tablet; any portion
ot
tablet rounded to
the
next
aY
Cylinder Vent Line
Filter
Yoke Valve Rate Valve
Clamp
Valve Inlet Manually Adjusted
Flow Rate
Indicator
Lead
Gasket
Regulating
Diaphragm
Ch lorine Assembly Water
Gas Supply
Chlorine
Liquid
b
r
cn
.-
n
Vacuum Line
Ejector Assembly
With Check Valve
Ejector
Discharge
Gas Chlorinator
373
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0
10
20
50
60 2
70
$
+
._
80
90
100
4
6 7
8
9 1 0 1 1
DH
Relationship Among Hypochlorous Acid, Hypochlorite Ion, and pH
Chlorine Required to Produce 25-mg/L Concentration in 100
ft
(30.5 m)
of
Pipe by Diameter
Pipe
Diameter
100
Chlorine
1 Chlorine
Solution
in.
mm)
b
( I)
gal
L)
4
(1
00)
,013
(5.9)
.16 0.6)
6
(1 50)
030 (13.6)
36 (1.4)
8 (200) ,054
(24.5)
.65 (2.5)
10
(250)
,085
(38.6)
1.02 (3.9)
12 (300) ,120
(54.4)
1.44 (5.4)
16 (400) ,217
(98.4)
2.60 9.8)
374
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3
4
I
Combined Residual
Chlorine Added
Breakpoint Chlorination Curve
Sleeve or Opening Near Ceiling
PE Gas Insect
Vacuum Line Screen
Gas
PE Vent Tubing Cylinder
Chlorination
to Outside
storage
Gas Cylinder Weighing
Exhaust Fan Scales
Scale Pit
Well
Pump
With
Check Solution Coping
Valve Outlet Angles
Regulator
Line Cabinet for
Emergency
Union Ejector Breathing
Apparatus
Emergency Scale
Overflow
pi
Diffuser Water
Pressure
Gauge Tubing Drain
in Pipeline
Booster
Pump
Centrifugal Strainer
Typical Deep-Well Chlorination System
375
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To
Remote Chlorine
Flowmeter
Diaphragm
0-Ring Seat
From
Vacuum
Regulator
No.
1
Ejector
Toggle Assembly
Vacuum Tubing
Remote
Flowmeter
Vacuum
Regulator
No.
1
From
Vacuum
Regulator
No. 2
Automatic
Switchover
Module
Gas Gas
Cylinder Cylinder
No.
1
No. 2
Vacuum Regulator
No.
2
Vacuum Tubing
Vent
Typical Chlorinator Flow Diagrams
376
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Poured-Type
FusiblePlug
Fusible Metal
of
Plug
Fusible Plug
Threads
Fusible Metal
of
Plug
Stem
Packing Nut
Valve Packing Gland
Outlet Cap
(Special Straight
Threads)
Valve Seat
Gasket
Valve Body
Valve Inlet
Valve Inlet Threads
Broken-Off Valve
Screwed-Type
Fusible Plug
100 150 lb
Cylinders
NOTE: Valve closes by turning clockwise; there are about
1
turns between
wide-open and fully closed positions. All threads are right-hand threads.
Valve lnlel
Stem
Packing Nut
Valve Packing
Outlet Cap
Gasket
06
Valve Seat
Valve Inlet Threads
Broken-Off Valve
I Ton Container
Courtesy o f Chorine Specialties, InC.
Standard Chlorine Cylinder Valves
S
Q
S
v)
U
la
Q
m
v)
.-
-
.I
.-
a
P
5
n
-
377
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Pump
AC
Power Supply
WARNING: When hazardous chemicals are pumped against positive pressure
at point of application, use rigid pipe discharge line.
Courtesy of
US
Fi/ter/Wallace
&
Tiernan
Typical Hypochlorinator nstallation
Summary of General At tributes
of
Chlorine Dioxide, Peracetic Acid, and
UV Radiation
Attribute
GI02
Peracetic uv
Acid Radiation
Stability Moderate
Persistent residual Moderate
Potential by-product formation Yes
Reacts w i th ammonia No
pH dependent Moderate
Ease of operation Moderate
Temperature dependent Moderate
Contact t im e Moderate
Safety concerns High
Effectiveness as bactericide High
Effectiveness as viricide High
Likelihood of regrowth None
Low
None
No
No
No
Complex
Complex
LOW
High
High
High
None
High
None
No
No
No
Simple
to complex
Simple to complex
Low
Low
High
High
High
378
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Recommended Chlorine Dosing Capacity for Various Types of Treatment
Based on Design Average Flow
Il linois EPA
GLUMRB'
Type
of
Treatment Dosage, mg/L Dosage, mg/L
Primary settled effluent 20
Lagoon effluent (unfiltered) 20
Lagoon effluent (filtered) 10
Trickling filter plant effluent 10 10
Activated sludge plant with chemical
S
Q
S
v)
=
S
.-
Activated sludge plant effluent 6
8
addition
Nitrified effluent 6
.c
.-
.-
n
Filtered effluent following mechanical 4 6 m
biological treatment
Q
*Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and Environ-
$
v)
.-
ental Managers
n
Acute Values for Chlorine Toxicity in Aquatic Species
Species Mean Acute Value, g/L
Freshwater
Daphnia magna 27.66
Fathead minnow 105.2
Brook trout
Bluegill
Sa twa e
r
117.4
245.8
Menidia 37
Mysid 162
379
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Wastewater Characteristics Affecting Chlorination Performance
Wastewater Characteristic
Ammonia
Biochemical oxygen demand
Hardness, iron, nitrate
Nitrite
PH
Effects on Chlor ine Disinfection
Forms chloramines when combined with chlorine
The degree of
interference depends on their
functional groups and chemical structures
Minor effect, if any
Reduces effectiveness of chlorine and results in
trihalomethanes
Affects distribution between hypochlorous acid and
hypochlorite ions and among the various
chloramine species
Shielding
of
embedded bacteria and chlorine
demand
Total suspended solids
ULTRAVIOLET
LIGHT
Ultraviolet (UV) light rays cause dea th of microorganisms by oxi-
datio n o f their enzymes. T h e most effective wavelength is 2,650
D
1
D =
10 ' m). T h u s , rays with a wavelength <3,100
D
are effec-
tive.
The
mercury vapor lamp is an economical method of pr od uc -
ing UV light of 2,537
D.
For disinfection with UV light, water
should be clear, colorless, and shallow
(3-5
in. deep)
to
allow
effective penetration of rays. These requirements as well as no
residual effect an d cos t of application limit th e use of this m eth od
to
very sm all water supp lies.
S o m e advantages an d disadvantages of UV ligh t are listed i n the
following sections.
Advantages
U V disinfection is effective at inactivating m ost viruses,
sp ore s, a nd cysts.
UV
disinfection is a physical process rathe r than a chemical
disin fecta nt, which eliminates the need
to
generate, hand le,
tran spo rt, o r store toxicfliazardous o r corrosiv e chemicals.
T h e r e is no residual effect that can be harmful to hu m an s or
aq u at ic life.
380
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UV disinfection is use r friendly for operato rs.
UV disinfection has a sho rter contact time wh en conipared
with o th er disinfectants (approximately 20 30 seconds with
low-pressu re lamps).
methods.
UV disinfection equip me nt requires less sp ace than other
r
.-
Lo w dosage may no t effectively inactivate som e viruses,
spore s, an d cysts.
2
*g
n
Orga nism s can sometimes repair an d reverse t he destructive
effects o f UV thro ugh a “repair m echanism,” know n as
ph o to reactivation, o r in the absence oflight know n as “dark
,-
m
repair.” Q,
P
5
fouling of tubes.
.-
n
A preven tive maintenance progra m is necessary to control
T ur bi di ty an d total susp ende d solids (TSS ) in the waste-
v)
water c an render UV disinfection ineffective. U V disinfec-
tion
with
low-pressure lamps is no t as effective for
secondary emuen t with
TSS
levels above
30 mg/L.
UV disinfection is no t as cost-effective as chlorination, bu t
costs a re competitive w hen
chlorination-dechlonnation
is
used
and
fire cod es are met.
381
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Flow
UV Horizontal Lamp
Module With
Support Racks
Automatic
Level Control
Flap Gate
Level Control
UV Bank
1
UV Bank 2
Flow
UV Vertical Lamp
Module With
Support Rack
NOTE:
A UV bank is composed of a number of UV
isometric Cut-Away Views of Typical UV Disinfection Systems
Wastewater Characteristics Affecting UV Disinfection Performance
Wastewater Characteristic
Effects on
UV
Disinfection
Minor effect, if anymmonia
Biochemical oxygen demand
BOD)
Hardness
Humic materials, iron
Nitrate
Nitrite
PH
Total suspended solids
Minor effect, i f any. If
a large portion of the
BOD
is
humic and/or unsaturated of conjugated)
compounds, however, then UV transmittance may
be diminished.
Affects solubility of metals that can absorb UV
light. Can lead
to
the precipitation of carbonates on
quartz tubes.
High absorbency of
UV radiation
Minor effect, if any
Minor effect, if any
Affects solubility of metals and carbonates
Absorbs UV radiation and shields embedded
bacteria
382
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Mechan isms of Disinfection Using UV, Chlorine, and Ozone
uv
Chlorine
1.
Photochemical damage to 1. Oxidation
RNA
and DNA (e&,
2, Reactions with
available chlorine
ormation of double
bonds) within the cells of
an organism. 3. Protein precipitation
microorganisms are the wall Permeability
most important absorbers
5.
Hydrolysis and
O the energy O light in
the wavelength range of disruption
240-280 nm.
carry genetic information
for reproduction, damage
of these substances can
effectively inactivate the
cell.
2, The nucleic acids in
4. ModificationOf
Ce l l
mechanical
3.
Because DNA and RNA
Ozone
1. Direct oxidation/
destruction
of
cell wall
with leakage of
cellular constituents
outside of cell
2. Reactions with radical
by-products of ozone ,=
Q
c
rn
.-
decomposition
..
constituentsof the
.-
and pyrimidines)
5
v
.
Damage to the
.-
nucleic acids (purines
4. Breakage of carbon-
ca
nitrogen bonds s
r
rn
eading to
depolymerization a
.-
m
3 A
5
20 40 60
80
100 120
140
Dose rnW.sec/crn2
Copyright 1998 from Wastewater Reclamation
and
Reuse,edited by Takashi Asano.
Reproduced by permission of Routledgelraylor 8 Francis Group,
LLC.
Typical Log Survival Versus Dose Curve of MS2 Coliphage Developedas
Part
of
a
Bioassay
for
the Measurement of UV
Dose
Within
a
UV Reactor
383
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L
o
g
S
u
r
v
v
a
l
o
N
t
N
o
/
i1
i
n
t
e
n
s
t
y
r
n
W
c
nZ
L
L
N
T
m
n
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Comparison of Impact of Wastewater Characteristics on UV Chlorine and Ozo
Wastewater
Characteristic
Disinfection Chlorine Disi
Ammonia
Biochemical oxygen
demand BOO),
chemical oxygen
demand COO), etc.
Hardness
Humic materials
Iron
Nitrate
Nitrite
PH
Total Suspended solids
No
or minor effect
No or minor effect, u n l w humic materials
comprise a large portion of the BOD
Effects solubility of metals that may absorb
UV light. Can lead to the precipitationof
carbonates on quartz tubes.
Strong adsorbers of
UV
light
Strong adsorber of UV light
No or minor effect
No or minor effect
Can effect solubility
of
metals and
carbonates
UV absorption and shielding of embedded
bacteria
Combines with chlorine to
Organic compounds that c
and COO can exert a chlor
degree of interference dep
functional groups and thei
structure.
No or minor effect
Reduces effectiveness of c
No or minor effect
No or minor effect
Oxidized by chlorine
Effects distribution betwee
acid and hypochlorite ion
Shielding
of
embedded ba
Disch
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Typical Low-intensity G64T5L UV Lamp Parameters and Performance
Range
Parameter
Standard Lamp Performance
Units Design Range
Nominal length' Inches
64
NA+
Arc
length Inches
58
NA
Lamp wattage
Watts
65
NA
Lamp input current Amperes
4.25
x lo-
3.C-5.25
x
lo-'
253.7
nm*
(hours)'
UV
output per lamp at Watts
26.7 15.4-32.0
Lamp life: guaranteed Hours
8,760 4,000-1 3,000
* A 36-in. lamp is also available, although it is seldom used in designs.
t NA =
not applicable.
