ANNEX C
Exposures to the public from man-made sources of radiation
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
1. Number and yields of tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592. Dispersion and deposition of radioactive debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1603. Annual doses from global fallout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1684. Local and regional exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
B. UNDERGROUND TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONS MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
1. United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772. Russian Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773. United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794. France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795. China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
II. NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180A. MINING AND MILLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
1. Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812. Dose estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
B. URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUEL FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 182C. NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
1. Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832. Local and regional dose estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
D. FUEL REPROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1881. Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1882. Local and regional dose estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190G. SUMMARY OF DOSE ESTIMATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
III. OTHER EXPOSURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTION AND USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191B. RESEARCH REACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192C. ACCIDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION
Page
Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
INTRODUCTION
1. The Committee has continually kept under review theexposures of the world population resulting from releases tothe environment of radioactive materials from man-madesources. Exposures from such sources reviewed in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] included atmospheric nucleartesting, undergroundnuclear testing,nuclear weaponsfabrica-tion, nuclear power production, radioisotope production anduses, and accidents at various locations. New information onman-made environmental exposures is considered in thisAnnex.
2. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere wasthe most significant cause of exposure of the world popula-tion to man-made environmental sources of radiation. Thepractice continued from 1945 to 1980. Although the testinghas ceased and the Committee's assessment of global dosesbased on measured 90Sr deposition remains an accurateevaluation of the resulting exposures, particularly for long-lived radionuclides, new data on the yields of individual testshave been made available. These allow more detailedcalculations of the dispersal of radionuclides throughout theworld following the injection of debris into the atmosphere.Estimates of total deposition and doses from individual radio-nuclides are re-evaluated in this Annex, which also considersexposures to individuals who lived near the test sites. Previousestimatesofexposures from atmospheric testing were basedonaccumulated average doses (dose commitments), but there isinterest as well in the annual doses received by individuals.Annual dose estimates are derived in this Annex.
3. Following the cessation of atmospheric testing, nuclearweapons continued to be tested underground. Several furtherunderground tests were conducted in 1998. Undergroundtesting results only infrequently in releases of radionuclides
to the environment and the exposure of individuals. Beyondthe testing of nuclear weapons, the military fuel cycle,involving the production of weapons materials and thefabrication of the weapons, has also resulted in releases ofradioactive materials to the environment. Information onexposures in areas surrounding the industrial sites of nuclearmaterials production and weapons fabrication are consideredin this Annex. Both historical and contemporary data notpreviously reviewed by the Committee are presented.
4. Nuclear power production continues in a number ofcountries, where it is an important component of electricalenergygeneration. Rather complete monitoring and reportingof radionuclides released, especially from nuclear reactors,provide adequate data to allow analysing exposures from thissource. Data on annual releases for 1990�1997 and analysisof longer-term trends are included in this Annex. Anothercontinuing practice, radioisotope production and uses,involves at the production stage rather trivial doses that can beonly roughly estimated from the total size of the industryworldwide and some approximate figures on fractionalreleases of the radionuclides produced. The Committeepreviously assessed these exposures. The exposures of familymembers ofpatients who received therapeutic treatments with131I are considered in this Annex.
5. Another source of exposures that may be consideredto be man-made is the use of fuels or materials containingnaturally occurring radionuclides. These are referred to asenhanced natural radiation exposures. It has been thepractice of the Committee to evaluate these along withother exposures from natural radiation. These evaluationsare included in Annex B, “Exposures from naturalradiation sources”.
I. TESTING AND PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
6. The testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere,which took place from 1945 until 1980, involved un-restrained releases of radioactive materials directly to theenvironment and caused the largest collective dose thus farfrom man-made sources of radiation. Previous assessmentsby the Committee of the total collective dose to the worldpopulation in the UNSCEAR 1982 and 1993 Reports [U3,
U6] are complete and still valid. In the latter Report [U3],transfer coefficients are given for the dose per unit releaseor per unit deposition density for over 20 radionuclides forthe inhalation, ingestion, and external exposure pathways.
7. The evaluation of doses to the hemispheric and worldpopulations from this practice has been based on the
158
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 159
measured global deposition density of 90Sr, limitedmeasurements of 95Zr deposition, and on estimated ratios ofthe deposition of other radionuclides to these. The annualdepositions of 90Sr were measured in some detail during theyears when testing in the atmosphere took place. This hasmeant that the collective doses could be evaluated moredirectly and with less uncertainty than would be the case ifuncertain estimates of the amounts of radionuclides producedin the tests and their dispersion in the environment had to berelied on. However, lack of sufficient data for other, andespecially the shorter-lived, radionuclides limits the reliabilityof the estimated ratios to 95Zr and 90Sr.
8. In recent years some further details of atmosphericnuclear testing have become available. In particular, thenumbers and total yields of the explosions have beenofficially reported, providing reliable basic input data, andestimates are being made of the local doses to populationsliving in the vicinities of the test sites. This information istaken note of by the Committee to complete the historicalrecord of this practice.
9. In its previous assessments, the Committee emphasizedthe estimation of the collective doses from atmosphericnuclear testing and did not evaluate annual doses in detail.Approximate magnitudes of annual doses were presented inthe UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. The unfolding of collectivedoses to derive annual doses is presented below in more detailto illustrate the time dependence ofcontributions to the annualeffective doses already received by the world population fromvarious radionuclides and to estimate the future annualeffective doses from residual contamination.
10. The production of nuclear weapons involves securingquantities of enriched uranium or plutonium for fissiondevices and of tritium and deuterium for fusion devices. Thefuel cycle for military purposes is similar to that for nuclearelectrical energy generation: uranium mining and milling,enrichment, fuel fabrication, reactor operation, and repro-cessing. Releases of radionuclides mayoccur at all the variousstages but particularly during reprocessing and plutoniumseparation. Initial information on exposures from the opera-tion of military fuel cycle installations was included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Some further data aresummarized in this Chapter. Discharges and hence exposureswere greatest in the early years when nuclear arsenals werebeing established.
A. ATMOSPHERIC TESTS
1. Number and yields of tests
11. Further information on the number and yields ofatmospheric nuclear tests has been reported by the countriesthat conducted the tests. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3],the number of tests by all countries was adjusted from 423 to520, an increase of more than 20%. The total has since beenmodified slightly, and at the same time the estimated total andfission yields have been revised downwards.
12. Compilations of data on atmospheric nuclear testshave been published within the last few years, first by theUnited States [D4], then by the former Soviet Union [M2],the United Kingdom [J3], and France [D3]. Informationwas provided on the date of each test, its name or designa-tion, location, type, purpose, and the total explosive yield.To verify production amounts of important globallydispersed fission radionuclides, it would also be necessaryto know the fission yield of each test or series of tests.
13. The data on atmospheric nuclear tests needed by theCommittee for exposure evaluations are given in Table 1,and a summary for each country and each test site isprovided in Table 2. The date, type, and total explosiveyield of individual tests are as reported by the country. Ina few cases, the total yields reported by the United Statesand the former Soviet Union were indefinite (“low”, “submegatonne”, or within a designated range). Specific valuesfor summations and analyses were estimated based onassumptions given in the footnotes to Table 1.
14. Assumptions are also needed to estimate the fissionand fusion yields of individual tests. Relatively low yieldexplosions may be assumed to be due to fission only, andvery high yield explosions were thermonuclear tests withsubstantial fusion yields. For the purpose of obtainingvalues for Table 1, all tests smaller than 0.1 Mt total yieldwere assumed to be due only to fission, unless otherwiseindicated. For tests in the range 0.5�5 Mt, fission yieldsaveraging about 50% have been reported to berepresentative [G4], and that value has been assumed here.For tests in the range 0.1�0.5 Mt, a fission yield of 67% isassumed. There were 17 tests in the range 5�25 Mt. Withno other indications available, fission yields of 33% wereassumed in Table 1 for these tests. However, the fissionyields of tests by the United States were arbitrarily adjustedto agree with the reported total fission yields for the years1952, 1954, and 1958. The large variation in assumedfission yields for the high-yield tests conducted in theseyears is consistent with unofficial reports that the test of 31October 1952 (Mike) had a relativelyhigh fission yield andwith the confirmation that some high-yield tests had veryhigh fission ratios [D7]. The largest test, 50 Mt, conductedby the former Soviet Union in 1961, was reported to havea fission yield of 3% and a fusion yield of 97% [M2].Special design measures were taken to obtain such a highfusion yield.
15. It would be desirable to have further information onthe fission and fusion yields of atmospheric nuclear tests tosubstantiate the somewhat arbitrary assumptions that mustbe made, particularly for the tests of the former SovietUnion. Because the largest atmospheric nuclear tests(�4 Mt) made such substantial contribution to the fission,fusion, and total yields, they are listed separately inTable 3. These 25 tests account for nearly 66% of the totalexplosive yield of all tests and about 55% of the estimatedfission yields. Tests with yields greater than 1 Mtaccounted for over 90% of the total fission yield.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION160
Atmospheric testsUnderground tests
1945100
50
0
50
100
150
NU
MB
ER
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Number of tests
Atmospheric testsUnderground tests
YIE
LD
(Mt)
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 200010
010
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
170 Atmospheric testsUnderground tests
YIE
LD
(Mt)
1945 1950
Total yield of tests
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 200010
010
30
50
70
90
110
130
150
170
16. Some exceptions to the general fission/fusion assump-tions can be made for the atmospheric tests conducted byChina. These tests occurred in the latter part of the testperiod, and the individual tests were relatively well separatedin time. It was thus possible to obtain independent estimatesof fission yields from the stratospheric monitoring ofradionuclides that took place regularly throughout this testingperiod [K7, K8, K9, K10, L7, L8, T5]. The estimates offission yields from 90Sr and 95Zr stratospheric inventoriesinclude some inconsistencies and uncertainties, but the directevidence is used in preference to the assumptions.
17. The annual number and yields ofatmospheric tests byall countries are summarized in Table 4 and illustrated inFigure I. The number of tests (Figure I, upper diagram)was greatest during 1951�1958 and 1961�1962. There wasa moratorium in 1959, which was largely observed in1960, as well. The most active years of testing from thestandpoint of the total explosive yields (Figure I, lowerdiagram) were 1962, 1961, 1958, and 1954. The totalnumber of atmospheric tests by all countries was 543, andthe total yield was 440 Mt. The fission yield of allatmospheric tests is estimated at present to be 189 Mt.
Figure I. Tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere and underground.
2. Dispersion and deposition of radioactivedebris
18. Nuclear weapons tests were conducted at variouslocations on and above the earth's surface, includingmountings on towers, placement on barges on the oceansurface, suspensions from balloons, drops from airplanes, andhigh-altitude launchings by rockets. Depending on thelocation of the explosion (altitude and latitude) the radio-active debris entered the local, regional, or global environ-ment. For tests conducted on the earth’s surface, a portion ofthe radioactive debris is deposited at the site of the test (localfallout) and regionally up to several thousand km downwind
(intermediate fallout). This fraction varies from test to testdepending on the meteorological conditions, height of the test,the type of surface and surrounding material (water, soil,tower, balloon, etc.). For refractory radionuclides such as 95Zrand 144Ce, 50% of the debris is assumed to be deposited locallyin the immediate vicinity of the test site and a further 25% isdeposited regionally [B9, B10, H5]. For volatile radionuclidessuch as 90Sr, 137Cs and 131I, 50% of the fission yield, onaverage, is assumed deposited locallyand regionally [P1]. Theremainder of the debris and all of the debris from airbursts iswidely dispersed in the atmosphere. Airbursts are defined astests occurring at or above a height in metres of 55 Y0.4, whereY is the total yield in kilotonnes [P1].
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 161
ALT
ITU
DE
(km
)
High polar atmosphere High equatorialatmosphere
Upper equatorialstratosphere
High equatorialatmosphere
Upper equatorialstratosphere
Upper polar stratosphere
Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere3030 090 90
High polar atmosphere
Upper polar stratosphere
oo oo o
10
0
20
30
40
50
Lower polar stratosphereLower polar stratosphere
Lower equatorialstratosphere
Lower equatorialstratosphere
EDDY DIFFUSION
GRAVITATIONAL SETTLEMENT
Troposphere Troposphere
HADLEY CELL CIRCULATION
19. Depending on the conditions of a test, the radioactivedebris can be initially partitioned or apportioned into variousregions of the atmosphere. A basic compartment diagramrepresenting atmospheric regions and the predominantatmospheric transport processes is shown in Figure II. Thisrepresentation was developed to describe atmosphericdispersion and deposition of radioactive debris produced inatmospheric nuclear testing [B1, U6]. The atmosphere isdivided into equatorial and polar regions (from 0� to 30� and30� to 90� latitude, respectively). The troposphere height is
variable with latitude and season, but for modelling purposesit is assumed to be at an average altitude of 9 km in the polarregion and 17 km in the equatorial region. The lowerstratosphere is assumed to extend to 17 km and 24 km,respectively, in the two regions and the upper stratosphere to50 km in both regions. Only a few tests injected materialabove the upper stratosphere, designated the highatmosphere, which extends to several hundred kilometres andincludes the remainder of the region from which debris willeventually be deposited on the earth's surface.
Figure II. Atmospheric regions and the predominant atmospheric transport processes.
20. Apportionment of debris in the atmosphere is based onthe stabilization heights of cloud formation following theexplosion. Empirical values derived from a number ofobservations are given in Table 5 [P1]. These results wereused for the earlier estimates of fallout production fromatmospheric testing that were quoted in the UNSCEAR 1982Report [U6]. Adjustments can now be made according to therevised values of total yields and the fission yield estimatesgiven in Table 1. The partitioned yield estimates are includedin Tables 1 and 2, and annual injections into the variousatmospheric regions are summarized in Table 6. The estimateof the relative fractions of debris injected into the stratosphereand troposphere for a particular test with yield less thanseveral megatonnes is somewhat uncertain for several reasons.The empirical estimates were only available for equatorialtests and were highly variable [F5]. Values for polar latitudesare based on meteorological considerations [F5], and theheight of the troposphere varies seasonally.
21. Partitioning of debris into atmospheric regions wasinitially formulated for the equatorial and polar regions.Injections from the Chinese test site at Lop Nor (40�N)indicate that a temperate region formulation would also be
useful. This was not apparent for earlier tests at the Nevadatest site (37�N) or the Semipalatinsk test site (52�N) becausethere was relatively little or no stratospheric input from testsat these sites. Releases from temperate sites can be partitionedby averaging the equatorial and polar results. Basically, thisaveraging procedure reduces the input to the upperstratosphericregion compared with the partitioning for a polarrelease. Details of the assumptions, justified by the empiricalnature of the modelling, are specified in the footnote toTable 6.
22. With the indication of the type of test given inTable 1, the apportionment of fission yield correspondingto local and more widespread tropospheric and strato-spheric portions has been made in Tables 1, 2 and 4. Thetropospheric and stratospheric injections listed in theseTables are for volatile radionuclides (e.g. 90Sr, 137Cs) anddo not reflect the additional local and regional depositionthat occurred for refractory radionuclides (e.g. 95Zr, 144Ce).
23. As indicated in the summaryTables 2 and 4, the locallyand regionally deposited debris amounts to about 29 Mt (forvolatile elements). Therefore, about 160 Mt is estimated to
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION162
ALT
ITU
DE
(km
)
High polar atmosphereHigh equatorial
atmosphere
Upper equatorialstratosphere
High equatorialatmosphere
Upper equatorialstratosphere
Upper polar stratosphere
High polar atmosphere
Upper polar stratosphere
10
0
20
30
40
50
Lower polar stratosphereLower polar stratosphere
UPPER STRATOSPHERE
LOWER STRATOSPHERE
TROPOSPHERE
HIGH ATMOSPHERE
EARTH'S SURFACE(1,1,1,1) (1,1,1,1)
(24,24,24,24) (24,24,24,24)
(6,6,9,9) (9,9,6,6)
(8,36,24,12) (24,12,8,36)
(3,6,12,10) (12,10,3,6)
(6,6,9,9) (9,9,6,6)
(12,
12,1
2,) (12,
,12,12)
8
8(24,24,24, )(24, ,24,24)8
8
(12,12,12, )(12, ,12,12) 88 ( , , ,24) ( ,24, , )8 88 88 8
Northern hemisphere Southern hemisphere3030 090 90oo oo o
have been widely dispersed, contributing to global fallout.This latter value, inferred from yield information, may becompared with the value of 155 Mt derived from global 90Srmeasurements (604 PBq deposited worldwide divided by theproduction estimate of 3.9 PBq Mt�1). Since about 2%�3% of90Sr decayed before deposition, the total dispersed amount(injection into atmosphere) inferred from measurements isalso about 160 Mt. The fission yield estimates thus providemuch better agreement with the measured deposition(corresponding to 155 Mt) than the previous fission yieldestimates of 189 Mt [B1, U6]. The estimate of the total debrisdeposited locally and regionally is somewhat uncertain due tothe likely high variations from test to test, however, as seen,this component is a small fraction of the debris injected intothe global atmosphere, and thus this uncertainty will haveonly a small impact on the uncertainty in the total global 90Srdeposition.
24. From extensive monitoring following individual testsand for the entire period of dispersion and deposition, con-siderable information was gained on the movement andmixing processes in the atmosphere. The radioactive debris
served as a tracer material. Aerosols in the atmospheredescend by gravity at the highest altitudes and are transportedwith the general air movements at lower levels. Eddydiffusioncauses irregular migration of air masses in the generaldirections indicated in Figure II in the lower stratosphere andupper troposphere. The circular air flow pattern in thetroposphere at lower latitudes is termed Hadley cellcirculation. These cells increase or decrease in size and shiftlatitudinally with season. The balanced pattern shown inFigure II is that for the months of March, April, May, andSeptember, October, November. The mean residence time ofaerosols in the lower stratosphere ranges from 3 to 12 monthsin the polar regions and 8 to 24 months in the equatorialregions. The specific seasonal values, determined fromempirical fitting to fallout radionuclide measurements, areindicated in Figure III. The most rapid removal occurs duringthe spring months. Removal half-times to the next lowerregion from the upper atmosphere are 6 to 9 months and fromthe high atmosphere, 24 months was found to be represen-tative [B1]. A removal half-time of infinity (�) in Figure IIImeans that no transfer takes place via the particular pathwayduring that season of the year.
Figure III. Schematic diagram of transfers between atmospheric regions and the earth’s surface considered inthe empirical atmospheric model [B1].
The numbers in parentheses are the removal half-times (in months) for the yearly quarters in the following order:March-April-May, June-July-August, September-October-November, December-January-February.
25. An empirical atmospheric compartmental modelbased on Figures II and III had been used to estimatesurface air concentrations and deposition of long-livedfallout radionuclides starting with estimated fissionproduction yields of each test [B1]. However, since rathercomplete measurements of 90Sr in air and deposition were
available and there were uncertainties in the reportedfission yields, this modelling work was not pursued.Improved estimates of fission yields changes this situationand allows the possibilityof examining in greater detail thedeposition of other radionuclides, such as 106Ru and 144Ce,and of projecting the measurement records beyond levels
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 163
Calculation
Calculation
Measurements
Measurements
1958
1958
1957
1957
1959
1959
1960
1960
1961
1961
1962
1962
1963
1963
1964
1964
1965
1965
1966
1966
1967
1967
1968
1968
1969
1969
1970
1970
1971
1971
1972
1972
1973
1973
1974
1974
1976
1976
1975
1975
1977
1977
1978
1978
1979
1979
1980
1980
1981
1981
1982
1982
1983
1983
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
CO
NC
EN
TR
AT
ION
(Bq
m)
CO
NC
EN
TR
AT
ION
(Bq
m)
-2
-2
-4
-4
-5
-5
-3
-3
-3-3
-7
-7
-6
-6
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
of detection capabilities. Estimates can also be made forshort-lived radionuclides such as 95Zr, however theuncertainty will be greater, since most of the depositionfrom these radionuclides is from highlyuncertain fractionsof the total debris that were injected into the troposphere ordeposited locally and regionally.
26. The parameters of the empirical model were set bycomparisons with data on tracer radionuclides released insome of the tests at specific times, such as 185W, 109Cd, and54Mn, as well as with the longer-term records of 90Sr. Thefit of the calculation to the 90Sr data in surface air is shown
in Figure IV for the northern hemisphere (upper diagram)and for the southern hemisphere (lower diagram). With theavailable estimates of fission yields of individualatmospheric tests, the model matches rather well themonthly data that show seasonal variations in the con-centrations. The model indicates the total 90Sr inventory inthe hemispheric troposphere. This has been converted to aconcentration with use of a volume parameter of 0.0001Bq m�3 per PBq, empirically determined from the 90Sr datafor mid-latitudes [B1]. Annual average calculated andmeasured concentrations of 90Sr in surface air of the mid-latitude regions are summarized in Table 7.
Figure IV. Strontium-90 concentration in air in the mid-latitude regions.The measurements averaged over several sites are compared with results of the atmospheric model calculation.
27. Measurements of 90Sr in surface air were maderoutinely at a number of locations around the world. Aglobal surface�air monitoring network was maintained bythe United States Naval Research Laboratory from 1957 to1962 [L6] and continued by the Environmental Measure-ments Laboratory of the United States Department ofEnergyfrom 1963 to 1983 [F4]. After 1983, the levels wereundetectable with the methods used. The representativemeasured concentrations of 90Sr in air shown in Figure IV
are derived from averaging the results of several sites inthe mid-latitudes of both hemispheres (see footnotes toTable 7).