*Range
of UV
output is a function of lamp current and water temperature.
§Lamp manufacturer guarantees
8,760
hours; lamp life in field depends on lamp
current and predetermined end of lamp life
UV
output intensity. The lower the
operating current, the sooner the lamp will reach end
of
lamp life, typically
defined as
65%-70%
of new lamp intensity.
Suggested Rates
of
WastewaterApplication
Soil Texture
minhn. minhn) g p u f t Uday/n?)t
Gravel, coarse sand
<1
(<0.4)
Not suitable
Coarse to medium sand
1-5 (0.4-2.0) 1.2 (0.049)
Fine to loamy sand
6-1 5 (2.4-5.9
0.8
(0.033)
Sandy loam to loam
1&30 (6.3-1 1.8) 0.6 (0.024)
Loam, porous silt
31430 (12.2-23.6) 0.45 (0.018)
Silty Clay loam, clay loam
61-120 (24.0-47.2)
0.2
0.008)
Clay, colloidal clay
>120 (>47.2)
Not suitable
Percolation rate,, Application Rate,
*min/in.
x 0.4
= min/cm
t gpd/ft2
x 40.8 =
Uday/m2
386
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MA RINE DISCHARGE
Domestic Industrial
Wastewater Wastewater
Pretreatment
Biological Treatment outfall Pipeline
With Chlorination
Sampling Point
lor Eflluent
Shoreline
Treatment
Plant
Profile
Ocean
Sampling Stations lor
Water Quality Objectives
Shore Zone S
Sampling for
Water Contact Zone of
Recreation Initial Dilution
.-
c
S
v)
.-
.-
ca
Pipeline Diffuser
Schematic
Plan
and Profile Diagrams of Marine Discharge
Effluent Quality Limits of Major Wastewater Constituents for Ocean
Discharge to Protect Marine Aquatic Life
Parameter (30-day average) (7-day average) (at any time)
Suspended solids , mg/L
Settleable solids, mUL 1 o 1.5 3.0
Turbidity, n u 75 100 225
PH
Acute toxicitv.
TUa*
1.5 2.0 2.5
Monthly Weekly Maximum
Grease and
oil, mg/L 25
40
75
60 with a minimum removal
of
75%
Within limits
of
6.0-9.0 at all times
100
96-hour LC 50
*TUa =
Where:
TUa = toxicity units acute
LC = lethal concentration50%
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Abbreviations
and Acronyms
In th e wastewater industry as
n
otherfields and
discifilines, m any names, titles, firograms,
organizations, legislative acts, measurements,
and activities are abbreviated to reduce the
volume
of
words and to si m fi l j communications.
In
his section,
common
abbreviations and
acronyms used
in the
wa ter and wastewater
industries-not only n th is guide-are listed
for easy reference.
389
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A
AACE
AADF
AAS
A A S H T O
ABPA
ARS
AC
A-C
ACM
acre-ft
ACS
ADA
ADF
AES
AHM
A.hr
AIChE
AIEE
AMWA
ANOVA
ANPRM
ANSI
AOC
APHA
APLR
APWA
ASCE
ASDWA
ASME
ASSE
ASTM
atm
avdp
or a1
AWRA
AWSAR
AWWA
AwwaRF
angstrom
ampere
American Association
of
Co st Engineers
annual average daily flow
atomic absorption spectrophotom etry
American Association of State Highway and
Am erican Backflow Prevention Association
alkylbenzene sulfonate; acrilonitrile butadiene sty rene
alternating current
asbestos cement
asbestos-containing material
acre-foot
American Chernical Society
Am ericans with Disabilities Act
average daily flow
atomic emission spectroscopy
acutely h azardo us material
ampere-hour
American Institute
of
Chemical Engineers
American Institute
of
Electrical Engineers
Association of M etropolitan W ater Agencies
analysis ofvariance
Advanced Notice of Prop osed Rulemaking
American National Standards Institute
assiinilable organic ca rbon
American Public Health A ssociation
annual pollutant loadin g rate
Am erican Public Works Association
American Society of Civil Eng ineers
Association of State Drinking Water Adm inistrators
American Society
of
Mechanical Engineers
American Society o f Safety Enginee rs; Association of
American Society for Testing an d Materials
atmosphere
ioir. avoirdupois
Am erican Water Resources Association
annual w hole sludge (biosolids) application rate
Am erican Water Works Association
Awwa Research Foundation
Transporta tion Officials
State Sanitary Engineers
390
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BAT
bbl
BDOM
BC
BEAC
BeV
bgd
bhP
bil gal
BNR
BOD
BOM
bPh
bPS
Bq
BSA
Btu
bu
BV
C
C
C X
To rCT
CAA
CBO D
ccf
C C L
CCR
cd
C D C
CERCLA
C F
h
C F R
cfs
CfU
CGPM
Ci
CI
best available technology
barrel
biodegradable organic matter
BaumC
biologically enhanced activated carbon
billion electron volts
billion gallons per day
brake horsepower
billion gallons
biological nutrient removal
biochemical oxygen dem and
o r
biological oxygen
background organic matter; biodegradable organic
barrels per hou r
binary digits (bits) per secon d
becquerel (metric equivalent of curie)
bovine serum albumin
British thermal unit
bushel
bed volume
demand
matter
degrees Celsius
coulomb
disinfectant conce ntration X time
Clean Air Act
carbonaceous biochemical oxygen de mand
100
cubic feet
Contaminant C andid ate List
consum er confidence repo rt
candela
Ce nters for Disease C ontro l and Prevention
Coinprehensive Environmental Re spon se,
conventional filtration
cub ic feet per minute
Code of Federal Regulations
cubic feet per second
colony-forming unit
General Conference on Weights and M easures
curie
cast iron
Co mpensation, and Liability Act
391
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CIPP
C/kg
cm
CMMS
C O D
Co-Pt
CPLR
cpni
C P P
CPS
CPSC
CPU
CPVC
CSA
C T
C T o r C X
CTS- PE
CUR
CWA
cws
cu
d
D
d a
DAF
dB
DBCP
DBP
D C
DCS
DCV
DCVA
D/DBP
D D T
DE
DI
diam.
DIPRA
dL
DO
cured in place pro du ct or pipe
coulom bs per kilogram
centimeter
com puteriz ed maintenance management system
chemical oxygen dem and
chloroplatinate
cumulative pollutant loadin g rate
counts per m inute
concrete pressure pipe
cycles per second ( 1 cps 1
Hz)
Con sum er Prod ucts Safety Commission
chloro platina te units
chlorin ated polyvinyl chlorid e
Canadian Standards Association
con tact time
disinfectant concentration
X
time
copper tubing size polyethylene
colo r unit; cubic
activated carb on usage rate
Clean W ater Act
com mu nity water system
degree
dalton
darcy
dissolved air flotation
decibel
dibrornochloropropane
disinfection by-p roduct
direct current
distribu ted control system
double check valve
double ch eck valve asseinbly
disinfectant/disinfection
by-product
dichlorodiphenyltricldoroethane
diatomaceous earth (filtration)
ductile iron
diameter
Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association
deciliter
dissolved oxygen
day
392
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D O C
D O T
DPD
d r
DSP
D T S
DWCCL
DWV
E B C T
EC
ED
EDB
EDR
EDTA
EGL
EIS
ElCD
emf
EPA
EPCRA
EJC
EPDM
EPI-DMA
EQ
e d L
ES
ESA
ESWTR
eV
F
F
tbm
FEMA
FIFRA
oz
FM
F/M
f p s
FRP
dissolved organic carbon
Departm ent of Transportation
N N diethyl 8 phenylenediamine
dram
disodium phosphate
dry ton of solids
Drinking Water Contam inant Ca ndid ate List
drain, waste, and vent (pipe)
empty-bed conta ct time
electrical conductivity
electrodialysis
o r
effective diameter
ethylene dibromide
electrodialysis reversal
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
energy grade line
Environmental Impact Statement
Engineers Joint Cou ncil
electrolytic conductivity d etec tor
electromotive force
Environm ental Protection Agency
Emergency Planning and Com munity
ethylene propylene diene monomer
epichlorohydrin dimethylamine
exceptional quality
equivalents per liter
effective size
Endangered Species Act
Enhanc ed Surface Water Treatment Ru le
electron volt
Right-to-Know Act
degrees Fahrenheit
farad
board feet (feet board measure)
Federal Emergency M anagement Agency
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Ro dentic ide Act
fluid ounce
Factory Mutual Engineering Corporatio n
food-to-microorganism ratio
foot per second
fiberglass-reinforced plastic
m
m
393
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ft
ft/hr
ftlinin
ft/sec
ft/sec/ft
ft/secL
ft'lsec
ft'
7
sq ft
ftY/sec
ft /hr o r cu ft/lir
ft /inin o r cu ft/inin
ft'/sec or c u ft/sec
ft
OT U ft
ft-lb
ftu
FY
g
GAC
gal
gal/flush
gal/ft'
GAO
GC
GC-ECD
CC-MS
G H T
GIS
GL
G L U M R B
feet
feet per h our
feet pe r m inute
feet per
second
feet per secon d per foot
feet per second squared
feet squared p er second
squa re foot
cubic feet pe r secon d
cub ic feet
cubic feet per hour
cubic feet per minu te
cubic feet per second
formazin tu rbidity unit
fiscal year
foot-pound
gram
granular activated carbon
gallons pe r flush
gallons per squa re foot
General Accounting office
gas chromatography
gas chromatography-electron capttare detector
gas chromatography-inass spectro tnetry
garde n hose thread
geographic information system
gigaliter
Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of St ate
Public H ealth and Environruental Managers
( Ten States Standards )
gallon
gallons per capita per day
gallons per day
gallons per day p er square foot
grains p er gallon
gallons per hou r
gallons per minute
gallons pe r m inute per square foot
gallons per second
global positioning system
gallons per year
394
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gr
GRP
gsfd
GWUDl
GY
H
ha
HAA
HAA5
HAN
HAV
H D P E
HDXLPE
H F
H G L
H G L E
HIV
hL
H P C
hp.hr
H P L C
hr
H R T
H T H
HVAC
Hz
hP
IBCC
IBWA
I CP
ICR
I D
IEEE
Imp
in.
in.&
in./min
in./sec
in.2
o r
sq in.
gram
glass-reinforced polyester
gallons per square foot pe r day
groundw ater und er the direct influence of
gray
surface water
henry
hectare
haloacetic acid
sum of five HA As
Moacetonitrile
Hepatitis A virus
high-density polyethylene
high-density, cross-linked polyethylene
hydrogen fluoride
hydraulic grade line
hydraulic grad e line elevation
human immunodeficiency virus
hectoliter
horsepower
heterotrophic plate co unt
horsepower-hour
high-performance liquid chromatography
hour
hydraulic retention time
High Test Hypochlorite
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
hertz
instrumentation a nd contro l
International Bottled W ater Association
inductively coupled plasma
Information Collection Rule
inside diameter
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Imperial
inch
inch-pound
inches
per
minute
inches per second
square inch
m
395
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in:’ 1 cu in.
1 o c
i P
IPS
IPS-PE
I P T
I RC
ISA
ISF
I S 0
IWRA
kB
kHz
kin
kin2
kPa
kV
kVA
kvar
kW
kW.iir
kg
kJ
L
lb
lb/day
lbf
lb/ft2
f i m
LC
LIN
lin ft
LLE
lm
L/tnin
LOAEL
L/day
cubic inches
inorganic contaminant
iron pipe
iron pipe size
iron pipe size polyethylene
iron pip e thread
international Research Ce nter
Instrument Society of America
intermittent sand filter
interna tional O rganization for S tandardization
interna tional Water Resources Association
joule
kelvin
kilobyte
kilogram
kilohertz (kilocycles)
kilojoule
kilometer
square kilometers
kilopascal
kilovolt
kilovolt-ampere
kiloreactive volt-ampere
kilowatt
kilowatt-hour
liter
pound
pound s per day
pound
force
pou nds per square foot
pound mass
liquid chromatography
liters per day
liquid nitrogen
linear feet
liquid-liquid extraction
lumen
liters per minute
lowest-observed-adverse-effect evel
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LOX
LPG
LSI
LULU
lx
m
M
m
m
m
mADC
max.