28. Some slight deviations between the measured andcalculated results of 90Sr in air may be due to inaccurateestimation of injection amounts or of the initial parti-tioning of debris in the atmosphere or to variations in themeasured results or in the meteorology that may occur
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION164
Cumulative deposit
Cumulative deposit
Annual deposition
Annual deposition
1945
1945
1950
1950
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
1955
1955
1960
1960
1965
1965
1970
1970
1975
1975
1980
1980
1985
1985
1990
1990
1995
1995
2000
2000
-410
-410
-310
-310
-210
-210
-110
-110
010
010
110
110
210
210
DE
PO
SIT
ION
(PB
q)D
EP
OS
ITIO
N(P
Bq)
310
310
from year to year. Furthermore, the measured results at thechosen representative mid-latitude sites may not berepresentative of the entire hemisphere as calculated fromthe model, particularly for years with relatively largetropospheric injections from low-latitude test sites. Debrisinjected into the equatorial troposphere at low latitudes willlikely remain in a low latitude band due to the Hadleycirculation patterns, as illustrated in Figure II. Somedeviations for tests conducted at high-latitude sites havealso occurred, for example the rapid depletion of the polarstratosphere in 1959 following the 1958 Soviet tests wasindicated by the measurements. Also notable is the absenceof a peak in 1962 in the southern hemisphere followinginjections into the troposphere and stratosphere of theequatorial region from tests in that year. Further deviationsoccur beyond 1980, when the low levels reached by themeasuredconcentrationsbecomeuncertain andsomeenhance-ment from resuspension of ground deposits may becomerelatively more important.
29. Long-term monitoring of 90Sr deposition based onprecipitation sampling was conducted with global networksoperated by the Environmental Measurements Laboratory ofthe United States [H1] and the Harwell Laboratory of theUnited Kingdom [P3]. Quite comparable results wereobtained. An earlier monitoring network based on gummed-film detectors at more than a hundred stations in manycountries was operated from 1952 to 1959 by the Health andSafetyLaboratory, which becametheEnvironmentalMeasure-ments Laboratory, in the United States [H8]. The results ofdeposition densities at individual sites have been averagedwithin latitude bands and multiplied by the area of the bandsto obtain estimates of the hemispheric and global depositionamounts. The annual results are shown in Figure V for thenorthern hemisphere (upper diagram) and southern hemi-sphere (lower diagram) and are compared to the estimatesderived from the atmospheric model. The agreement is quiteclose until the early 1980s, when uncertainties in themeasurements began to increase.
Figure V. Hemispheric depositions of 90Sr determined from global network measurements (points)and from atmospheric model calculations (lines).
30. Using the atmospheric model and the estimated fissionyields of individual tests, it is possible to distinguish thecontributions of the test programmes of individual countries
to the annual deposition of 90Sr. This is illustrated inFigure VI. In the northern hemisphere the contributions fromthe test programme of the United States dominated before
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 165
Measured total
United Kingdom
1945
1945
1950
1950
Northern hemisphere
Southern hemisphere
1955
1955
1960
1960
1965
1965
1970
1970
1975
1975
1980
1980
1985
1985
1990
1990
1995
1995
2000
2000
-510
-510
-410
-410
-310
-310
-610
-610
-210
-210
-110
-110
010
010
110
110
210
210Total
USSR
United States
United StatesFranceChina
DE
PO
SIT
ION
(PB
q)D
EP
OS
ITIO
N(P
Bq)
Measured total
United Kingdom
Total
USSR
United StatesFranceChina
Figure VI. Components of strontium-90 deposition from test programmesof countries calculated from fission yields of tests with the atmospheric model.
1958. From 1959 until 1967 the test programme of the formerSoviet Union contributed the greatest amounts to annual 90Srdeposition, and from 1968 until 1988 the deposition wasprimarily from the Chinese tests. In the southern hemisphere,the annual deposition was greatest from the tests of the UnitedStates before 1964 except for 1957 and 1958, when theequatorial tests of the United Kingdom took place. Sub-sequently, the greatest contributors to annual deposition werethe former Soviet Union during 1965�1967, France during1968�1976, and China during 1977�1988. Owing to slowerremoval ofdebris from inventories in the high atmosphereandupper stratosphere, the deposition of the test programmes ofthe United States and the former Soviet Union predominateagain in the 1990s, although at levels too low to bemeasurable.
31. A summary of the annual hemispheric totals ofmeasured and calculated 90Sr deposition is given in Table 7.The deposition rate of 90Sr was generallygreater by a factor ofabout 5 in the northern hemisphere from 1953 to 1965 andfrom 1977 to 1983. From 1967 to 1977 and since 1985, thefallout rates in both hemispheres have been roughly the same.The model results indicate a total global deposition of
610 PBq. Using the measurement results preferentially, whenavailable, the global deposition amount of 90Sr is unchanged,although the measurements indicate a slightly smallerproportion of the total deposition in the northern hemispherethan indicatedbythecalculations. The previous estimate ofthetotal deposition based on measurement results and measuredcumulative deposition up to 1958 was 604 PBq. Thecalculated results indicate a decay of about 2%�3% of theinjected amount of 90Sr prior to deposition (injected amount160.5 Mt × 3.9 PBq Mt�1 = 626 PBq; deposited amount610 PBq or 97.4% of the injected amount), corresponding toan average residence time of debris in the atmosphere ofabout1.1 years. The measured result of 604 PBq suggests anaverage residence time of about 1.3 years. The globalcumulative deposit reached a maximum in 1967�1972 of460 PBq (Table 7). By the year 2000, this will have decayed to250 PBq.
32. Since most of the atmospheric tests were conducted inthe northern hemisphere, the deposition amounts are greaterthere than in the southern hemisphere. Because of thepreferential exchange of air between the stratosphere andtroposphere in the mid-latitudes of the hemisphere and the air
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION166
circulation patterns in the troposphere, there is enhanceddeposition in the temperate regions and decreased deposition(by a factor of about 2) in the equatorial and polar regions.The latitudinal distribution of 90Sr deposition determinedfromthe global measurements is given in Table 8. This latitudinalvariation is only valid for long-lived radionuclides, for whichmost of the deposition was from debris originally injected intothe stratosphere. As the half-life of the radionuclide decreases,a larger fraction of the fallout was from injections into thetroposphere, sincelarger fractionsofthestratosphericamountsdecayduring the relatively long stratospheric residence times.The variation with latitude for these radionuclides thus willdepend more on the latitude of injection. (The model indicatesthat about 90% of the deposited 90Sr is from stratosphericdebris, while for 95Zr only about one third is due tostratospheric debris and for 131I, less than 5%).
33. With demonstrated good agreement for 90Sr obtainablewith the empirical atmospheric model, the concentrations inair and the deposition of other long-lived radionuclides can becalculated. Previously, estimates were made from ratios to 90Srvalues. The atmospheric model can take better account ofdecay prior to deposition and can start with the fissionproduction values that are independent of estimates for otherradionuclides. The model can be very usefully applied forshort-lived radionuclides that could not be adequatelymonitored at the time the testing occurred. However, becausethe deposition of these short-lived radionuclides is sodependent on the fractions injected into the troposphere andthe amounts of local and intermediate fallout, the modeldeposition estimates are less reliable, and the results need tobe adjusted to agree with available data.
34. The radionuclides produced and globally dispersed inatmospheric nuclear testing that are important from a dosi-metric point of view are listed in Table 9. These are theradionuclides that were also considered in the UNSCEAR1993 Report (Annex B, Table 1) [U3]. For fission radio-nuclides, the production per unit energy released in the testsassumes 1.45 1026 fissions Mt�1. Multiplying by the fissionyield and the decay constant gives the normalized activityproduction. For radionuclides produced in fusion reactions orby activation primarily in thermonuclear tests (3H, 14C, 54Mn,55Fe), the normalized production can be estimated frommeasured inventories in the environment and the associatedtotal fusion energy of all tests. The values for 54Mn and 55Feare those quoted in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], whichmayyet be adjusted to take into account better estimates of theinventories and the total fusion energyof tests. The productionof transuranic radionuclides has been inferred from ratios to90Sr, as measured in deposition. These values are thus un-changed from previous estimates [U3]. The total productionof radionuclides in atmospheric testing associated with thegloballydisperseddebris (excluding local deposition at the testsites and regional deposition) and based on revised estimatesof fission and fusion energies is given in the last column ofTable 9. The fission yields in Table 9, which are assumed tobe representative of all atmospheric tests, are those forthermonuclear tests, since these contributed over 90% of thedebris. The fission yields for 89Sr and 125Sb has been revised
slightlyfrom those previouslyused [U3], based on the produc-tion ratios for thermonuclear tests reported by Hicks [H6].
35. The input data to the atmospheric model for thecalculation ofworldwide deposition of radionuclidesproducedin atmospheric testing are the fission and fusion yields ofindividual tests (Table 1), the normalized production ofradionuclides (Table 9), and the atmospheric partitioningassumptions (Tables 5 and 6). Because atmospheric transportis seasonal, it is necessary to work with monthly values ofinput and to calculate monthly deposition. For short-livedradionuclides it is necessary to use daily values to adequatelyaccount for decay before deposition. The total annual deposi-tion results are presented in Table 10 for each hemisphere andfor the world. Because thermonuclear fission yields were used,the estimates for years with mostly low-yield tests aresomewhat less certain, since the fission yields for low-yieldtests for some radionuclides vary significantly depending onthe mixture of fissile material used.
36. Only for 90Sr are there adequate measurements ofhemispheric deposition that could be used in place of thecalculated results. Limited data are available for 89Sr from thesampling network of the United States [H7]. Some data onother radionuclides are also available for a few sites duringparticular time periods. There are onlyminor discrepancies incalculated and measured results for 90Sr, but the measuredresults are used preferentially in Table 10, i.e. 1958�1985. Animportant component of the residual global contaminationfrom atmospheric testing is 137Cs. Because of the similarity inthe half-life of 137Cs (30.07 a) and 90Sr (28.78 a), depositionoccurs according to the ratio of fission yields and (inversely)half-lives: 137Cs/90Sr = 1.5. Thus, the estimates of 137Cs inTable 10 are based on this ratio times the measured 90Srdeposition for the period 1958�1985. The estimates for 144Ce,106Ru and 125Sb, 54Mn and 55Fe are based solely on thecalculated results. The calculated results for the refractoryradionuclides, 95Zr, 141Ce, 144Ce, 54Mn, and 55Fe take intoaccount the higher local and intermediate depositiondiscussed earlier. The estimates of annual deposition of 95Zr,91Y, 89Sr, 103Ru, 141Ce, 140Ba, and 131I have been normalized tothe total depositions reported at the bottom of Table 10. Theestimates of total deposition are based on comparisons withavailable data, production ratios, and relative half-lives. Theratios of total deposition for these radionuclides to 90Sr differsomewhat from those reported in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report[U3], because of revised assessment of the available data aswell as an adjustment to account for a greater proportion ofdeposition at low latitudes than assumed earlier.