MB
MBAS
MCL
MCLG
M C R T
MDL
MDPE
meq
meq/L
MeV
M F
MFL
mg
MG
mgd
%/L
mhP
MHz
Pg
Pg/L
Pan
P M
kmhos
p n h o / c m
PS
PW
pW-sec/cm'
mi
liquid oxygen
liquefied petroleum gas
Langelier saturation index
locally unacceptable la nd use
l UX
meter
molar
squa re meters
cubic m eters
milliampere
milliampere direct curren t
maximum
megabyte
inethylene blue active sub stan ces
maximum conta minant level
maxim um contaminant level goal
mean celled residence time
method detectio n limit
medium-density polyethylene
milliequivalent
milliequivalents per liter
million electron volts
membrane filter; microtiltration
million tibers
per
liter
milligram
million gallons
million gallons per day
milligrams per liter
motor horsepower
megahertz (megacycles)
micron
microgram
micrograms per liter
micrometer
microniolar
micromhos
micromhos per centimeter
microsiemens
microwatt
microwatt-seconds pe r squa re centimeter
mile
rn
E
a
U
S
m
397
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mi I sq nri
mil
mil gal
1nl.l
min
inin.
mJ
MJ
MKS
mL
ML
MLSS
MLVSS
mm
ln
rnmol
In 1
In01 Wt
MPC
MPN
' PY
MRDL
MRDLG
s
MS
MSDS
mlseclm
MSL
M T D
M T F
MTZ
MUD
MW
MWCO
mW-sec
IIlOl/L
I 1 l ~ h
N
NA
NAS
N I
square t ides
million
million gallons
millimicron
minute
minilnuin
millijoule
megajoule
meter/kdograin/second
milliliter
megaliter o r million liters
mixed liquo r suspend ed solids
mixed liquor volatile suspen ded solids
millimeter
niillimolar
millimole
mole
molecular weight
moles pe r liter
maximum permissible concentration
miles per hour
most probable num ber
mils per year
maxim um residual disinfectant level
maxim um residual disinfectant level
goal
millisiemens
mass spectrometry
material safety data sheet
meters per second p er m eter
mean sea level
maxiinally tolerated dose
multiple-tube fermentation
mass transfer zon e
municipal utility district
molecular weight
molecular weight cutoff
megawatts pe r second
newton
not applicable; not analyzed
not applicable
National Academy
of Science
398
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NAWC
ND
NDWAC
NDWC
NEC
NEMA
NEPA
NESHAP
NEWWA
N F
NFPA
NGWA
NH
n d L
NIOSH
NIPDWR
nm
NOAEL
NOM
NPDES
NPDWR
NPS
NPSH
NPSHR
NPSM
N P T
NRWA
NSDWR
NSFC
N S T
N T N C
ntu
NWA
NWRA
National Association
ofWater Com panies
not detected
National Drinkin g Water Advisory Co unc il
National Drin king Water Clearinghouse
National Electrical Co de
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
National Environmental Policy Act
National Emission S tandards
for Hazardous w
Pollutants
New England W ater Works Association
nanofiltration
National Fire Protection Association
nanograms per liter
National Grou nd Water Association
American standard fire hose coupling thread (National
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulation
a
nanometer
S
natural organic matter
National Primary Drinking W ater Regulation
v
5
c
ose thread)
m
S
m
5
m
no-observed-adverse-effect level v
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
nominal pipe size; American standard straight pipe
.
.I
.
thread
net positive suction head; American standard straight
pipe
for
hose couplings (National pip e straight
hose)
net positive suction head rate
American standard straight pipe thr ead for free
American standard taper thread pipe (National pipe
National Rural W ater Association
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation
National Sm all Flows Clearinghouse
American standard fire hose coupling thread (National
nontransient noncommunity
nephelometric turbidity unit
National Water Alliance
National Water Resources Association
mechanical oints
tapered)
standa rd thread)
399
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O%M
OD
ODM
R
O R P
OSHA
O U R
ozf-in.
O
Pa
P-A
PAA
PAC
PAH
Pa.sec
PB
PC
PCB
PCE
pCi
pCi/L
PCU
PE
P F
PFRP
pE
i’fu
Pg
P%lD
PID
opera tions and maintenance
outside diameter
maximum outside diameter
ohm
oxidation-reduction potential
Oc cupa tional Safety and He alth A dniinistration
oxygen uptake rate
ounce
ounce-inch
pascal
presence-absence
peracetic acid
pow dered activated carbon
polyaroniatic hydrocarbon
pascal-second
polybutylene
pollutant concentration
polychlorinated biphenyl
tetrachloroethylene (perch loroeth ylene )
picocurie
picocuries p er liter
platinum-cobalt color unit
oxidation-reduction (redox ) poten tial
polyethylene
power factor
process to further reduce pathogens
plaque-forming unit
picogiam
process and instrumentation drawing
proportional integral derivative control;
peck
point ofentry
publicly owned treatment work s
poin t of use
polypropylene
parts per billion
personal protective equipm ent
par ts pe r million
parts per trillion; parts per thou sand
practical qnantitation level
photoionization detecto r
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PRI
PRV
PS
psi
psia
PSRP
Pt-Co
P T F E
PVC
PVDF
PW D
PWL
PWS
Psig
r
rad
radlsec
RAS
RBC
RCRA
RDL
reg neg
rem
RMCL
RMP
RO
Tpm
Tps
RPZ
R T D
R T O
R T P
RTU
S
SARA
SBR
primary
pressure-regulating valve
picosecond
pounds per square inch
pound s per sq uare inch absolute
pound s per square inch gauge
process to significantly reduc e pathog ens
platinum-cobalt
polytetrafluoroethylene
polyvinyl chloride
polyvinylidene difluoride
pub lic water district
pum ping water level
pub lic water system
quality assessment
quality contro l
quart
roentgen
radian
radians per second
retu rn activated sludge
rotating biological contactor
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
reliable detection level
regulatory negotiations
roentgen equivalent, mammal
recom mende d maximum contaminant level
risk managem ent program
reverse osmosis
revolutions per minute
revolutions per second
reduced pressu re zone
resistance temperatu re detector
regenerative thermal oxidizer
reinforced therm oset plastic
remote terminal unit
siemens
Sup erfund A mendments and R eauthorization Act
sequencing batch reactor
401
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SCADA
SCBA
SCD
SCFM
S/cm
SDI
SDR
SDWA
sec
sec
SEM
SI
SMCL
S O C
S O U R
SP gr
sp ht
SQL
sr
S S F
SUVA
sv
SVI
SWD
SWL
SW P
S W T R
t
T
T C
T C E
T C L P
T C R
T D S
T F
T F E
T H M
T H M F P
T N C W S
tcu
supervisory control and data acquisition
self-contained breathing ap paratu s
streaming current detecto r
standard cubic feet pe r m inute
siemens per cen timeter
sludge density index
standard dimen sion ratio
Safe D rinking W ater Act
second
inverse seconds
scann ing electron microscope
S y s t h e International d’UnitCs (International System
secon dary maximum con taminant level
synth etic organic chemical
specific oxygen uptake rate
specific gravity
specific heat
Structured Q uery Language
steradian
slow sand tiltration
specific ultraviolet absorbanc e
sievert
sludge volume index
side water dep th
static water level
State Water Plan
Surface Water Treatm ent Rule
of Units)
metric ton
o r
tonne
tesla
thermocouple
trichloroethylene or trichloroethene)
toxic characteristic leaching pro ced ure
Total Coliform Rule
true co lor unit
total dissolved solids
trickling filter
tetratluoroethylene
trihalomethane
trihalornethane formation potentia l
transient, noncommunity water system
402
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T O C
T O N
T O X
T P I
TS
T S C A
TSP
T S P P
T S S
TT
T T H M
w s s
T W T D S
uc
UF
U F W
UL
UPS
U R T H
USEPA
USPHS
uv
V
VA
VAC
VAR
V D C
VFD
voc
vol.
vs
VSD
VSR
W
WAS
wb
W E F
W ERL
W F P
total orga nic carbon
threshold od or number; total organic nitrogen
total organic halogen
threads per inch
total solids
Toxic Sub stances Con trol Act
trisodium phosphate
tetrasodium pyrophosphate
total susp ende d solids
treatment technique
total trihalomethanes
transient voltage surge sup pressio n
treatment w orks treating dom estic sewage
uniformity coefficient
ul rafil tration
unaccounted-for water
Underw riters Laboratories
uninterruptible power sup ply
unreasonable risk to health
US Environmental Protection Agency
US Public Hea lth Service
ultraviolet
volt
volt-ampere
volts alternating cur ren t
volt-ampere-reactive; vector attraction reduction
volts direct cu rrent
variable-frequency drive
volatile organic com pound
volume
volatile solids
variable-speed drive
volatile solids reduction
watt
waste-activated sludge
weber
Water Environm ent Federation
Water Engineering Research L aboratory
Water For People
rn
E
Y
U
S
m
403
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W H O
WHPA
WHPP
WIDB
WITAF
w hp
WY
wy1c
Wt
W T P
W W T P
Xe
vd
yd' or sq yd
yd3
World
He alth O rganization
water horsepow er
wellhead protec tion area
wellhead protection program
Water Industry Data Base
Water Ilidustry Technical Action Fund
Water Quality Association
Water Quality Information Center
weight
water treatment plant
wastewater treatment plant
xenon
yard
squa re yards
cubic yards
zeta potential
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Glossary
From
A
to
Z,from
absolute pressure to zone
of saturationand evevthing in between, many
term s used in
the
basic science-as well as the
practical application
of
water and wastewater
Processes and technologies-are uniq ue to the
wastewater industry.
For
quick reference in the
field, here is a com pilation of wastewater quantity,
qual ity , anabs is, an d useage terms, along with
environmental and human-health-reluted terms
commonly
used
in
wastewater treatment.
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abso lute pr es su re T h e total pressure in a system, including both the pres-
sure of water and the pressure of the atmosph ere (about
14.7
psi at sea
level). Co mpare with gauge pressure.
An y substance that releases hydrogen ions (H') when it is mixed into
water.
acid
acidic solution
aerobic
alkaline solution
alkalinity
ammete r
anaerobic
an imal ( an d poult ry ) ma nure
an io n A negative ion.
ann ual average daily f low
a r i thme t i c me a n
ar i thm etic scale
A solution that conta ins significant num bers of H' ions.
Living or active in the presence of oxygen. Refers especially to
A solution that contains significant numbers of
OH-
A measurement of water's capacity to neutralize an acid. Corn-
An instrument
for
measuring amperes.
microorganisms and/o r decom position of organic matter.
ions. A basic solution.
pare
p H .
Living or active in the absence of oxygen (e.g., anaerobic micro-
Animal excreta, including bedding, feed,
organisms).
and o th er by-products of animal feeding and hou sing operations.
T h e average daily flow calculated using 1 year
ofdata .
A m easurement of average value, calculated by sum ming
all term s and dividing by the num ber of terms.
A scale is a series of intervals (marks or lines), usually
marked along the side and botto m of a graph, that represents the range
of
values o f the data. Wh en the marks or lines are equally spaced, it is called
an arithmetic scale. Com pare with logarz'thmz'c
scale.
T h e sm allest particle o fa n element that still retains the characteristics
of that element.
a t o m
a to m ic n u m b e r
a tomic we igh t
average da i ly f low
T h e num ber of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
T h e sum of the number of protons and the number of neu-
trons i n the nucleus of an atom.
A measurement
of the amount of water treated by a
plant eac h day. It is the average o fthe actual daily flows that occu r within a
pe rio d of time, such as a week, a m onth, or a year. Mathematically, it is the
sum
of
ll daily flows divided by the total nu rnber ofd aily flows used.
T h e average of the instantane ous flow rates over a given
per io d of time, such as a day.
average flow rate
bacteria Single-celled microscopic organisms lacking chlorophyll. Some
caus e d isease and som e d o not. Som e are involved in performing a variety
of beneficial biological treatment processes including biological oxida-
tion, so lid s digestion, nitrification, and denitrification.
A chemical equation is balanced w hen, for each element in the
eq ua tio n, as many atoms are shown on the right s ide of th e equation as are
sh ow n o n the left side.
ba lanced
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base
in water.
basic so lut ion
bat tery
Any substance that releases hydroxyl ions (O H )
when it dissociates
A
solution that contains significant num bers of O H ions.
A device for producing DC electric current from a
chemical reuc-
tzon.
In a storage battery, the process may be reversed, with cu rren t flow-
ing into the battery, thus reversing the chemical reaction and recharging
the battery.
bicarbonate alkalinity
biochemical oxygen dema nd
Alkalinity caused by bicarbonate ions ( H C O j ).
T h e quantity of oxygen used in the biologi-
cal and chem ical oxidation (decom positio n) of organic m atter in a speci-
fied time, at a specified temp erature (typically 5 days at
68°F
[2O CJ), and
unde r spe cified conditions. A standardized biochemical oxygen demand
test is use d in assessing the am oun t of organic matter in wastewater.
The aerobic degradation of organic substances by
microorganisms, ultimately resulting in th e prod uction of carbo n dioxide,
water, microbia l cells, and intermediate by-products.
T h e organic solids produ ct of municipal wastewater treatment
that can b e beneficially utilized. Wastewater treatment sol ids that have
received p rocesses to significantly reduce pathogens
or
processes to fur-
ther redu ce pathogens treatment,
or
their equivalents, acco rding to the
Part 5 0 3 ru le to achieve a class A o r class
B
pathogen status. The sol-
ids:liquid con ten t of the prod uc t can vary: liquid biosolids,
1 -4
sol-
ids; thickened liquid biosolids,
4 -
12% solids; dewatered biosolids,
12%-45% solids ; dried b iosolid s, >50% solids (advanced alkaline stabi-
lized, compost, thermally dried). In general, liquid biosolids and thick-
ened liquids can be handled w ith a pum p. Dew atered/dried biosolids are
handled w it h a loader.
biological ox idatio n
biosolids
2
3
bond See chemical bond
brake horsepow er
buffer
bu lkdens i ty
T h e power supplied to a pum p by a m otor. Compare
with
wat er horsefiower
and m otor
horsefiower.
A substance capable in solution of resisting a reduction in pH as
acid is add ed .
T h e weight per standard volume (usually in pound s per
cubic foot) of material as it would be shipped from the supplier to the
treatment plant.
A secondary or additional product; something produced in
the course of treating
or
manufacturing the principal prod uc t.
by-product
cake D ew ate red biosolids with a solids concentration high enough (212%)
to permit handling as a solid material.
(NOTE
some dewatering agents
might s t i l l c au se slumping even with solids contents high er than 12%).
A par t of the total im pedance of an electrical circu it tending to
resist the
flow
of current. Capacitance can be added to cance l the effect of
inductance . I t is expressed
in
units of farads.
capacitance
capacity
The flow rate that a pum p is capable ofp rod ucing .
carbo nate a k l i n i t y Alkalinity caused by carbonate ions (C03
.
407
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cation exc ha nge cap acity A measure of the soil’s capacity to attract and
retain plant nutrients that occur in positively charged ionic form. Cation
exchange capacity (C EC ) is a focus of interest because fertilizers supp ly
positively charged cationic plant nutrien ts, wh ich are attracted to nega-
tively charged anion ic
soil
particles, including
soil
organic matter. Organ-
ically amended
soils
typically have a hig her C E C (i.e ., a h igher capacity
for
attracting and retaining plant nutrients) than unamended or low
organ ic soils.
cation
A
positive ion.
chem ical bo nd T h e force that holds atoms together within molecules. A
chem ical bond is formed w hen a chemical reaction takes place. Tw o types
ofchernical bond are ionic bon ds an d covalent bon ds.
A sho rthand way, using chemical formulas,
of
writing
the reaction that takes place when chemicals are brought together. The
left side of the equation indicates the chemicals brought together (the
reactants ), the arrow indicates in which d irection the reaction occu rs, and
the li gh t side of the equation indicates the results (the products) of the
chem ical reaction.
chemical equ at ion
chemical form ula Seeforinula
chemical reaction
A process that occurs w hen atoms of certain elements
are bro ug ht together and com bine to form molecules, or when molecules
are bro ke n d ow n into individual atoms.
A device that functions b oth as a curr en t overload protec -
tive dev ice and as a switch.
T h e distance measured arou nd the outside edge of a circle.
T h e accelerated decom position of organic matter by microor-
gan isms, which is accompanied by tem peratu re increases above arnbie nt;
for biosolid s, com pos ting is typically a m anaged ae robic process.
Tw o or more elements bonded together by a chernical reaction.
In chemistry, a measurement of how inuch solute
is
con-
tained in a given amount of solution (commonly measured in milligrams
per liter).
A substance that permits the flow of electricity, especially one
that co nd uc ts electricity with ease.
A desirable characteristic o f biosolids that allows
the m aterial to be stacked and remain nonflowing w hen stored.
c ircuit b reake r
c ircumference
c ompos t ing
c o m p o u n d s
concentra t ion
c onduc to r
con solid ated (biosolids)
conver ter
cova len t b o n d
cr it ica l co nt ro l point
cross mult ipl ica t ion
Generally, a D C generator driven by an A C m otor.
A type of chemical bond in which electrons are shared.
Co m pare with
ioni
bond.
A
location, event,
or
proce ss poin t at which specific
m on itor ing an d responsive management practices shou ld be applie d.
A method used to determine if two ratios are i n pro-
po rt io n. In this method , the nu merator of the first ratio is inultiplied by
the de no m in ato r of the second ratio. Similarly, the denominator o f the
first ratio is multiplied by the numerator of the second ratio. If the
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prod ucts of both multiplications are the same, the two ratios are in pro-
portion to each other.
A
device that automatically hold s electric cur rent within
certain limits.
T h e “flow rate” of electricity, measured in amperes. Compare with
potential.
current regulator
current
daily flow
demand me te r
denitrification
denomina tor
density
design poin t
T h e volume of water that passes throu gh a plant in
1
day
(24 hours). More precisely called daily flow volume.
An
instrum ent that m easures the average power of a load
du ring s om e specilic interval.
T h e conversion of nitrogen com poun ds to nitrogen gas or
nitrous ox id e by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen.
The part of a fraction below the line.
A
fraction indicates
division o f th e num erator by the denom inator.
T h e weight of a substance per a unit of its volume (e.g., po unds
pe r cubic foot o r pounds per gallon).
T h e mark o n
the
H-Q
(head-capacity) curve of a pum p char-
acteristics curve that indicates th e head and capacity at which the pum p is
intend ed to opera te for best efficiency in a particular installation.
T h e average length of time a dro p o fw ate r or a suspended
particle rem ains in a tank
or
chamber. Mathem atically, it is the volume of
water in th e tank divided by the flow rate through the tank. T h e units of
flow rate us ed
in
the calculation are d epen den t o n wh ether the detention
time is to b e calculated in minutes, h ours, or days.
The solid residue (12% total solids by weight
or
greater) remaining after removal of water from a liquid biosolids by
drainin g, pre ssing, filtering, or centrifuging. Dewatering is distinguished
from thickening in that dew atered biosolids may be transported by solids
handling procedures.
T h e ength of a straight line measured through the center of a cir-
cle from
one
side to the other.
T h e decomposition of organic m atter by m icroorganisms with
consequent volume reduction. Anaerobic digestion produces carbon
dioxide a n d methane, whereas aerobic digestion prod uces carbon dioxide
and water.
digit Any o n e of the
1
arabic numerals 0 hrough 9) by which all num-
bers may
be
expressed.
dra wd ow n T h e amount the water level in a well dro ps once pumping
begins. Draw down equals static water level minus pumpin g water level.
dynamic disch arge head
The difference in height measured from the
pu m p ce n te r line at the discharge of the pum p to the point on the hydrau-
lic grade l in e directly above it.
de ten t ion t ime
dewa te redb ios o l ids
diameter
digestion
dynamic hea d
dynamic s u c t io n head
See
total dynamic head.
T h e distance from the pum p cen ter line at the suc-
tion of the p u m p
to
the p oin t of the hydraulic grade line directly above it.
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Dy nam ic suction head exists only when the p um p is below the piezoniet-
ric surface of the water at the pum p suction. W hen the pump is above the
piezom etric surface, the equivalent measurem ent is dynamic suctio n lift.
T h e distance from the p um p center line at the suction
of the pump to the point on the hydraulic grade line directly below it.
Dynam ic suction lift exists only when the p um p is above the piezometric
surface of the water at the pum p suction. Wh en the pum p is below the
piezometric surface, the equivalent measurement is called dynam ic suc-
tion hea d.
T h e description of a water system when w ater is
moving through the system.
dynam ic suct ion l if t
dynam ic water system
effective he ig ht
efficiency T h e ratio of the total energy ou tpu t to the total energy inp ut,
expressed as percent.
ele ctro m ag ne tics T h e study of the combined effects of electricity and
magnetism.
el ec tr on On e of the three elementary particles of an atom (along with pro-
ton s a n d neu trons). An electron is a tiny, negatively charged particle that
orbits around the nucleus o fan atom. T h e num ber of electrons in th e out-
erm ost shell is on e of the most impo rtant characteristics of an atom in
determining how chemically active an element will be and with what
othe r elements o r compounds it will react.
Any
of more than
100
fundamental substances that consist of
at om s ofonly one kind and that constitute all matter.
T h e energy possessed per unit w eigh t of a fluid becau se of
its elevation above som e reference point (called the reference datum). E le-
va tio n head is also called position head
or
pote ntial head.
(Sometimes called energy gradie nt line
or
energy line.)
A
li ne join ing the elevations of the energy heads; a line drawn abo ve the
hy dra ulic grade line by a d istance equivalent to the velocity head of the
flow ing water at each section along a stream, channe l, or conduit.
T h e weight of an element o r com po un d that, in a given
chem ical reaction, has the same combining capacity as 8 g ofoxygen
or
as
1 g of hydrogen. T h e equivalent weight
for
an element
or
compound may
vary w ith the reaction being considered.
A natural
or
artificial process of nutrient enrichment by
w hic h a water body becomes highly turbid, d epleted in oxygen, an d over-
g ro w n with undesirable algal blooms.
Exceptional quality biosolids meet class A
pathogen reduction; vector attraction reduction standards
1-8;
and Part
503, Table 3, high-quality pollutant c onc entration standards.
An expo nen t indicates the number of times a base num ber is to
be multiplied to ether For example, a base num ber o f 3 with an expon ent
of5
is written 3. .T h is indicates that the base nu m ber is to be m ultiplied
to get her five times: 35= 3 x
3 x 3 x 3 x 3 .
T h e total feet of head against which
a
pu m p m ust work.
e lement
elevation head
e ne rgy g r a d e l ine
equ ivale nt weight
e u t r oph ic a t ion
exce ption al quali ty biosolids
e x p o n e n t
:.
41
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fecal coliform
T h e type of coliform bacteria p rese nt in virtually all fecal
material produced by mammals. Since the fecal coliforms may not be
pathogens, they indicate the potential presence
of
hum an disease organ-
isms. See also indicator organisms.
A
member
of
a g rou p of gram-positive bacteria known
as
Enterococci,
previously classified as a subgro up o f
Strefitococcus.
The y
are found i n feces of huma ns, animals, and insects o n pla nts often not in
association wi th fecal contamination. See
indicator organisms.
A
temporary
or
seasonal storage area, usually located at the
application site, which holds biosolids destined for use on designated
fields. Sta te regulations may
or may not make distinctions between stag-
ing, stockpiling, or field storage. In add ition , the time limits for the same
material to b e stored continuously on site before it mu st b e land-applied
range from 24 hours to 2 years.
A
measurement of the volume of water flowing
upward (backward) through a unit
of
filter surface area. Mathematically, it
is the backwash flow rate divided by the total filter area.
A measurement of the volume of water applied to each
unit of filter surface area. Mathematically, it is the flow rate into the filter
divided by th e total Glter area.
Eq uip m ent used near the end of the solids production process
at a w astew ater treatment facility to remove liquid from biosolids and pro-
du ce a sem isolid cake.
A measure of the volume of water moving past a given point in a
given pe rio d of time. Com pare instantaneousflow rate and averageflow
rate.
formula we ight See
mokcular weight.
formula
fecal
Stre tococcus
field storag e
f i l te rbackwashra te
fil ter loading r at e
filter pre ss
s
r
flow
ra te
U sing the chemical symbols for each element, a formula is a short-
hand way o f writing what elements are presen t in a molecule and how
many a t o m of each element are present in each of the molecules.
Also
called a chem ical formula.
T h e head lost by water flowing in a strea m
or
conduit as
the result o f (1) the disturb ance set u p by the contact betw een the moving
water and i t s containing conduit and (2) intermolecular friction.