37. A basic indication of deposition amounts determined bymeasurements and needed in dose calculations is thedeposition density, the activity of deposited radionuclides perunit ground surface area. Global measurements of 90Sr arerelated to the areas of the 10� latitude bands in which themeasurements were made. These areas are given in Table 8.From the evaluated fractional deposition in each band, thetotal hemispheric deposition is apportioned and the depositiondensities determined. By weighting these results with thepopulations in the bands, the population-weighted deposition
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 167
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 20000
20 -30
40 -50
60 -70
o
o
o
o
o
o
Southern hemisphere
Northern hemisphere
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
DE
PO
SIT
ION
DE
NS
ITY
(kB
qm
)-2
densityfor the hemisphere is obtained. With 89% of the worldpopulation in the northern hemisphere and 11% in thesouthern hemisphere, the hemispheric results may beweighted accordingly to obtain the world average depositiondensity. This latitudinal apportionment is valid only for thelong-lived radionuclides for which most of the depositionoriginated from debris injected into the stratosphere. Forshort-lived radionuclides, for which most of the depositionwas from debris injected into the troposphere, adjustmentsmust be made to account for the increased deposition at lowlatitudes resulting from tests of the United States and theUnited Kingdom in the Pacific. Since the population inthe northern hemisphere is about equally divided betweenlatitudes greater and less than 30�, an increase in the relative
fraction of the deposition below 30� has only a small impact(about 10%) on the population-weighted deposition density.However, because 86% of the population of the southernhemisphere lives between 0��30� latitude and almost all ofthe debris injected into the southern hemisphere tropospherewas at latitudes less than 30�, the value to convert from totaldeposition topopulation-weighteddeposition densityfor short-lived radionuclides (half-lives less than 30 days) for monthsin which the input was primarily from United States tests inthe Pacific would be 6.7 rather than 3.74 (see Table 8). Anintermediate weight of 5.7 based on 75% of the debris fromtropospheric injections and 25% from stratospheric injectionswould be more appropriate for radionuclides with half-lives ofabout 30 to 100 days.
Figure VII. Caesium-137 deposition density in the northern and southern hemispherescalculated from fission production amounts with the atmospheric model.
38. The hemispheric and world average cumulative deposi-tion densities are given in Table 11. The monthly depositionresults from the atmospheric model have been averaged overthe year. The model accounts for decay during the month ofdeposition as well as after deposition. The total deposition forlong-lived radionuclides (half-life >100 d) in the hemisphereis multiplied by the parameters in Table 8 (4.65 and 3.74Bq m�2 per PBq in the northern and southern hemisphere,respectively) to obtain the population-weighted depositiondensities of Table 11. For radionuclides with half-livesbetween 30 and 100 d, and <30 d, factors of 5.7 and 6.7Bq m�2 per PBq, respectively, were used for the southernhemisphere. A value of 4.0 was used for the northernhemisphere for all short-lived radionuclides. The worldaverage is the population-weighted sum of the hemisphericvalues: 0.89 times theaveragepopulation-weighted depositiondensityof the northern hemisphereplus0.11 times the averagepopulation-weighted deposition density of the southernhemisphere. For the long-lived radionuclides, the depositiondensities in particular latitudinal regions maybe obtainedwithuse of the factor given in the last column of Table 8. Forexample, the deposition density for 90Sr in the 40��50�latitude region of the northern hemisphere is 1.5 times thenorthern hemisphere average value.
39. An important component of the residual radiationbackground caused bydeposition of radionuclides produced in
atmospheric testing is that of 137Cs. Calculated depositiondensities of 137Cs in various latitude regions are shown inFigure VII. These levels were perturbed by additionaldeposition from the Chernobyl accident in 1986, especially inEuropean countries.
40. The world average deposition densities of radionuclidesproduced in atmospheric testing are illustrated in Figure VIII.Considerable variations are noted for the short-lived radio-nuclides, and these have by now decayed to negligible levels.When the tests were taking place, the deposition densities ofseveral short-lived radionuclides, especially 144Ce, 106Ru, and95Zr, were highest, but since 1965, 137Cs and 90Sr dominate inthe residual cumulative deposit.
41. The summations of the annual deposition densities ofTable 11 give the integrated deposition densities (Bq a m�2)for the radionuclides. Only for 90Sr and 137Cs are theresignificant contributions beyond the year 2000. The total inTable 11 extended for all time (1945 to infinity) may alsobe obtained from the total deposited amounts (Table 10)multiplied by the mean lives of the radionuclides (1/λ =half-life ÷ ln2) and the appropriate population-weightedconversion factor from Table 8. This demonstrates theconsistency of the annual calculation of deposition and thecumulative deposition density.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION168
���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���� ���
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��
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Figure VIII. Worldwide population-weighted cumulative deposition density of radionuclides produced inatmospheric testing. The monthly calculated results have been averaged over each year. Several short-lived
radionuclides with half-lives and deposition patterns intermediate between 140Ba and 95Zr are not shown.
3. Annual doses from global fallout
42. The Committee provided a rough indication of theaverage annual doses to the world population from falloutradionuclides in the UNSCEAR 1982 Report [U6]. For1958�1979, the maximum dose rate was estimated to be0.14 mSv a�1 in 1963, and it had decreased by almost anorder of magnitude by 1979. Using available empiricalmodels, the annual doses can be estimated in much moredetail. The results of this exercise are presented in thisSection.
43. The basic input to dose calculations from falloutradionuclides has been the measured deposition density of90Sr. The measured annual hemispheric deposition amountsfor representative mid-latitude sites are listed in Table 7. Themeasurements, which began in 1958, were continued until1985. By then the stratospheric inventory from atmospherictests was largely depleted. Some of the monitoring sites wereaffected by the Chernobyl accident in 1986. Subsequently, alow, constant level of deposition has been measured thatreflects resuspended soil particles [A4, I5]. Longer-livedradionuclides in global fallout other than 90Sr have also beenmonitored, but they have been present in relatively constantratios to 90Sr. For short-lived radionuclides (half-life <100days), decay before deposition is significant. For theseradionuclides, the pattern of deposition was previously takento be that of 95Zr, with the magnitude estimated from theaverage value of the ratio determined by availablemeasurements. The empirical atmospheric model with inputfrom individual nuclear tests now allows the time course ofdeposition ofall radionuclidesproduced in atmospheric testingto be determined in greater detail and with better generalaccuracy.
44. Thegeneral procedures for deriving dose estimates fromthe measured or calculated deposition densities of radio-nuclides are presented in Annex A, “Dose assessmentmethodologies”. It is only necessary to summarize here thevalues of transfer coefficients needed for the annual dose
evaluations for the various pathways: external, inhalation, andingestion. The transfer coefficients P25 used to evaluate theeffective dose committed by unit deposition density of aradionuclide were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report(Annex B, Table 8) [U3].
45. Of the radionuclides contributing to external exposure,only 137Cs has a half-life greater than a few years. For thisradionuclide the depth distribution in soil has been taken tocorrespond to a relaxation length of 3 cm. Previous assess-ments of external doses from fallout assumed a plane sourcedistribution for the other radionuclides [U3, U4]. Thisassumption is now altered to provide a more realistic basis forthe dose estimation. A relaxation length of 3 cm is also usedfor the other long-lived radionuclides (half-lives >100 days).For radionuclides with half-lives between 30 and 100 days, arelaxation length of 1 cm is more appropriate. For the othershort-lived radionuclides (half-lives <30 days), a relaxationlength of 0.1 cm is assumed rather than a plane source, toaccount for ground roughness. The chosen relaxation lengthsare consistent with the values used in the UNSCEAR 1988Report [U5] to estimate external exposures from theChernobyl accident and more adequately reflect the observedpenetration of the radionuclides into the soil with time. Theparameters required to calculate the annual effective dosesfrom external irradiation are summarized in Table 12.
46. For the external irradiation pathway, the effectivedose rate per unit deposition density is derived bymultiplying the dose rate in air per unit deposition densityby the conversion factor 0.7, which relates the dose rate inair to the effective dose, and the occupancy-shieldingfactor, 0.2 fractional time outdoors + 0.8 fractional timeindoors × 0.2 building shielding = 0.36. The averageannual effective dose is then obtained bymultiplying by theaverage annual deposition density.
47. The values of annual doses due to external exposurefrom radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing aregiven in Table 13. The components of the world average
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 169
Cd,i � b1 Fi � b2 Fi�1 � b3��
n�1e �λ
�n Fi�n(1)
Cb,i � c Cd,i � g��
m�0e�λbm Cd,i�m
(2)
external dose are illustrated in Figure IX (upper diagram).The short-lived radionuclide 95Zr, with its decay product95Nb, was the main contributor to external exposure duringactive testing. Of less significance were 106Ru, 54Mn, and144Ce. Beginning in 1966, 137Cs became the most importantcontributor, and presently it is the only radionuclidecontributing to continuing external exposure fromdeposited radionuclides.
48. Several radionuclides contribute to exposure via theingestion pathway. They are listed, along with the transfercoefficients, in Table 12. For the short-lived radionuclides(131I, 140Ba, 89Sr), the exposures occur within weeks or monthsfollowing deposition. For annual dose rates, it is sufficient toassume that the exposures occur evenly over the mean life ofthe radionuclide. The transfer coefficients relating dose rate todeposition density are obtained by dividing the transfercoefficients for the committed dose [U3] by the radioactivemean lives. These are the entries in Table 12.
49. In previous UNSCEAR assessments, exposures via theingestion pathway from the longer-lived radionuclides 90Srand 137Cs have been derived from empirical transfer modelsapplied to the measured deposition densityof 90Sr (the 137Cs to90Sr ratio of 1.5 is used to derive the deposition density of137Cs). The parameters of the models were evaluated fromregression fits to the measured concentrations of theseradionuclides in diet and the human body. These models applyto continuing deposition throughout the year, as occurredduring fallout deposition. Thus, the seasonal variability intransfers to diet is averaged out in a single annual value.
50. The model used to describe the transfer of 90Sr or137Cs from deposition to diet is of the form
where Cd,i is the concentration of the radionuclide in a foodcomponent d or in the total diet in the year i due to thedeposition density rate Fi in the year i, Fi�1 in the previousyear, and the sum of the deposition density rates in allprevious years, reduced by exponential decay. Theexponential decay with decay constant λ� reflects bothradioactive decay and environmental loss of theradionuclide. The coefficients bi and the parameter λ� aredetermined by regression analysis of measured depositionand diet data. The coefficients bi represent the transfer perunit annual deposition in the first year (b1), primarily fromdirect deposition, in the second year (b2), from lagged useof stored food and uptake from the surface deposit, and insubsequent years (b3), from transfer via root uptake fromthe accumulated deposit.