A protective device that disconnects equipment from the power
source wh e n current exceeds a specified value.
friction be ad
loss
fuse
gauge pres sure
T h e water pressu re as measured by a gauge. Gauge pres-
sure is not the total pressure. Total water pressure (absolute pressure)
also includes the atmospheric pressure (about
14.7
psi at sea level)
exerted on the water. Gauge pressure in pounds per square inch is
expressed
as
‘‘psig.”
A
piece of equipment used to transform rotary motion (for
example, the output
of
a diesel engine) to electric current . Also, a person
or org anization w ho changes the biosolids characteristics either through
treatment, mixing, or any other process.
generator
411
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good man agem ent practices
Schedules of activities, opera tion and main-
tenance procedures (including practices
to
contro l odor, site runoff, spill-
age, leaks,
or
drainage), prohibitions, and other management practices
found to be highly effective and practicable in the safe, community-
friendly use of biosolids and in p reven ting or red ucing discharge of pol-
lutants to waters of the United States.
g roups
head loss
head
T h e vertical columns of elements in the periodic table.
T h e am oun t of energy used by water in moving from on e loca-
tion to another.
(1)
A measure of the energy possessed by water at a given location in
the wa ter system, expressed in feet. (2) A measure of the pressure
or
force
exert ed by water, expressed in feet.
he lm in th an d he lm in th ova Parasitic worms (e.g., roundworms, tape-
worms,
Ascaiis,
Necator, Tamia and
Eichuris)
and ova (eggs) of these
worms. Helminth ova are quite resistant to chlorination and can be
passed out in the feces of infected humans and organisms and ingested
with food
or
water. One helminth ovum is capab le of hatching and grow-
ing w he n ingested.
A term used to describe a substance with a uniform struc-
ture
or
com position throughou t.
Amount of water
or
liquid biosolids applied to a
given treatment process and expressed as volume per unit time,
or
vol-
um e p e r unit time per surface area.
homogeneous
hydraul ic loading ra tes
hydroxy l alkalinity
ind ica tor o rgan isms
Alkalinity caused by hydroxyl ions (O H -).
Microorganisms, such as fecal colifonns and fecal
streptococci (enterococci), used as surrogates for bacterial pathogens
when testing biosolids, manure, compost, leachate, and water samples.
Tests for the presence of the surrogates are used because they are rela-
tively easy, rap id, and inexpensive compared to tho se required for pa tho-
gens s uc h as
Salmonella
bacteria.
An electrical pro per ty by which electrical energy is stored in a
m agn etic field. It is analogous to inertia in a hydrau lic system. Inductio n
has t h e effect of resisting changes in cu rren t flow. It is measured in he nrys
or
m ete rs squared kilograms per second sq uared pe r ampere squa red.
in fil tra tio n T h e rate at which water enters the soil surface, expre ssed in
in ch es p er hour, influenced by both permeability and moisture conte nt o f
the soi l.
A flow rate of water measured at one particular
ins tan t, such as by a metering device, involving th e cross-sectional area
of
the channe l
or
pip e an d the velocity
of
the water at that instant.
A substan ce that offers very great resistance, or hindrance, t o the
flow
of
electric current.
A technique used to determine values that
fall
between the
m ark ed intervals on a scale.
i nduc ta nc e
ins t a n ta ne ous flow ra te
insu la tor
in te rpo la t ion
412
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ion
An atom that is electrically unstab le because it has more or fewer elec-
trons than protons. A positive ion is called a cation.
A
negative ion is
called an an ion.
A type of chemical bond in which electrons are transferred.
Compare with
covalent bond.
Atom s of the same element, but containing varying numb ers
of
neutrons in the nucleus. For each element, the most common naturally
occurring iso top e is called th e princip al isotope of that element.
ionic bon d
isotopes
kill
lagoon
T h e destruc tion of organisms in a water supply.
A
reservoir or pond built to contain water, sediment, and/or
manu re usually containing
4
to
12
solids until they can be removed
for application to land.
T h e spreading
or
spraying of biosolids o n to the surface
of land, the direct injection of biosolids below the soil surface, or the
incorporation into the surface layer of
soil.
Also applies to manure and
oth er orga nic residuals.
Liquid that has come into contact with or percolated through
materials being stockpiled or stored; contains dissolved or suspended
particles a n d nutrients.
Biosolids
or
animal manu re containing
suffi-
cient water (ordinarily more than 88 ) to permit flow by gravity
or
A
scale is a series of intervals (marks
or
lines),
usually ma rked along the side and bottom of a graph, th at represents the
range ofv al ue s of the data. W hen the marks or lines are varied logarithmi-
cally (an d ar e therefore no t equally spaced), the scale is called logarith-
mic, or
log,
scale. Co mp are with
arithmetic scale.
land applicat ion
leachate
liquid
biosolids or
manure
pumping.
logarithmic scale (log scale)
mercap tam
A
group of volatile chemical compounds that are one of the
breakdown products of sulfur-containing proteins. Noted for their dis-
agreeable od o r.
Bacteria, fungi (molds, yeasts), protozoans, helminths,
and viruses. The terms
microbe
and
mierobial
are also used to refer to
micro organisms, some of which cause disease, and ot he rs are beneficial.
Parasite
a n d
parasitic
refer to infectious protozoans and helminths.
Microorg anism s are ubiq uitous, possess extremely high grow th rates, and
have the ability to degrade all naturally occurring organic compounds,
including those in water and wastewater. They use organic matter for
food.
T h e process by which elements com bined in organic form
in living or dead organisms are eventually reconverted into inorganic
forms to be m ad e available for a new cycle of growth. T h e m ineralization
of
organic c om po un ds occurs through oxidation and metabolism by liv-
ing microorganisms.
microorganism
mineralization
41
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minor he a d
loss
T h e energy losses that result from the resistance to flow as
water passes through valves, fittings, inlets, and outlets of a piping system.
mitigation T he act or state of red ucing th e severity, intensity, or harshness
of som ething ; to alleviate, dim inish, or lessen, as to mitigate heat, cold, or
odor.
mixture Two or more elements, compo unds,
or
both, mixed together with
no chemical reaction (bonding) occu rring.
m olality A measure ofconcentration defined as the num ber ofnioles ofsol-
Ute per liter
of
solvent. Not commonly used in wastewater treatment.
Com pare with molarity.
A measure o f concentration defined as the num ber of moles of
solu te pe r liter of solution.
The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in the
compound.
Also
called formula weight.
molarity
m olecu lar weight
molecu le
mos t p roba b le num be r
Two or more atom s oin ed together by a chemical bo nd .
A statistical approximation of the number of
microorgan isms pe r unit volume or mass of sample. O ften used to rep ort
the num be r of coliforins per 100 mL wastewater or water, but applic able
to ot h er microbial grou ps as well.
m oto r ho rse po w er T h e horsepower equivalent to the watts of electric
power supplied to a motor. Compare with brake horsefiower and water
horseflower.
Household and commercial water discharged into
municipal sewer pipes; contains mainly human excreta and used water.
Distinguished
from
solely industrial wastewater.
mu nic ipa l wastewater
neutra l iza t ion
water.
neutralize See neutrulizatioii.
ne u t r on
T h e proces s of mixing an acid and a base to forin a salt and
An uncharged elementary particle that has a mass approximately
equal to that of the proton. Neutrons are present in all known atomic
nucle i ex cept the lightest hydrogen nucleus.
T h e biochemical oxidation of ammonia nitrogen to n itrate
nitro gen , which is readily used by plants and microorganisins as a nutrient .
A graph in w hich three
or
more scales are used to solve mathe-
matical problems.
Human-made or
human-induced alteration of
the chemical, physical, biological,
or
radiological integrity of water o r air,
origin ating from any source othe r than a point source.
Any source, other than a point so urce, discharging pol-
lut ant s into air
or
water.
A method ofexpressing the concentration of a solution. It is the
n um b er of equivalent weights of solute per liter of solution.
The center of an atom, made up of positively
ch arg ed particles called protons and uncharged particles called ne utron s.
ni t r i f ica t ion
n o m o g r a p h
n o n p o h t s o u rc e p ollu tio n
nonpo in t sou r c e
no r ma l i ty
nucleus (plura l : nucle i)
414
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numera tor
nutr ient man agem ent plan
T h e pa rt of a fraction above the line.
A
fraction indicates divi-
sion of the n ume rator by the denom inator.
A series of good management practices aimed
at reducing agricultural nonpoint source pollution by balancing nutrient
inputs with cro p nutrient requirements.
A
plan includes soil testing; anal-
ysis of organic nutrient sources such as biosolids, compost,
or
animal
manure; utilization of organic sources based on their nutrient content;
estimation of realistic yield goals; nutrient recommendations based on
soil test levels and yield goals; and optim al timing and method of nutrient
applications.
Any substance that is assimilated by organisms and promotes
growth; generally applied to nitrogen an d p hosphorus in w astewater bu t
also
other essential trace elements
or
organic compounds that micro-
organisms, plants, or animals use for their growth.
nutr ient
odor cha rac te r
T h e sensory quality of an odorant, d efined by one
or
more
descrip tors , suc h as fecal (like manure), sw eet, fishy, hay, woody resinous,
musty, earthy.
A dimensionless unit expressing the
strength of an odor. An od or requiring
500
binary (twofold) dilutions to
reach the detection threshold has a D/T of 500. An od or with a D/T of
500
would b e stronger than an o do r with a
D/T
of
20.
A measure of the perceived strength of an odor. This is
determined by comparing the odorous sample with “standard” odors
com prised o f various concen trations of n-butanol in odor-free
air.
Persistence of an odor; how noticeable an o doran t is as
its conc entratio n changes; determ ined by serially diluting the odor and
measu ring intensity at each dilution.
odor th res ho ld Detection-the minimum concentration of
an
odorant
that, on average, can be detec ted in odor-free air. Recognition-the mini-
mum concentration of an odorant that, on average, a person can distin-
guish by it s definite characte r in a diluted sample.
Storage of biosolids at locations away from the wastewater
treatment plant
or
from the point ofgeneration. Several terms encompass
various types of storage: staging, stockpiling, field storage, and storage
facility.
Ohm’s law A n equation expressing the relationship betw een the potential
E )
n volts, the resistance (R) in ohms, and the current
(I)
in amperes for
electricity passin g through a metallic conducto r. Ohm’s law is
E =
x
R.
odor d i lu t ions t o th reshold or D/T
odor in tens i ty
odor pe rvas iveness
off-site storage
o rgan ic c om pou nd s
organics See
org nic
comfiounds.
overland flow
pathogen
per capita Per person.
Generally, com pou nds con taining carbo n.
Refers to the free movement of water over the ground surface.
A
disease-causing organism, including certain bacteria, fungi,
helminths, protozoans, or viruses.
41
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percent
per imeter
perio dic table
per iods
permeability
p H
T h e fraction of
the whole expressed as parts per one hu ndre d.
T h e distance around the outer edge of a shape.
A chart showing
all
elements arranged accord ing to similari-
ties o f chemical prope rties.
T h e horizontal rows of elements in a periodic table.
T h e rate of liquid m ovement through a unit cross section of
satu rate d soil in unit time; comm only expres sed in inches per hour.
A measurement of how acidic
or
basic a substance is. The pH scale
runs from 0 (most acidic) to
14
(most basic). T h e center of the range
(7)
indica tes the sub stance is neutral, ne ither acidic
or
basic.
Any substance having a toxic or poisonous effect on Idant
growth. Immature
or
anaero bic compost can c ontain volatile fatty acids
that a re phytotoxic to plants. Soluble salts can also be phytotoxic in addi-
tion to toxic heavy metals and toxic organ ic com po unds .
Any discernable, confined,
or
discrete conveyance from
w hi ch pollutants are
or
may be discharged, includ ing, but not limited to,
any p ipe , d itch, cha nnel, tunnel, cond uit, well, stack, container, rolling
stock , c onc entrated animal feeding opera tion, o r vessel
or
other floating
craft.
pole
polymer
phyto tox in
po in t sou r c e
O n e end of a magnet ( the north or south pole).
A compound composed of repeating subun its used to aid in floc-
culating suspended particulates in wastewater into large clusters. This
floccu lation aids solids removal and enha nces the removal of water from
bio so lids during dewatering processes.
T h e “pressu re” of electricity, measured in volts. Co mpare with
current.
T h e measure
of
the amount of work
do ne in a given period of time. T h e rate of do in g work. M easured in watts
or
horsepower.
potent ia l
power
(in
hydraulics or electricity)
pow er ( i n mathematics) See
exfionent.
pr e s su r e he a d
pressure
pr inc ipal isotopes See isotofies.
process
to
fur the r reduce pathogens
A measurement of the amount of energy in water due to
T h e force pushing on a unit area. Normally pressure can b e mea-
water pressure.
sured in pascals, pou nds per squ are inch, or feet of head.
The process management protocol
prescrib ed in USEPA Part 503 used to achieve clas s A biosolids in wh ich
pathogens are reduced to undetectable levels. Composting, advanced
alkalin e stabilization, chemical fixation, and d ryin g
or
heat treatmen t are
some
of
the processes that can be used to meet Part 503 requirements for
class
A.
T h e process management pro-
tocol prescribed in USEPA Part 503 used to achieve class B biosolids in
w hi ch pathogen num bers are significantly redu ced but are still presen t.
Additional restrictions on the use and placement of class R biosolids
ensure a level
of
safety equivalent to class A. Aerobic and anaerobic
process to significantly reduce pathogen s
416
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digestion,
air
drying, and lime stabilization are types of processes used to
meet the class
B
pathogen density limit of less than 2,000,000 fecal
coliforms/gram dry weight of total solids.
T h e results o fa chemical reaction. T h e pro ducts o fa reaction are
shown on th e right side of a chemical equatio n.
W hen the relationship between two numbers
in a ratio is th e same as that between
two
othe r num bers in an other ratio,
the two ratios are said to be in proportion, o r proportionate.
O ne o f the three elementary particles of an atom (alon g with neu-
trons and electron s). T h e proto n is a positively charged particle located in
the nucleus o f an atom. T h e num ber of proto ns in the nucleus of an atom
determines th e atonuc number
of
that element.
Single-celled microorganisms, many species of which can infect
humans and cause disease. The infective forms are passed as cysts or
oocysts in th e feces of hum ans and animals and accumulate in flocculated
solids. T h e y are quite resistant to disinfection processes, suc h as chlori-
nation , tha t eliminate most bacteria bu t are susceptib le to destruction by
drying.
produc ts
proport ion (proport ionate)
proton
protozoa
pu mp cen te r
line
pu m p character is t ics curve
An
imaginary line through the center of a pum p.
A curve
or
curves showing th e interrelation of
speed, dynam ic head, capacity, b d e horsepower, and efficiency of a
The water level measured when the pump is in
P-P.
operation.
umping w ate r leve l
radicals
radius
ratio
Groups of elements chemically bonded together and acting like
T h e d istance from the cen ter of a circle to its edge. One half of the
A
relationship between two numbers. A ratio may b e expressed usin g
single at om s or ions in their ability to form other compo unds.
diameter.
colon s (for example,
1:2 or 3:7),
or it may be expressed a s a fraction (e.g.,
12 or
y/7).
reactance
reactants
retent ion
time
T h e com bined effect of capacitance and indu ctance .
T h e chemicals brought together in a chemical reaction. T h e
chemical reac tants are shown o n the left side o fa chemical equation.
T h e period of time that wastewater or bioso lids take to p ass
through
a
particu lar part of a treatment process, calculated by d ividing
the vo lum e of processing unit by the volume
of
material flowing pe r un it
time.
A quantitative measure of the probability of the occur-
rence
of
a n adverse health
or
environmental effect. Involves
a
multistep
process th a t inclu des hazard identification, exposu re assessment, dose-
resp on se evaluation, an d risk characterization. T h e latte r combines this
information so
that risk is calculated: risk
=
hazard
x
exposure.
risk
assessment
417
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risk, po ten tia l Refers to a description of the pathways and considerations
involved in the o ccurrence of an event or series
of
events) that may result
in an adverse health or environmental effect.
The rule states that the flow Q) that enters a system
must also be the flow that leaves the system. Mathematically, this rule is
generally stated as
QI
Q
or
(because
Q
=
At‘), A V = AYVZ.
T h at par t of the precipitation that runs off the surface of a drainage
area when it is no t abso rbed by the soil.
ru leofcont inu i ty
runoff
safety facto r
Salmonella
T h e percentage above which a rated electrical device canno t
be operated without damage
or
shortened life.
Rod-shaped bacteria of the genus Salmonella many of which
are patho genic , caus ing food poisoning, typhoid, and paratyphoid fever
in human beings; or
causing other infectious d iseases in w arm-blood ed
animals. Can cause allergic reactions in susceptible humans, and sick-
ness, includ ing severe diarrhe a with discharge o f blood.
C om po un ds resulting from acid-base mixtures.
A
method by which any num ber can be expressed as a
nu m be r between 1and 9 multiplied by a power of 10.
Domestic sewage (liquid and solids) removed from septic tanks,
cesspools, portab le toilets, and m arine sanitation devices; not commercial
or indu strial wastewater.
Residual liquids and solids
from
households conveyed
in munic ipa l wastewater sewers; distinguished from wastewater carried in
ded icated industrial sewers.
T he dep th
of
water measured along a vertical interior
wall.
Failure of a stockpile to retain a conso lidated shape, usually du e
to in sufficien t dewatering of the biosolids. Slu mpin g may result in biosol-
ids m ovem ent beyond the boundaries of a designated stockpile area
or
may create handling difficulties when the materials are scooped u p and
loade d into spreaders.
In water and wastewater treatment, any dissolved, suspended,
or
volatile subs tance contained in or removed from water o r wastewater.
T h e substance dissolved in a solution. C onipare with
soltent.
sa l ts
scientif ic no tation
septage
sewage, dom estic
s ide w a te r de p th
s lumping
solids
solute
solut ion
A
liquid containing a dissolved substance. The liquid alone is
called th e solvent, the dissolved substan ce is called th e solute. To gether
they a r e called a solution.
solvent
specif iccapaci ty
A
measurement of the well yield per unit (usually per
foot)
of
drawdown. Mathematically, it is the well yield divided by the
drawdown.
T h e ratio of the density of a substance
to
a standard den-
sity. For sotids and liquids, the density is compared with the density of
water (62.4 lb/ft’)). For gases the density is com pa red with the den sity
of
air (0.075 lb/ft’).
T h e liquid used to dissolve a substance. S ee
solutiom.
specific grav ity
41
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stability
T h e characteristics o f a material that contribu te to its resistance to
decomposition by microbes and to generation of odorous metabolites.
T h e relevant characteristics include the degree of orga nic matter decom-
position, nu trien t, moisture, and salts con tent, pH, and temperature.
For
biosolids, compost,
or
animal manure, stability is a general term used to
describ e the quality of the m aterial taking into account its origin, process-
ing, and int en de d use.
T h e co ncurre nt delivery and application of bioso lids, allowing for
the transfer o f biosolids from tran spo rt vehicles to land application equ ip-
ment. Dewatered materials may be off-loaded from delivery vehicles to
temporary stockpiles to facilitate the load ing of spread ing equ ipm ent.
solution with an accurately known concentration,
used in th e
lab
to determine the prop erties of unknown solutions.
T h e difference in height between the p um p center
line and th e level of the disch arge free water surface.
T h e difference
in
elevation between the pump center
line and the free water surface of the reservoir feeding the pump. In the
measure ment o f static suction head, the piezometric surface of the water
at the suc tion side of the pu m p is higher than the pum p; otherwise, static
suction
li t
is measured.
T h e difference in elevation between the p um p center line
of a pump and the free water surface of the liquid being pumped. In a
static su ct io n lift measurement, the piezometric surface of the water at the
suction sid e of the pu m p is lower than the pump; otherwise, static suction
head is measured.
T h e holding of biosolids at an active field site long enough to
accum ulate sufficient material to com plete the field application.
An area of land or con structed facilities comm itted to ho ld
biosolids u n ti l the material may be land-applied at on-
or
off-site locations;
may be u se d to store biosolids for up to
2
years. However, most are man-
aged so th at biosolids come and go on
a
shorter cycle based on weather
con ditions, crop rotations, and land availability, equ ipm ent availability,
or
to ac cum ulate sufficient material for efficient spreading operations.
Plac em ent of class A
or
class
B
biosolids in designated locations
(oth er t h an the w astewater treatment plant) until material is land applied;
referred t o a s field storage. See also of- site storage.
A m easurement of the amount of w at er leaving a sed-
im en tat ion tank p er unit of tank surface area. Mathematically, t is the
flow
rate fr om t h e tank divided by the tank surface area.
A device to manually disconnect electrical equipment from the
power source.
staging
s tandard so lu t ion
static discha rge head
s t at ic suc t ion he a d
sta t ic
suction
if t
stockpiling
storage facil i ty
storage
surface overf lo w rate
swi tch
threshold
odor
See
odor threshold.
th rus t b lock
A mass of concrete, cast in place between a fitting to be
an ch or ed against thrust and the undisturbed soil at the side or bottom o f
the pipe trench.
419
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th ru st A force resulting from water und er pressure and in motion. T hr us t
push es against fittings, valves, and hyd rants and can cause couplin gs to
leak
or
to pull ap art entirely.
T h e combined effect of hydroxyl alkalinity (O H
),
carbon-
ate alkalinity
( C O ; ) ,
nd bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO y
).
T h e difference in height between the hydraulic grade
line
(HGL)
on the discharge side of the pu m p and the HGL on the suc-
tion side of the pump. This head is a measure of the total energy that a
pu m p m ust imp art to the water to move it from on e point to another.
T h e total height that the pu m p m ust lift the water w hen
moving it ho m one point to another. T h e vertical distance from th e suc-
tion free water surface to the d isch arge free water surface.
Certain organic compounds, sometimes formed when
water co ntainin g natural organics is chlorin ated. S om e trihalornethanes,
in large en oug h conc entrations, may be carcinogenic.
Irregular atmospheric motion especially characterized by
up-a nd-dow n curren ts. Increasing turbulence results in dilution of
odors.
The electrons in the outermost electron shells. These
electrons are one of the most important factors in determining which
atom s will comb ine with oth er atoms.
O n e
or
more numbers assigned to each element, indicating the
ability of the element to enter into chemical reactions with oth er elemen ts.
A process for reducing the attractiveness of
bioso lids to vectors in ord er to reduc e the potential for transmitting dis-
eases from pathogens in biosolids.
An agent su ch as an insect, bird, or animal that is capable of trans-
porting pathogens.
A m easurement of the amoun t of energy in water du e to its
velocity,
or
motion.
A
microscopic, nonfilterable biological unit, technically not living
but c ap ab le of reproduction inside cells ofo th er living organisms, includ-
ing bacteria, protozoa, plants, and animals.
A substance that vaporizes at ambient temperature.
Above-average hea t can increase the volatilization (vaporization) rate an d
a m o u n t
of
many volatile substances.
total alkalinity
tota l dynam ic head
total stati c head
t r iha lomethanes
turbulence
valence electrons
valence
vector a t t rac t io n reduc t ion
vector
velocity h e ad
virus
volat ile co m po un d
vol tme te r
was tew ate r t rea tment
An instrum ent for measuring volts.
The processes commonly used to render water
safe
for
discharge into a US waterway: (1) Preliminary treatment
in clu de s removal of screenings, grit, grease, an d floating solids;
(2)
Pri-
mary treatment includes removal of readily settleable organic solids.
Fifty t o sixty percent suspend ed solids are typically removed al on g with
25 -40 biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD); (3)
Secondary treat-
men t involves use of biological processes along wi th settling;
85 -90
O fB O D and suspended solids are removed du ring secondary treatment;
420
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(4) Tertiary treatment involves the use ofa dd itiona l biological, physical,
or chemical processes to remove more
of
the remaining nutrients and
suspend ed solids.
The potentially damaging slam, bang,
or
shudder that
occurs in a pipe when a sudden change in water velocity
(usually
as a
result of too rapidly starting a pu m p or opera ting a valve) cre ates a great
increase in wate r pressure.
water ho rse po w er T h e portion of the power delivered to a pum p that is
actually used to lift water. Compare with
brake horseflower and
motor
horseflower.
wattmeter
weir overflow ra te
water ham me r
A n
instrument
for
measuring real power in watts.
A measurement of the flow rate of water over each foot
of weir
in
a sed imentation tank or circular clarifier. Mathematically, it is
the flow rate over the weir divided by the total length of the weir.
A n y of the natural num bers, suc h as 1,2,3, etc.; the nega-
tive of these numbers, such as -1,
-2,
-3, etc.; and zero.