51. The transfer from diet to the human body (bone) for90Sr is described by a two-component model:
where Cb,i is the concentration of 90Sr in bone in the year i, cis a coefficient for short-term retention, and g is a coefficientfor longer-term retention, with removal governed by the decayconstant λb. The parameters c, g, and λb are determined byregression fits to monitoring data.
52. The retention of 137Cs in the body is relatively short-term (retention half-time of around 100 days). The annualdose per unit intake can therefore be expressed by a singletransfer coefficient, P34, which applies to the year of intake.The annual doses from 90Sr and 137Cs in the body areevaluated using the transfer coefficient P45. The values ofthe transfer coefficients used in calculating the annualeffective dose from ingestion of 90Sr and 137Cs, derived fromlong-term monitoring, are given in Annex A, “Doseassessment methodologies”.
53. Further exposure via ingestion of longer-lived radio-nuclides occurs from 55Fe and the transuranium elements. Thedosescommitted from thetransuranium radionuclidesareverysmall, and the contributions to annual doses are negligible. Atransfer model does not exist for 55Fe. Its half-life is only 2.73years; therefore, it is assumed, as for the short-lived radio-nuclides, that the dose-rate transfer coefficient is equal to thecommitment transfer coefficient [U3] divided by the radio-active mean life. This result is entered in Table 12.
54. The components of annual dose via the ingestionpathway from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testingare listed in Table 14 and illustrated in Figure IX (middlediagram). During active testing, 137Cs was the mostsignificant component, owing to its more immediate transferto diet and delivery of dose. Because of the longer-term,continuing transfer of 90Sr to diet and its longer retention inthe body, this radionuclide became the most importantcontributor to dose beginning in 1967. The short-livedradionuclideshave been relativelyinsignificant contributors toingestion exposure (see Figure IX).
55. For the inhalation pathway, exposures depend on theconcentrations of radionuclides in air, but because of theassociation between concentrations in air and depositiondensities through the deposition velocity, the transfercoefficients for the dose from inhalation can be given in termsof the measured deposition densities of the radionuclides.These transfer coefficients, P25, were given in the UNSCEAR1993 Report (Annex B, Table 8) [U3] and are repeated herein Table 12. These are the committed doses per unit intake.The dose from inhalation can be assumed delivered in thesame year that the deposition occurred. Subsequent exposuresfrom resuspension are accounted for in the measured airconcentrations and the derived deposition velocity, andalthough these exposures may continue for a few more years,including all of the exposure in the year of initial depositiondoes not introduce much error.
56. The estimates of annual doses from the inhalation ofradionuclides produced in atmospheric testing are given inTable 15, and several of the components are illustrated inFigure IX (lower diagram). Important contributors to
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION170
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
-310
-210
-210
-110
-110
010
010
110
110
210
210
Sb125
Mn54
AN
NU
AL
EFF
EC
TIV
ED
OS
E(
Sv)
µA
NN
UA
LE
FF
EC
TIV
ED
OS
E(
Sv)
µA
NN
UA
LE
FF
EC
TIV
ED
OS
E(
Sv)
µ
External exposure
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
-310
Ingestion exposure
Sr90
I+131
Fe55
Inhalation exposure
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
-310
-210
-110
010
110
210TotalTotal
Total
Total
Sr90Sr90Ce144Ce144
Ce144
Pu, AmPu, Am
Cs+137Cs+137
Cs137
Cs137
Ru106Ru106
Ru106
Zr+95Zr+95
Zr+95
Figure IX. Worldwide average doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.External exposure: Contributions from radionuclides 131I, 140Ba, 144Ce, 106Ru are included with 95Zr;Ingestion exposure: Contributions from 90Sr and 140Ba are included with 131I;Inhalation exposure: Contributions from short-lived radionuclides (131I, 140Ba, 141Ce, 103Ru, 89Sr, 91Y) are included
with 95Zr and from intermediate-lived radionuclides (54Mn, 125Sb, 55Fe) are included with 137Cs.
inhalation exposure were 144Ce, the transuranicradionuclides, 106Ru, 91Y, 95Zr, and 89Sr. Deposition, andthus the concentrations of these radionuclides in air,
dropped rapidly once atmospheric testing ceased in 1980.Even for the long-lived transuranic radionuclides,inhalation exposure became insignificant after 1985.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 171
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1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
-210
-110
010
110
210
310
Total
External
Ingestion
Inhalation
AN
NU
AL
EF
FE
CT
IVE
DO
SE
(S
v)µ
H, C3 14
57. One further contribution to annual exposures comesfrom the globally dispersed radionuclides 3H and 14C. Inboth cases, there is no external exposure and onlynegligible exposure from inhalation. Exposure arises mostentirely from the ingestion pathway. Global models have
been formulated to describe the dispersion and long-termbehaviours of these radionuclides in the environment.Estimates of the annual doses from 3H and 14C produced inatmospheric testing are included in Table 14 andillustrated in Figure X.
Figure X. Worldwide average dose (mainly from ingestion pathway) from globally dispersed 3H and 14C.
58. The annual doses from tritium have been evaluatedusing the seven-compartment model presented by theUnited States National Council on Radiation Protectionand Measurements (NCRP) [N1]. With volumes andtransfer rates applicable for the hydrological cycle of theworld and intake of water by humans assumed to be 33%from the atmosphere, 53% from surface fresh waters,13.3% from groundwater, and 0.7% from ocean surfacewater (through fish) [N1], the dose per unit release is0.06 nGy PBq�1. Further details of the model are presentedin Annex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”.
59. The annual doses from 14C have been derived using themulti-compartment model described in Annex A, “Doseassessment methodologies”. The estimates are only approxi-mate, since widespread, immediate mixing in large regions
is assumed in the model formulation. To compensate for this,the hemispheric values have been adjusted to an initial ratioof 4 to 1 in the northern and southern hemispheres, reflectingthe deposition pattern of longer-lived radionuclides. This ratiowas maintained through 1970 and then reduced uniformly toa ratio of 1 to 1 by the year 2000, representing assumedcompletion of uniform mixing throughout the world. Thisprocedure provides more realistic estimates of doses in thehemispheres, but does not affect the estimated global average.The average annual global effective dose from 14C producedin atmospheric nuclear testing was at a maximum, 7.7 µSv, in1964 and has decreased by a factor of 4 since that time. Thedose would be estimated to be somewhat less when account istaken of the input of stable carbon into the atmosphere fromfossil fuel burning, which dilutes the 14C.
Figure XI. Contributions of pathways to worldwide average dose from radionuclides produced in atmospheric testing.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION172
60. The estimates of the total annual effective doses fromradionuclides produced in atmospheric nuclear testing aresummarized in Table 16, and the world average contributionsfrom the main pathways are illustrated in Figure XI. Theseresults are for the hemispheric- and world-population-weighted averages of deposition of fallout radionuclides. Thedoses in more specific regions of the world may be obtainedby adjusting to the latitudinal distribution of depositiondetermined from measurement of 90Sr (Table 8). In thetemperate zones (40��50�), the annual doses from long-livedradionuclides are higher than the hemispheric averages byfactors of 1.5 in the northern hemisphere and 1.65 in thesouthern hemisphere. For the short-lived radionuclides (seeparagraph 37), the distribution with latitude is more uniformin the northern hemisphere, while the doses in the temperatezones of the southern hemisphere are about one third less thanthe hemispheric average. The hemispheric average annualdose was highest in 1963 in the northern hemisphere (0.13mSv) and in 1962 in the southern hemisphere (0.06 mSv).
61. The estimated world average annual dose fromatmospheric nuclear testing was highest in 1963 (0.11 mSv)and subsequently declined to less than 0.006 mSv in the1990s. External exposure generally made the highestcontributions toannual doses, when the annual doses from 14Cand 3H are not included, initially by short-lived radionuclidesand subsequently by 137Cs. Both external and ingestionexposure peaked in 1962. The annual doses at present are duealmost equally to external irradiation (53%) and ingestionexposures (47%). The dose from 14C (30% of the total) nowexceeds that from ingestion of other radionuclides. The dosesyet to be delivered at future times are also indicated inTable 16. The summation of annual doses for all time definesthe dose commitment, which is the dose quantity previouslyevaluated in UNSCEAR assessments of the exposure fromatmospheric nuclear testing [U3]. With use of the modelcalculations, the revised external dose coefficients, and the re-evaluation of the total deposition of short-lived radionuclides,the present dose estimates for some radionuclides differslightly from the previous assessment, although the currentestimated total effective dose commitment to the worldpopulation, 3.5 mSv, is little different from the result given inthe UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], 3.7 mSv.
4. Local and regional exposures
62. Since atmospheric nuclear tests were conducted inrelatively remote areas, exposures of local populations didnot contribute significantly to the world collective dosefrom this practice. Nevertheless, those individuals livingdownwind of the test sites received greater-than-averagedoses. In addition, individuals who might now or in thefuture occupy contaminated areas of the former test sitescould receive exposures through external or internalpathways. Efforts are being made to evaluate these sites toguide possible rehabilitation and resettlement, and work iscontinuing to reconstruct the exposure conditions and toestimate the local and regional doses that were received atthe time of the tests. Available information was presentedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and is summarized
here in Table 17. Further results, although still notsystematic and complete, are presented in this Section. Itwill be necessary to add details as the dose reconstructionefforts progress.
63. The locations of several test sites are shown in FiguresXII, XIII, and XIV. The areas within a few hundredkilometres of the site are generally designated as local andthose within a few thousand kilometres, regional. Distances of500 km and 1,000 km from the test sites are delineated in thefigures for reference purposes. The exposed populations weregenerally only those living in downwind, generally eastwarddirections.
(a) Nevada test site
64. The Nevada test site in the United States was thelocation for 86 atmospheric nuclear tests: 83 tests wereconducted from 1951 to 1958, and 3 more tests wereconducted in 1962. Additional cratering tests also injecteddebris into the atmosphere [N10]. Local areas were affectedby relatively few tests, but for those few tests they weremuch more affected than more distant areas of the UnitedStates, which received less deposition and exposure butwere more evenly affected by a larger number of tests. Theexternal exposures to local populations were estimated atthe time of testing to be low; however, public concernabout the health impact of the exposures grew. As aconsequence, rather detailed dose reconstruction projectswere undertaken in the 1980s.