Also
called
integers or counting num bers.
T h e ratio of the total power inp ut (electric cur-
rent expres sed as m otor horsepower) to a m otor and pu m p assembly, to
the total po w er ou tpu t (water horsepower); expressed a s a percent.
whole numb ers
wire-to-water efficiency
work
T h e operat ion
of
a force over a specific distance.
421
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INDEX
Index Terms Links
NOTE: Abbreviations and
acronyms are listed on pages 390
glossary terms on pages 406
and units of measure on pages 14
and accordingly are not cited
individually in this index.
A
Abbreviations and acronyms 390
Aeration
biological process in 279 loadings and operational
parameters 281
and sludge age 280
Algae
basic biological reactions
in ponds 282
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Index Terms Links
Algae (Cont.)
clean water varieties 75
estuary polluting varieties 79
filter- and screen-clogging
varieties 73
freshwater polluting varieties 74
growing on surfaces 77
plankton 76
surface water varieties 76
taste- and odor-causing
varieties 72
varieties in wastewater
treatment ponds 78
Ammonia oxidation 67
Amperage 186
Anaerobic digesters 314
Anaerobic lagoons 314
Annual whole sludge application
rate 352
Area
conversions (US units) 30
formulas 5
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Index Terms Links
Average daily flow 120
Average flow 120
Average hourly flow 121
AWSAR. See Annual whole sludge
application rate
AWWA C900 149
B
Backfill
highway loads 143
impact factors for highway
loads 145
loads on 8-in. circular pipe in
trench installation 136
Backflow preventers 162Bacteria
basic biological reactions
in ponds 282
and corrosion 166
density with growth time 285
Ball-bearing-type pumps 212
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Index Terms Links
Baylis curve 167
Bingham plastic model 188
Biological oxygen demand 264 265
correcting removal efficiency 278
loading 276
Biosolids 297
avoiding tracking onto public
roadways 321
composting 333 334
constructed facilities checklist 320
major pathogens in municipal
wastewater and uianure 332
minimizing odor during storage 321
nutrient content of various
organic materials 328
odorous compounds and odor
threshold values 326
and odorous emissions 321
performance for various types
of domestic wastewater solids 339
regulatory requirements.
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Index Terms Links
Biosolids (Cont.)
See USEPA 40 CFR
503 regulations
sampling 365
storage 317
storage facility design concepts 318
typical application scenarios 340
See also Sludge
BOD. See Biological oxygen demand
Boiler horsepower 51
Brake horsepower 8
C
Carbon monoxide exposure effects 107
Centrifugal pumps 185 211horizontally mounted 211
vertically mounted 211
Centrifuges
imperforate basket type 316
range of expected performance 315
solid bowl scroll type 316
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Index Terms Links
Chemicals
compounds common in
wastewater treatment 59
used in water and wastewater
treatment 66
Chemistry
key formulas 61
periodic table of elements 54
Chlorine and chlorination
amounts to produce 25-mg/L
concentration in pipe 373 374
available chlorine in sodium
hypochlorite solution 370
breakpoint curve 375
calcium hypochlorite reaction
in water 371
chemical amounts required to
obtain various chlorine
concentrations 372
chlorinator flow diagrams 376
deep-well systems 375
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Index Terms Links
Chlorine and chlorination (Cont.)
dosing capacity for various
treatment types 288 379
gas chlorinator 373
gas exposure effects 107
hypochlorinator installation 378
mechanisms of disinfection 383
reaction with ammonia 370
reaction with hydrogen sulfide 370
relationship among hypochlorous
acid, hypochlorite ion, and pH 374
residual equation 371
sodium hypochlorite reaction
in water 371
standard cylinder valves 377
toxicity in aquatic species 379
wastewater characteristics
affecting performance of 380 385
weight of chlorine, in pounds 12
Chlorine dioxide 378
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Index Terms Links
Circles
area formula 6
circumference formula 6
sector area, length, angle,
and radius formulas 6
Collection system
gravity 132
grinder pumps 132
holding tanks 132
low-pressure 132
pigs 133
pressure mains 132 134
schematic of low-pressure system 134
schematic of vacuum system 135
vacuum 135
Composting 333
methods 334
Concentration formulas 61
Conductivity 62
conversion factors 62
Cone volume and surface area formulas 7
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Index Terms Links
Confined space entry 83 85 87
permit 87
Consumption averages, per capita 10
Conversions
application rate 44
area 41
area measurenient (metric units) 35
area measurement (US units) 30
atmospheric pressure 50
circular measurement (US units) 30
concentration 42
cubic feet/gallons 51
cubic feet of natural gas/pounds
of steam 51
discharge 43
factors (US to metric) 41
flow measurement (metric units) 37
flow measurement (US units) 32
flows 10 222 252
foot of head/pounds pressure per
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Index Terms Links
Conversions (Cont.)
square inch 51
force 45
fractions to decimal equivalents 48
gallon of oil/pounds of steam 51
gallon/pounds 51
grade (US units) 31
grains per gallon/parts per million 51
grains per gallon/pounds
per 1,000 gallons 51
infiltration or exfiltration rates
from gal/in. diameter/mi/
day to gph/100 ft 172
length 41
linear measurement (metric units) 35
linear measurement (US units) 30
mass and density 46
parts per million/pounds
per 1,000 gallons 51
pound of coal/pounds of steam 51
pounds per hour/gallons per hour 51
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Index Terms Links
Conversions (Cont.)
power 47
power measurement (US units) 33
pressure 45
pressure measurement (metric units) 36
pressure measurement (US units) 31
slope 43
temperature 47
temperature (Celsius/Fahrenheit) 49
time 42
ton of refrigeration/Btu 51
unit weight 42
velocity 43
velocity, acceleration, and
force measurements
(metric units) 40
velocity measurement (US units) 34
viscosity 46
volume 41
volume measurement (metric units) 36
volume measurement (US units) 30
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Index Terms Links
Conversions (Cont.)
water column 50
water pressure 50
weight 42
weight measurement (metric units) 37
weight measurement (US units) 31
work 47
work, heat, and energy
measurements (metric units) 39
work measurement (US units) 33
Cooling tower makeup 51
Corrosion
bacterial 166
and Baylis curve 167
concentration cell 165
crown 158
and dissolved gases 166
and dissolved solids 166
factors affecting 166
galvanic 165
indices 167
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Index Terms Links
Corrosion (Cont.)
and Langelier saturation index 167
localized or pitting 165
marble test 167
physical 165
Ryzner index (stability index) 168
stray current 165
and temperature 166
types 165
uniform 165
Cylinders
elliptical cylinder volume and
surface area formulas 7
right cylinder volume
(cubic feet and gallons) 9
surface area formula 7
volume formulas 7
D
Darcy–Weisbach formula 11 223
Demand/day 10
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Index Terms Links
Densities 63
Design average flow 120
Design peak flow 120
Detenton time 8
Dewatering
belt filter press 310
belt filter press dewatering
(equations) 301
belt filter press dewatering
of polymer flocculated sludges 312
dissolved air flotation thickener 313
plate and frame filter press
dewatering (and equations) 300 301
types of sludges dewatered on
belt filter presses 311
vacuum filter dewatering
equations 299
wedgewire drying bed 313
Diffusers 288
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Index Terms Links
Dilution
equation 65
rectangle method (dilution rule) 65
Discharge
land 386
marine 387
Disinfection
chlorine dioxide, peracetic
acid, and UV radiation
compared 378
UV, chlorine, and ozone
compared 383 385
See also Chlorine and
chlorination, Ultraviolet light
Dissolved-oxygen concentration
as function of temperature
and barometric pressure 70
as function of temperature
and salinity 68
Dosage, mg/L 9
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Index Terms Links
E
Electrical conductivity 62
conversion factors 62
Electrical measurements 186
Electrical safety 102
Elements
list of 55
oxidation numbers 65
periodic table 54
Ellipse area formula 6
Elliptical cylinder volume
and surface area formulas 7
Emergency rescue 83
EPA. See USEPA 40 CFR 503regulations
Equivalent flow rate 266
Equivalent weights 61
Exfiltration 171 172
F
Feed rate, lb/day (formula) 12
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Index Terms Links
Filters
backwash rate 9 266
biological process in bed 275
loading rate 266
See also Intermittent sand
filters, Trickling filters
Fire types and extinguishers 102
Fittings 164
Flanges, gasket and machine
bolt dimensions for 150
through contracted rectangular
weirs 237
Flow
conversions 10 222 252
conversions (metric units) 37
conversions (US units) 32
determining cross-sectional area of 123
in ductile-iron pipe 227
formula 123
key conversions 222
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Index Terms Links
Flow (Cont.)
key formulas 223
nozzle discharge (1½–6-in.
diameters) 255
nozzle discharge ( –1⅜ -in.
diameters) 255
in open channels (Q = AV) 226
through Venturi tube (formula) 225
See also Palmer-Bowlus flumes,
Parshall flumes, Weirs
Flow rate
equivalent 266
formula 12 284
for miscellaneous facilities 126
nomograph for Venturi meter 125
rule of continuity 12
for selected plumbing, household,
and farm fixtures 259
Flumes. See Palmer-Bowlus
flumes, Parshall flumes
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Index Terms Links
Food-to-microorganism ratio 279
related to sludge settleability 282
Formulas
actual leakage 11
area 5
boiler horsepower 51
brake horsepower 8
chlorine weight, lb 12
detenton time 8
dosage, mg/L 9
electrical measurements 186
feed rate, lb/day 12
filter backwash rate 9 266
filter loading rate 266
food-to-microorganism ratio 279
force 266
gallons per capita per day 9
gallons per day of water
consumption (demand/day) 10
gallons per minute 51
head loss from friction 11 223
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Index Terms Links
Formulas (Cont.)
hydraulic loading rate 265
organic loading rate 265
parts per million 9
percent element by weight 9
pipe diameter 11
pounds per day 9
pounds per mil gal 9
pumping 186
recirculation flow ratio 265
rectangular basin volume
(cubic feet and gallons) 9
right cylinder volume
(cubic feet and gallons) 9
sludge age 280 299
supply (in days) 10
surface area 7
surface overflow rate 9
theoretical water horsepower 8
velocity 11 122 223
volume 7
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Index Terms Links
Formulas (Cont.)
weir detention time 264
weir overflow rate 9 264
weir surface overflow rate 264
40 CFR 503 regulations. See
USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations
Friction loss
factors ( 12-in. pipe) 153
of water (in ft per 100-ft
length of pipe) 155
G
Gallons per capita per day 9
Gallons per day of water consumption
(demand/day) 10
Gases, dangerous 108Gauges 163
Glossary terms 406
Grade conversions (US units) 31
Gravity thickening
advantages and disadvantages 304
equations 298
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Index Terms Links
Gravity thickening (Cont.)
factors affecting performance 307
maintenance checklist 305
performance 306
troubleshooting guide 308
Grinder pumps 132
H
Hazard classification 106
Hazardous locations 104
Hazen–Williams formula
and friction loss 155
and head loss 187 224
Head formulas 266
Head loss formulas 11 223Horsepower. See Brake
horsepower, Boiler
horsepower, Theoretical water
horsepower
Hydraulic loading rate 265
Hydrogen sulfide exposure effects 106
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Index Terms Links
I
Incline screw pumps 215
Infiltration 172
Intermittent sand filters 292
L
Langelier saturation index (LSI) 61 167
M
Manholes 147
precast concrete 148
Manning formula 224
Marble test 167
Marine discharge 387
Maximum daily flow 120
Maximum hourly flow 121
Maximum pipe velocity 11
Meters. See Orifice meters
Venturi meters
Methane fermentation 339
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Index Terms Links
Metric system. See SI units
mg/L 61
Mg/L total solids 61
Microorganisms
concentrations in raw wastewater 117
waterborne disease–causing 114
Minimum daily flow 120
Minimum flushing velocity 11
Minimum hourly flow 120
Molarity 61
Moles 61
N
National Electric Manufacturers
Association (NEMA), pump enclosure standards 191
Nitrification reaction 67
Nitrite oxidation 67
Nitrobacter 67
Nitrosomonas 67
Nonclog pump with open impeller 212
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Index Terms Links
Nonemergency ingress/egress 83
Normality 61
O
Ohms 186
Organic loading rate 265
Orifice meters 249
nomographs 249
Oxidation numbers 65
Ozone
mechanisms of disinfection 383
wastewater characteristics
affecting performance of 385
P
Palmer-Bowlus flumes 245
Parallelogram area formula 5
Parshall flumes 241
nomograph and corrections graph 243
overhead view 241
side view 241
using nomographs 241
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Index Terms Links
Part 503 regulations. See
USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations
Parts per million 9
Pathogens. See USEPA 40 CFR
503 regulations,
Waterborne diseases
Peak hourly flow 120
Peracetic acid 378
Percent element by weight 9
Percent strength by weight 61
Periodic table of elernents 54
pH scale 62
Pipes and piping
air testing 169
area of partly filled circular pipes 122
and AWWA C900 149
cleaning method limitations
and effectiveness 175 176
cleaning methods 173
color coding 82
crushing strength requirements
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Index Terms Links
Pipes and piping (Cont.)
for vitrified clay pipe 145
diameter formula 11
drop joints 161
flanges 150
flexible 129
friction loss factors (12-in.pipe) 153
friction loss of water (in ft per
100-ft length of pipe) 155
inspection techniques and
limitations 176
joint breaks 161
joint types 160
jump joints 161
maximum velocity 11
nonpressure 129
outside diameters of small
pipes and tubes 152
plastic pipe types 151
pressure pipe 149
rigid 129
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Index Terms Links
Pipes and piping (Cont.)
rodding tools and uses 177
Schedule 40 149
Schedule 80 149
SDR categories 149
smoothness coefficients for
various materials 152
standard dimension ratio (SDR) 149
strength requirernents for
reinforced concrete pipe 146
Pollutants. See USEPA 40
CFR 503 regulations
Ponds
algae varieties in 78
basic biological reactions
of bacteria and algae in 282
formulas 265
Positive-displacement pumps 185
Pounds per day 9
Pounds per mil gal 9
Power conversions (US units) 33
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Index Terms Links
Pressure
conversions (metric units) 36
conversions (US units) 31
requirements 12 222
Progressive cavity pumps 215
Propeller pumps 213
Pumps and pumping
cast-in-place lift stations 219
centrifugal turbine pumps 185 211
duplex pump station with
fiberglass-reinforced
plastic enclosure 218
duplex submersible pumping
station 217
dynamic head 192
electric motor lubrication 193
enclosures 191 218
flexibly coupled, horizontally
mounted centrifugal pumps 211
flexibly coupled, vertically
mounted centrifugal pumps 211
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Index Terms Links
Pumps and pumping (Cont.)
formulas 186
grinder pumps 132
horizontal nonclog wastewater
pump with open impeller 212
horsepower and efficiency 189
incline screw pumps 215
load current and fuse size
required by AC and
induction motors 190
low-voltage switch ratings 197
maintenance checklist 197
mechanical seal 210
North American standard
nominal voltages 196
North American standard
system voltages 195
positive-displacement pumps 185
power loss due to motor
and pump inefficiency 189
progressive cavity pumps 215
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Index Terms Links
Pumps and pumping (Cont.)
propeller pumps 213
pump performance curve 189
single-phase alternating
current motor 187 190
sludge head loss 187
split packing box 210
static head 192
submersible pump in wet well 216
submersible wastewater pumps 214
three-phase alternating
current motor 187 190
three-phase magnetic starter 194
troubleshooting guides
(electric motors) 206 209
troubleshooting guides
(pumps) 200 205
two-phase alternating
current motor 187 190
types of pumps 211
velocity pumps 185
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Index Terms Links
Pumps and pumping (Cont.)
vertical ball-bearing-type
wastewater pumps 212
vertical turbine pumps 185
visual inspection of
contact points 193
wire-to-water efficiency 189
Pyramid volume formula 7
R
Recirculation flow ratio 265
Rectangle area formula 5
Rectangle tank volume formula 7
Rectangular basin volume
(cubic feet and gallons) 9Rectangular solid volunie and
surface area formulas 7
Refrigeration tonnage 51
Regulations. See USEPA 40
CFR 503 regulations
RI. See Ryzner index
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Index Terms Links
Right cylinder volume
(cubic feet and gallons) 9
Right-angle triangle area formula 6
Roadway safety
good work practices 97
portable manhole safety enclosure 98
traffic barricade placement 90
Rodding tools and uses 177
Rule of continuity 12
Ryzner index 168
S
Safety
booster cables 100
confined space entry 83 85 87dangerous gases 108
electrical 102
emergency rescue 83
fire types and extinguishers 102
hand signals in sewer cleaning 99
hazard classification 106
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Index Terms Links
Safety (Cont.)
hazardous locations 104
nonemergency ingress/egress 83
pipeline color coding 82
portable manhole safety enclosure 98
roadway work practices 97
toxin exposure effects 106
traffic barricade placement 90
trench shoring 88
ventilation nomograph 103
SBRs. See Sequencing batch reactors
Schedule 40 pipe 149
Schedule 80 pipe 149
SDR. See Standard dimension ratio
SDR/14 149
SDR/18 149
SDR/21 149 150
SDR/25 149
SDR/26 149 150
SDR/35 150
SDR/41 150
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Index Terms Links
Septage
advantages and disadvantages 294
characteristics of conventional
parameters 295
sources 296
Sequencing batch reactors
advantages and disadvantages 289
for carbon oxidation plus
phosphorus and nitrogen
removal 269
case studies 291
installed cost per gallon of
wastewater treated 291
key design parameters 290
Settling
design overflow rate and peak
solids loading rate for secondary
settling tanks following
activated-sludge processes 287
in ideal tank 284
regions for concentrated
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Index Terms Links
Settling (Cont.)
suspensions 285
tank design parameters 286
Sewer cleaning
effectiveness of methods 176
hand signals 99
limitations of methods 175
methods 173
rodding tools and uses 177
Sewers
cleanout types and locations 131
control points for construction 129
minimum slopes for
various pipe diameters 121
rehabilitation techniques 181
See also Collection systems
SI units
base units 2
derived units 4
derived units with special names 3
prefixes 2
supplementary units 3
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Index Terms Links
Slope, minimum, for various
sized sewers 121
Sludge
and anaerobic digesters
and lagoons 314
belt filter press dewatering
(equations) 301
calculating age 280 299
and centrifuges 315
dewatering 299 310
digester gas production (equation) 302
digester loading rate 302
examples of microbial
pathogen concentrations in 118
flow rate (return-activated sludge) 286
gravity thickening 298 304
head loss 187
mean cell residence
time equations 299
percent solids and sludge
pumping (equations) 298
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Index Terms Links
Sludge (Cont.)
percent volatile solids reduction
(equation) 303
plate and frame filter press
dewatering (and equations) 300 301
pollutant limits for land
application of sewage sludge 343
processing alternatives 300
processing calculations 298
requirements for land application
of sewage sludge 341
settleability related to
food-to-microorganism ratio 282
settleable solids (equation) 303
solids concentrations and other
characteristics 347
total solids and volatile solids
(equations) 303
vacuum filter dewatering
equations 299
volatile acids/alkalinity
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Index Terms Links
Sludge (Cont.)
ratio (equation) 302
See also Biosolids
Smoothness coefficients 152
Specific gravity 63
of various solids, liquids
and gases 64
Sphere volume and surface
area formulas 7
Square area formula 5
Stability index 168
Standard dimension ratio 149
Submersible pumps 214
duplex station 217
in wet wells 216
Supply (in days) 10
Surface overflow rate 9
Suspended solids loading 264
Système International. See SI units
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Index Terms Links
T
Tastes and odors (algae sources) 72
Theoretical water horsepower 8
Three-edge bearing test 145 146
Total alkalinity 61
Total solids 61
Total suspended solids 61
Toxin exposure effects 106
Traffic barricade placement 90
Trapezoid area formula 6
Treatment
aeration 279
bacterial density with
growth time 285 basic biological reactions of
bacteria and algae in
ponds 282
biological oxygen
demand loading 276
biological process in
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Treatment (Cont.)
filter bed 275
calculating biological
oxygen demand 264 265
calculating sludge age 280
calculating suspended solids
loading in primary clarifier 264
chemicals used 270
chlorine dosing capacity for
various treatment types 288
combined biological nitrogen
and phosphorus removal
processes 268
composition of average
sanitary wastewater 272
contactor formulas 265
conventional plant schematic 267
correcting BOD removal
efficiency 278
diffusers 288
filter backwash rate 266
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Index Terms Links
Treatment (Cont.)
filter loading rate 266
filtration formulas 265
food-to-microorganism ratio 279
force formula 266
forced vortex unit for
removing grit 273
head formulas 266
intermittent sand filters 292
minimum national performance
standards 283
nitrification process 267
nutrient compositiori of
average sanitary wastewater 272
PhoStrip II process for
phosphorus and nitrogen
removal 269
pond formulas 265
primary clarifier design
criteria and parameters 274
relationship between
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Index Terms Links
Treatment (Cont.)
activated-sludge settleability and
food-to-microorganism ratio 282
return-activated sludge flow rate 286
SBR advantages and
disadvantages 289
SBR case studies 291
SBR design parameters 290
SBRs and installed cost per
gallon of wastewater treated 291
sedimentation tank design
parameters 286
septage 294
sequencing batch reactors 269 289
settling in ideal tank 284
trickling filters 275
unit processes for wastewater
reclamation 262
weir overflow formulas 264
Wuhrmann process for
nitrogen removal 269
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Treatment works treating
domestic sewage 346
Trenches and trenching
bedding classes 141
grade control using batter
boards 138
grade control using
fixed-beam laser 139
grade pole for pipe laying 138
power bucket machines 142
shoring 88
sloping or benching systems 140
Triangle area formula 6
Trickling filters 275
loadings 277
plants 277 278
Trough volume formula 7
TWTDS. See Treatment works
treating domestic sewage
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U
Ultraviolet light 380
advantages and disadvantages 380
attributes 378
average intensity within
2-by-2 lamp array 384
log survival versus
dose curves 383 384
low-intensity parameters
and performance range 386
mechanisms of disinfection 383
typical systems 382
wastewater characteristics
affecting performance of 382 385 Units of measure 14
US Environmental Protection
Agency. See USEPA 40
CFR 503 regulations
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USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations 335
biosolids sampling 365
Class A pathogen
requirements 335 349 353
360
Class B pathogen requirements 335 349 353
360
crops impacted by site restrictions
for Class B biosolids 352
design criteria for Class B alkaline
stabilization 340
determining AWSAR nitrogen
amount relative to agronomic
rate 352
exclusions from Biosolids Rule 344
meeting Class A requirements 335 348 361
meeting Class B requirements 336 348 362
364
meeting pollutant limits 348
and methane fermentation 339
monitoring frequency re
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Index Terms Links
USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations (Cont.)
pollutants, pathogen
densities, and vector
attraction reduction 353
pollutant limits for land
application of
sewage sludge 343
record-keeping and
reporting requirements 357
reducing pathogens listed in
Appendix B 364
requirements for land
application of sewage
sludge 341 355 356
restrictions on land use
where Class B biosolids
are applied 351 363
and surface disposal sites 359
time–temperature regimes for
Class A pathogen reduction
(Alternative l) 361
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USEPA 40 CFR 503 regulations (Cont.)
treatment works required
to apply for permit 346
types of land onto which
different biosolids may
be applied 347
vector attraction reduction 335 360
vector attraction reduction
options 337 348 349
V
Valves
eccentric (open, closing, and
closed positions) 163
types and resistance to flow 164Vector attraction reduction 335
See also USEPA 40 CFR
503 regulations
Velocity
conversions (US units) 34
formulas 11 122 223
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Velocity head 266
Velocity pumps 185
Ventilation safety 103
Venturi meters 246
corrections graph 247
monographs 125 246
Venturi tubes, flow
through (formula) 225
Vertical turbine pumps 185
Volts 186
Volume
conversions (metric units) 36
conversions (US units) 30
formulas 7
W
Wastewater
characteristics of selected
industrial wastewaters 128
marine discharge 387
suggested rates of application
to different soil types 386
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Waterborne diseases 113
examples of microbial
pathogen concentrations
in raw wastewater and
sludge 118
infectious doses of selected
pathogens 117
major pathogens in municipal
wastewater and manure 332
microorganism concentrations
in raw wastewater 117
organisms causing 114
pathogen survival times 116
removal of microbial pathogens
by conventional treatment
processes 118
Weight
conversions (metric units) 37
conversions (US units) 31
Weirs