65. Estimates of external exposures from atmospheric testsat the Nevada test site were reported by Anspaugh et al. [A1,A3]. Results were derived from survey meter and film badgemeasurements for 300 communities in the local areas(<300 km) around the test site in Nevada and in southwesternUtah. The distribution of individual cumulative exposures isgiven in Table 18. The effective dose exceeded 3 mSv in 20%of the population of 180,000. The highest effective doses werein the range 60�90mSv, and thepopulation-weighted averagevalue was 2.8 mSv [A1]. The exposures resulted primarilyfrom short-lived gamma-emitters (half-lives <100 days).The estimates were based on outdoor occupancy of 50%and a building shielding factor of 0.5; the usual UNSCEARassumptions are 20% and 0.2, respectively. Most of theexposures resulted from relatively few events; 90% of thecumulative collective dose of 470 man Sv resulted from 17events, the most significant being test Harry on 19 May1953 (180 man Sv), test Bee on 22 March 1955 (70man Sv), and test Smoky on 31 August 1957 (50 man Sv)[A3]. Collective doses that included areas furtherdownwind, encompassing all ofNevada and Utah and partsof several other western states, were estimated to have beeneven greater than for the local area, about 10,000 man Sv,primarily due to the exposure of the large population areasaround Salt Lake City [A7, B9]. All of the United Statesreceived some fallout from Nevada weapons tests [B10].Beck and Krey [B11] reported cumulative doses fromexternal exposure averaged about 1 mSv to persons livingin the midwest and east of the country.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 173
Ujae
Ujelang
Enewetak
Lae
Ebadon
Wotho
BikiniRongerik
RongelapAilinginae Taka Utirik
Bikar
MejitLemoLikiep
RoiKjawalein
Lib
NamuJabwot
Jaluit
KiliNamorik
Mili
Ebon
ButaritariMakin
KIRIBATI
Majuro ArnoAilinglapalap
Aur
Maloelap
Erikub
Wotje
M A R S H A L L
I S L A N D S
1010
5
170
170165
N O R T H
P A C I F I C
O C E A N
Ailuk
MARSHALLISLANDS
Equator
NORTHPACIFICOCEAN
SOUTHPACIFICOCEAN
FED. STATESOF MICRONESIA
Wake Island(USA)
Guam(USA)
NorthernMarianaIslands(USA)
PAPUANEW GUINEA
VANATU FIJI
KIRIBATI
TUVALU
NAURU
SOLOMONISLANDS
CoralSea
66. Internal exposures resulting from atmospheric testingat the Nevada test site have been estimated from depositionmeasurements and an environmental transfer model [K2,W2]. Absorbed doses to organs and tissues from internalexposure were substantially less than those from externalexposure, with the exception of the thyroid, in which 131Ifrom ingestion of milk contributed relatively higher doses.Estimates of absorbed doses in the thyroid of 3,545 locallyexposed individuals ranged from 0 to 4.6 Gy; the averagewas 98 mGy and the median 25 mGy [T4]. Fiveindividuals received absorbed doses greater than 3 Gy, andall of them drank milk from a family-owned goat [T4]. Thecollective absorbed dose to the thyroid of the population ofstates in the western United States was estimated to be140,000 man Gy [A7]. An extensive study has beencompleted by the National Cancer Institute of the UnitedStates of thyroid doses in all counties of the United Statesfrom 131I deposition following the atmospheric tests inNevada [B6, N10]. The individual thyroid doses ranged upto 100 mGy in local areas. For the entire population of theUnited States, the estimate was 20 mGy, with a collectiveabsorbed dose of 4 106 man Gy. Although not involvingexposure, it should be noted that plutonium migration from
an underground nuclear test conducted at the Nevada TestSite was detected 30 years following the test in a groundwater monitoring well 1.3 km from the test location [K12].In this very arid region, no migration had been anticipated.The authors concluded that colloid-facilitated transport wasimplicated in the field findings.
(b) Bikini, Enewetak test sites
67. An extensive nuclear test programme was conductedby the United States at locations in the Pacific (Table 1).The test resulting in the most significant local exposureswas the thermonuclear test Bravo on 28 February 1954 atBikini Atoll. Unexpectedly heavy fallout occurred in thelocal area eastward of the atoll (Figure XII). Within a fewhours of the explosion, fallout particles descended onRongelap and Ailinginae atolls, 200 km from Bikini,exposing 82 persons. The Japanese fishing vessel LuckyDragon was also in this area, and 23 fishermen wereexposed. Farther east, exposures occurred at RongerikAtoll (28 United States servicemen) and Utrik Atoll (159persons). These individuals were evacuated within a fewdays of the initial exposures.
Figure XII. Bikini and Enewetak test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.
68. Average external exposures from the Bravo test, mainlyfrom short-lived radionuclides, ranged from 1.9 Sv onRongelap (67 persons, including 3 in utero), 1.1 Sv onAilinginae (19 persons, including 1 in utero), and 0.1 Sv onUtrik (167 persons, including 8 in utero) [L4]. The collectivedose from the exposures received by these individuals beforeevacuation was, therefore, 160 man Sv. Thyroid doses fromseveral isotopes of iodine and tellurium and from external
gamma radiation were estimated to be 12 Gy on average(42 Gy maximum) to adults, 22 Gy (82 Gy maximum) tochildren of 9 years, and 52 Gy (200 Gy maximum) to infantsof 1 year [L4].
69. The external exposure from the Bravo test to theservicemen on Rongerik Atoll was 0.8 Sv [L4]. For the 23Japanese fishermen, the external exposures from the fallout
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION174
Semipalatinsk
Almaty
Bishkek
Ulaanbaatar
G A N S U
A L T A I
Barnaul
Irkutsk
Ulan-Ude
Bratsk
Xining
Yinchuan
Lanzhou
Chengdu
Lop Nor
New Delhi
Urümqi
Korla
KashiKashi
KYRGYZSTAN
R U S S I A
C H I N A
I N D I A
KAZAKHSTAN
Burqin
Aqmola
Golmud
90
45
30
105
105
M O N G O L I A
45
30
75 90
deposition on deck ranged from 1.7 to 6 Sv, mostly receivedon the first day of the fallout but continuing for 14 days, untilthe ship arrived in its port [C9]. The thyroid doses to thefishermen were estimated to have been 0.2�1.2 Gy from 131I,based on external counting, but since other short-lived iodineisotopes were also present, the total doses to the thyroid frominhalation during a period of five hours were estimated tohave been 0.8�4.5 Gy [C9].
70. There seem to have been no other tests that causedsignificant exposures to the population in the Pacific region.The populations of the atolls where tests were conducted hadbeen relocated prior to the testing. Exposures to residualradiation levels on Utrik and Rongelap atolls to residents whoreturned to these islands in 1954 and 1957, respectively, wereof the order of 20�30 mSv over the following 20�year periodfrom external irradiation and 20�140 mSv from internalexposure [C9]. During the temporary resettlement of BikiniAtoll from 1971 to 1978, total whole-body exposures wereestimated to have been 2�3 mSv a�1 [G5]. A radiologicalsurvey of residual radiation levels, primarily due to globalfallout deposition, was conducted throughout the Marshall
Islands in 1994 [S2], and more detailed surveys have beenmade of Bikini and Enewetak atolls, in order to evaluateeventual permanent resettlement [I4, R1]. Estimated effectivedoses caused by residual contamination to persons who mightreturn at present to Bikini Atoll were estimated to be 4 mSvwith a diet composed of both local and imported foods andabout 15 mSv for a diet of local origin only [I4]. Tests at otherlocations in the Pacific(ChristmasIslandandJohnston Island)were conducted in the high atmosphere, and there was littlelocal fallout deposition.
(c) Semipalatinsk test site
71. The Semipalatinsk test site is located in the northeastcorner of Kazakhstan (see map in Figure XIII). At thislocation, 456 nuclear tests were conducted, including 86atmospheric and 30 surface tests [M2]. The most affectedlocal populations lived mainly east and northeast of the testsite, in the Semipalatinsk region of Kazakhstan and the Altairegion of the Russian Federation. After some tests, traces ofradioactive contamination were also formed in southern andsoutheastern directions [G8].
Figure XIII. Lop Nor and Semipalatinsk test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.
The measurement areas in Gansu Province (for Lop Nor) and the Altai Region (for Semipalatinsk)are shown within elliptical areas.
72. Two tests were most significant in exposing thepopulation of Kazakhstan: the first test on 29 August 1949and the first thermonuclear test on 12 August 1953. These and
two additional test (on 24 September 1951 and 24 August1956) are stated in [G8] to have contributed 85% of the totalcollective effective dose from all tests. There are several
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 175
Emu
Derby
Wyndham
Alice Springs
Cooktown
Cairns
TownsvilleCloncurry
Rockhampton
Charleville
Bourke
Porto Augusta
Geraldton
Coolgardie
Albany
Ashburton
Dariing
MonteBello
Islands
Maralinga
Perth
Darwin
CAPEYORK
Brisbane
Sidney
CANBERRA
Q U E E N S L A N D
N O R T H E R NT E R R I T O R Y
S O U T H A U S T R A L I A
N E W S O U T HW A L E S
W E S T E R NA U S T R A L I A
Melbourne
Adelaide
132
132
144
144
1212
24
36
24
36
120
120
Adelaide
documents listing doses at specific locations for thepopulation in Kazakhstan [G8, S7, T1], but the presentedresults differ markedly. Example results from the latestpublication [S7] of accumulated effective doses for severaldistricts indicate effective doses in the range from 0.04 to2.4 Sv. The collective effective dose for ten districts isestimated to be 3,000�4,000 man Sv [S7]. The absorbed doseto the thyroid from the ingestion of radioiodines is quiteuncertain, but is estimated to be as high as 8 Gyto children inthe Akbulak settlement [S7].
73. The Altai region of the Russian Federation is about200 km from the Semipalatinsk Test Site. This populationexperienced exposure following about 40 explosions [S8].The most significant exposure was caused by the nucleartest of 29 August 1949 with other major exposuresfollowing tests on 3 September 1953, 1 August 1962, 4August 1962, and 7 August 1962. Effective doses of about2 Sv are estimated to have occurred in the Uglovski districtfollowing the 1949 test. The total collective dose to allresidents in 58 districts with a total population of 1.9million persons is estimated to be 42,000 man Sv [S8].
74. The results for Kazakhstan and the Altai region inthe Russian Federation must at present be regarded withcaution. There are significant discrepancies among thereported results for Kazakhstan, and the reported resultsfor the Altai region differ markedly when derived frommeasured results or model calculations. Validation ofresults based upon contemporary measurements of 137Cs
deposition density might be useful in resolving some ofthese discrepancies.
75. Investigation of residual contamination levels at theSemipalatinsk site has begun. In 1993�1994, an inter-national team performed a preliminary survey of the testsite and surrounding area [I9]. More significantly con-taminated areas were found at ground zero locations andsurrounding Lake Balapan. Projected annual doses wereestimated to be 10 mSv, mainly from external exposure, toindividuals making daily visits to these sites and 100 mSvto those who might permanently reside at these locations.Present annual effective doses to persons living outside thetest site boundaries were estimated to be of the order of0.1 mSv from residual contamination levels.
(d) Novaya Zemlya test site
76. The test site Novaya Zemlya in the Russian Arctic islarge and remote. Although an extensive atmospheric testprogramme was conducted there, most of the tests werecarried out at high altitudes, thus minimizing local fallout.There was one test with a 32 kt yield on the land surface on7 September 1957 [M2]. In addition, there were two testson the surface of the water and three tests underwater atthe site. Research programmes to investigate residualcontamination both on- and off-site have been initiated. Itmay be that reindeer herders and those who consumereindeer meat received low internal exposures, primarilyfrom 137Cs, that could be attributed to tests at this site.
Figure XIV. Maralinga, Emu and Monte Bello test sites.The inner dotted circle indicates a distance of 500 km, the outer dashed circle 1,000 km from the test sites.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION176
(e) Maralinga, Emu test sites
77. The nuclear weapons testing programme of the UnitedKingdom included 21 atmospheric tests at sites in Australiaand the Pacific. The tests in the Pacific at Malden and theChristmas Islands in 1957 and 1958 were airbursts over theocean (six tests with submegatonne and megatonne yields) orexplosions of devices suspended by balloons at 300�450 mover land (one test of 24 kt and two tests each with 25 ktyield) [D2]. Local fallout would have been minimal followingthose tests. Twelve tests were conducted from 1952 to 1957 atthree sites in Australia: Monte Bello Islands, Emu, andMaralinga, which are shown on the map in Figure XIV.These were mainly surface tests with yields of 60 kt or less.For each of these tests, trajectories of the radioactive cloudwere determined, and local and countrywide monitoring ofairand deposition was performed [W1]. Estimates of externalexposures in local areas were not made for the earlier tests; forthe tests in 1956 and 1957, the external effective doses wereless than 1 mSv [W1]. The sizes of local populations were notindicated. Estimates of internal exposures were also made forthe entire Australian population. The average effective dosewas 70 µSv, and the collective effective dose was 700 man Svin this population [W1]. A number of safety tests wereconducted at the Maralinga and Emu sites in South Australia,resulting in the dispersal of 239Pu over some hundreds ofsquare kilometres. The potential doses to local inhabitants ofthese areas have been evaluated [D1, H2, W3]. Followingrehabilitation of the Maralinga test site it is estimated thatpotential doses to future inhabitants living a semi-traditionalnomadic lifestyle will be less than 5 mSv [D1].
(f) Algerian, Mururoa, Fangataufa test sites
78. The French nuclear testing programme began with fourlow-yield surface tests at a site near Reggane in the AlgerianSahara in 1960 and 1961 [D3]. There is no information onlocal exposures following these tests. Some residualcontamination remains at this site and at a nearby site, InEcker, where 13 underground tests were conducted. Smallquantities of plutonium were dispersed at these sites fromsafety experiments, which involved conventional explosivesonly. Investigations of the present radiation levels andpotential exposures of individual whomight utilize these areashave been initiated by the IAEA.
79. The subsequent programme of France was conducted atthe uninhabited atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa in FrenchPolynesia in the South Pacific. Most of these tests involved thedetonation of devices suspended from balloons at heights of220�500 m [D3], limiting local fallout. Radiological monitor-ing has been conducted at surrounding locations. The closestinhabited atoll is Tureia (140 persons) at a distance of 120 kmto the north; only 5,000 persons lived within 1,000 km of thetest site. A larger population (184,000 persons in 1974) islocated 1,200 km to the northwest, at Tahiti. Under theconditions that normally prevail at the test site, radioactivedebris of the local and tropospheric fallout was carried to theeast over uninhabited regions of the Pacific. On occasion,however, some material was transferred to the central South
Pacific within a few days of the tests by westerly movingeddies. French scientists [B8] have identified five tests, follow-ing which regional population groups were more directlyexposed (Table 19). A single rain-out event caused exposuresin Tahiti after the test of 17 July 1974. Exposures resultedmainly from external irradiation from deposited radio-nuclides. Milk production on Tahiti is sufficient for onlyabout20% of local needs, and consumption is in any case low,which limited ingestion exposures. Estimated effective dosesto maximally exposed individuals after all five events were inthe range 1�5 mSv in the year following the test. A collectiveeffective dose of 70 man Sv was estimated for all localexposures at this test site. Estimates of exposures were basedon more extended measurements that were made beginning in1982. In that year the external exposures in the region were inthe range 1�10 µSva�1, internal exposures were 2�32 µSva�1,and total exposure was 3�33 µSv a�1, due mostly to residual137Cs deposition from global fallout. The collective effectivedose was estimated to be about 1 man Sv in 1982 for all ofFrench Polynesia [R2]. An international investigation of thepresent radiological conditions at Mururoa and Fangataufawas conducted during 1996�1998 [I7]. Residual contamina-tion levels were, on the whole, found to be negligibly low.Small areas with surface contamination from plutonium exist,but it was regarded as only remotely conceivable that aplutonium-containing particle could enter the body of anindividual, e.g. through a cut in the skin. Plutonium, tritium,and caesium in the sediments of the lagoons were consideredunlikely to cause non-negligible exposures at present or in thefuture to any repopulated individuals or to residents of otherislands throughout the Pacific region [I7].
(g) Lop Nor test site
80. The Chinese nuclear weapons testing programme wascarried out at the Lop Nor test site in western China,shown on the map in Figure XIII; 22 atmospheric testswere conducted between 1964 and 1980. Limitedinformation is available on local deposition following thetests. Balloons were used to follow the trajectory of thedebris clouds, and airborne and ground-based instrumentswere used to monitor the radiation levels. Estimates ofexposures were made over a downwind area to a distanceof 800 km [Z1]. Estimates of external exposures in cities ortowns within 400�800 km of the test site in GansuProvince ranged from 0.02 to 0.11 mSv (Table 20), with anaverage of about 0.04 mSv for three tests, which accountedfor over 90% of the dose from all Chinese tests [Z1].Indoor occupancy of 80% and a building shielding factorof 0.2 were assumed. A retrospective dose evaluation basedon soil sampling was conducted in 1987�1992 [R4]. Thedose commitment from 137Cs was estimated to range from1.5 to 10 mSv in the northwest Ganzu province.
B. UNDERGROUND TESTS
81. Testing of nuclear weapons underground was begunin 1951 by the United States and in 1961 by the formerSoviet Union. Following the limited nuclear test ban treaty
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 177
of 1963, which banned atmospheric tests, both countriesconducted extensive underground test programmes. TheUnited Kingdom participated with the United States in afew joint underground tests. The underground test pro-grammes of France and China continued until 1996. Indiaconducted a single underground test in 1974 and fivefurther tests in 1998. Pakistan reported conducting six testsin 1998. A comprehensive test ban treaty was formulatedin 1996, but it has not yet been ratified by all countries orentered into force. Thus, it cannot yet be said that thepractice of underground weapons testing has also ceased.
82. The number of underground tests (Figure I, upperdiagram) has greatly exceeded the number of atmospherictests, but the total yield of the former (Figure I, lowerdiagram) has been much less. The largest underground testshad a reported yield of 1.5�10 Mt (27 October 1973, atNovaya Zemlya by the former Soviet Union) [M2] and lessthan 5 Mt (6 November 1971 at Amchitka, Alaska, by theUnited States) [D4], but most tests have been of a much loweryield, particularly if containment of nuclear debris wasdesired. Only with venting or diffusion of gases following thetests, as has happened on occasion, could local populations beexposed.
83. Underground test programmes were summarized in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3] and the resultant exposureswere estimated. No further information has become availablethat could allow exposure estimates to be improved. It wouldbe desirable to have a more complete list of those tests inwhich venting occurred and estimates of the amounts ofradioactive materials thereby dispersed in the atmosphere.Thirty-twounderground tests conducted at the Nevada test sitewere reported to have led to off-site contamination as a resultof venting [H3].
84. The number of underground tests requires revision,based on recentlypublished information [D4, M2]. Severaltests involved the simultaneous detonation of two or morenuclear charges, either in the same or in separate boreholesor tunnels. These so-called salvo tests were done forreasons of efficiency or economy, but they also deterreddetection by distant seismic measurements. The testsusually involved two to four charges; the maximumnumber was eight. Since each charge has now beenidentified, they can be properly specified as separate tests.The annual numbers of underground tests conducted byeach country are given in Table 21. The total number oftests by all countries is 1,876.
85. The yields of individual underground tests have notbeen directlyspecified. Manyare simply reported to be withina range of energies, for example <20 kt or 20�150 kt. Theannual yields of underground tests at all locations have beencompiled by the National Defense Research Establishment inSweden [N6]. These estimates were included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The total yield of all testsconducted through 1992 was 90 Mt. The yields ofsubsequent tests have not altered this total amount. Thetotal yield of all underground tests conducted by the former
Soviet Union has been reported to be 38 Mt [M2]. Theyields apportioned to other countries are listed in Table 22.
86. Table 22 provides a summary listing of all nuclearweapons tests, both atmospheric and underground. Thetotal number of tests was 2,419; this includes the twocombat explosions of nuclear weapons in Japan and anumber of safety tests. The latter had no nuclear yield, buttheyare conventionally included in listings ofnuclear tests.The total yield of all tests was 530 Mt.
C. PRODUCTION OF WEAPONSMATERIALS
87. In addition to weapons testing, the installationswhere nuclear materials were produced and weapons werefabricated were another source of radionuclide releases towhich local and regional populations were exposed. Someinformation on this practice was presented in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Especially in the earliestyears of this activity, the pressures to meet productionschedules and the lack of stringent waste dischargecontrols resulted in higher local exposures than in the lateryears. Efforts are being made to evaluate the exposures thatoccurred during all periods in which these installationsoperated. Although it may not be possible to systematicallyevaluate all such exposures, newly acquired information issummarized in this Section. Also, at some sites, weaponsare now being dismantled.
1. United States
88. Nuclear weapons plants in the United States includedFernald, in Ohio (materials processing); Portsmouth, in Ohio,and Paducah, in Kentucky (enrichment); Oak Ridge, inTennessee (enrichment, separations, manufacture of weaponsparts, laboratories); Los Alamos, in New Mexico (plutoniumprocessing, weapons assembly); Rocky Flats, in Colorado(manufacture of weapons parts); Hanford, in Washington(plutonium production); and Savannah River, in SouthCarolina (plutonium production). There are many more sitesat which such operations were conducted and wastes werestored or disposed. It has been estimated that there are some5,000 locations in the United States where contamination byradioactive materials has occurred, not all of which areassociatedwith weaponsmaterialsproduction [W4]. Estimatesof releases of radioactive materials during the periods ofoperation of the nuclear installations are summarized inTable 23. Also listed are the exposures estimated to have beenreceived by the local populations. This information might beextended when studies now underway are concluded, thusallowingbetter documentation ofthehistorical exposures fromthis practice.
2. Russian Federation
89. There were three main sites where weapons materialswere produced in the former Soviet Union: Chelyabinsk,Krasnoyarsk, and Tomsk. Relatively large routine releases
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION178
occurred during the early years of operation of thesefacilities. In additions, accidents have contributed to thebackground levels of contamination and to the exposure ofindividuals living in the local and regional areas.
(a) Chelyabinsk
90. The Mayak nuclear materials production complex islocated in the Chelyabinsk region between the towns ofKyshtym and Kasli near the eastern shore of Lake Irtyash.Uranium-graphite reactors for plutonium production anda reprocessing plant began operating in 1948. Relativelylarge discharges of radioactive materials to the Techa Riveroccurred from 1949 to 1956 [D5]. The available informa-tion on exposures to the local population was summarizedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].
91. Estimates of releases of radionuclides during the earlyyears of operation of the Mayak complex are presented inTable 24. Controls of releases were introduced in the early1960s. The maximum releases in airborne effluents, primarily131I, occurred from 1949 to 1956 [D6]. During the sameperiod, the discharges of radionuclides into the Techa Riveroccurred [D5, K3]. Of the 100 PBq released from 1949 to1956, 95 PBq were released in 1950 and 1951. Along with thefission products listed in Table 24, plutonium isotopes werealso released.
92. The individuals most highly exposed from the releasesto the Techa River were residents of villages along the river,who used the water for drinking, fishing, waterfowl breeding,watering of livestock, irrigation of gardens, bathing, andwashing. In April-May 1951, a heavy flood resulted incontamination of the flood plain used for livestock grazingand hay making. The collective dose to the most exposedpopulation from 1949 to 1956 was 6,200 man Sv (Table 25).Doses from external irradiation decreased in 1956, whenresidents of the upper reaches of the river moved to newplaces and the most highly contaminated part of the floodplain was enclosed. For some inhabitants, however, the TechaRiver contamination remains a significant source of exposureup to the present time.
93. On 29 September 1957, a fault in the cooling system ofa storage tank containing liquid radioactive wastes led to achemical explosion and a large release of radionuclides. Thetotal activitydispersed off-site over the territoryof the Chelya-binsk, Sverdlovak, and Tyumen regions was approximately74 PBq. The composition of the release is indicated inTable 24. Although the release was characterized mainly byrather short-lived radionuclides (144Ce, 95Zr), the long-termhazard was due primarily to 90Sr. An area of 23,000 km2 wascontaminated at levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m�2 [N8].In 1957, 273,000 people lived in the contaminated area. Ofthem, 10,000 lived where the 90Sr deposition densityexceeded74 kBq m�2 and 2,100 where the levels were over3,700 kBq m�2. In areas where 90Sr contamination exceeded74 kBq m�2, the population was evacuated, and relocated firstfrom the most severelyaffected area within 7�10 days and theremaining population over the next 18 months. The main
pathways of exposure following the accident were externalirradiation and internal exposure from the consumption oflocal food products.
94. The Mayak complex was responsible for furtherexposure of the local population in 1967, when water recededfrom Lake Karachy, which had been used for waste disposal,and the wind resuspended contaminated sediments from theshoreline. The dispersed material, about 0.022 PBq, consistedmainly of 137Cs, 90Sr, and 144Ce (Table 24). The contaminatedarea, defined as having levels of 90Sr greater than 3.7 kBq m�2
and of 137Cs greater than 7.4 kBq m�2, extended 75 km fromthe lake. Approximately 40,000 people lived within this areaof 2,700 km2. The exposures from external irradiation and theconsumption of local foods were considerably less than thosefollowing the 1957 storage tank accident.
95. Present levels of exposure associated with operation ofthe Mayak complex have been estimated from the residualcontamination [K4]. For internal exposure, the average (andrange) of daily consumption of food were determined to bemilk 0.7 (0.5�1.0) kg, meat 0.14 (0.09�0.18) kg, bread 0.36(0.27�0.52) kg, potatoes 0.57 (0.2�1.0) kg, vegetables 0.24(0.14�0.43) kg, fish 0.05 (0.03�0.11) kg, mushrooms 0.02(0.01�0.03) kg, and berries 0.04 (0.01�0.06) kg [K4]. Thesevalues were used with the concentrations given in Table 26 toestimate the average annual dose from internal exposure of100 µSv. Average annual dose from external exposure isestimated to be 10 µSv. For the population of 320,000surrounding the Mayak complex, the annual collectiveeffective dose from present operations (1993�1996) isestimated to be 35 man Sv (Table 27).
(b) Krasnoyarsk
96. The Krasnoyarsk nuclear materials production complexis located about 40 km from the city of Krasnoyarsk. The firsttwo reactors at Krasnoyarsk were direct-flow typecommissioned in 1958 and 1961. A third, closed-circuitreactor, was commissioned in 1964. A radiochemical plant forirradiated fuel reprocessing began operation in 1964. In 1985,a storage facility for spent fuel assemblies from reactors in theSoviet republics of Russia and Ukraine was put into service.There are plans to reprocess this fuel from the civilian nuclearfuel cycle in the future at the Krasnoyarsk site.
97. Radioactive wastes discharges from the Krasnoyarskcomplex enter the Yenisei River. Trace contamination can befound from the complex to the estuary, about 2,000 km away[V1]. An estimate of the collective dose from radioactivedischarges of the Krasnoyarsk complex during 1958�1991 ispresented in Table 25 [K5]; the estimate is derived from dataon the content of radionuclides in water, fish, flood plain, andother components of the river ecosystem [N9, V1]. On thewhole, the collective dose was about 1,200 man Sv. The mostimportant contributor (70%) tothisdosewasfish consumption[K6]. External exposure from the contaminated flood plainaccounted for 17% of the collective dose. The main radio-nuclides contributing to the internal dose from fish consump-tion were 32P, 24Na, 54Mn, and 65Zn. The main contributor to
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 179
the external dose (over 90%) was gamma-emitting radio-nuclides, primarily 137Cs, 60Co, and 152Eu. Individual doses tothe population varied over a wide range, from 0.05 to2.3 mSv a�1. The main portion of the collective dose (about84%) was received by the population living within 350 km ofthe site of the radioactive discharges.
98. In 1992, the direct-flow reactors of the Krasnoyarskcomplex were shut down. This considerably reduced theamount of radioactive discharges to the Yenisei River, and theannual collective dose to the population was decreased by afactor of more than 4. Present estimates of average doses(1993�1996) are 30 µSv a�1 (external) and 20 µSv a�1
(internal). With a local population of 200,000, the annualcollective effective dose is estimated to be 10 man Sv(Table 27).
(c) Tomsk
99. The Siberian nuclear materials production complex islocated in the town of Tomsk-7 on the right bank of the TomRiver 15 km north of the city of Tomsk. The Siberiancomplex was commissioned in 1953. It is the largest complexfor the production of plutonium, uranium, and transuranicelements in the Russian Federation. The Siberian complexincludes five uranium-graphite production reactors that beganoperation in 1958�1963, enrichment and fuel fabricationfacilities, and a reprocessing plant [B7].
100. Radionuclides in liquid wastes are discharged into theTom River, which flows into the Ob River. An estimate of thecollective dose from radioactive discharges of the Siberiancomplex from 1958 to 1992 is presented in Table 25. Theexposure pathways considered in the dose evaluation were theingestion of fish, drinking water, waterfowl, and irrigatedproducts and external exposure from the contaminated floodplain. The collective effective dose was estimated to be 200man Sv. The largest contributor (73%) to this dose was fishconsumption. The main radionuclides contributing to theinternal dose from fish consumption were 32P and 24Na. Thelargest portion of the collective dose (about 80%) was receivedby the population living within 30 km of the site of radioactivedischarges.
101. In 1990�1992, three of the five reactors of the Siberiancomplex were shut down. This considerably reduced theamount of radioactive discharges to the Tom River and theannual collective dose to the population. The average annualdoses to the local population are estimated to be 0.4 µSv(external) and 5 µSv (internal). For the local population of400,000, the collective effective dose at present (1993�1996)is estimated to be 2.2 man Sv (Table 27).
102. On 6 April 1993, an accident occurred at theradiochemical plant of the Siberian complex that resulted inthe release of radioactive materials [B7, G6, I6]. A narrowtrace of radioactive contamination 35�45km longwas formedin a northeasterly direction from the complex (based on traceconcentrations of 95Zr and 95Nb in soil). The total area of thecontamination with dose rate levels at the time of the accidenthigher than the natural radiation background was estimated
to be about 100 km2 [M8]. The dominant radionuclides insnow samples from the contaminated area were 95Zr, 95Nb,106Ru, and 103Ru. Traces of 239Pu and 144Ce were also detected.A non-uniformity of contamination was noted, with thepresence of hot particles in the composition of radioactivematerials deposited on the snow. There are no populatedplaces in the area of the pattern, except for the village ofGeorgievka, which has a population of 73 persons (including18 children). The cumulative dose from external exposure tothe inhabitants of Georgievka from the accident during 50years of permanent residence will amount to 0.2�0.3 mSv[B7], which is negligible, compared to the dose from naturalbackground radiation over the same period.
3. United Kingdom
103. The production of nuclear materials and thefabrication of weapons began in the 1950s in the UnitedKingdom. The work was carried on for several years atsites such as Springfields (uranium processing and fuelfabrication), Capenhurst (enrichment), Sellafield (produc-tion reactors and reprocessing), Aldermaston (weaponsresearch), and Harwell (research). Subsequently, workrelated to the commercial nuclear power programme wasincorporated at some of these sites. In the earliest years ofoperation of these installations, the radionuclide dischargesmay be associated almost wholly with the military fuelcycle.
104. Plutonium production reactors were operated in theUnited Kingdom at Sellafield (two graphite-moderated,gas-cooled reactors known as the Windscale piles) and,later, at Calder Hall on the Sellafield site and Chapelcrossin Scotland. A fire occurred in one of the Windscalereactors in 1957, resulting in the release of radionuclides,most notably 131I, 137Cs, 106Ru, 133Xe, and 210Po. The promptimposition of a ban on milk supplies in the affected regionreduced exposures to 131I. The collective effective dose fromthe accident was estimated to be 2,000 man Sv.
4. France
105. A nuclear programme in France began in 1945 with thecreation of the Commissariat à l'Energíe Atomique (CEA).The nuclear research laboratoryat Fontenay-aux-Roses beganactivities in the following year. The first experimental reactor,named EL1 or Zoé, went critical in 1948, and a pilotreprocessing plant began operation in 1954. A secondexperimental reactor, EL2, was constructed at the Saclaycentre. From 1956 to 1959, three larger production reactorsbegan operation at the Marcoule complex on the Rhône River.Thesegas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors, designatedG1,G2, and G3, operated until 1968, 1980, and 1984. A full-scalereprocessing plant, UP1, was built and operated from 1958,also at the Marcoule site. Two more plants to reprocess fuelfrom commercial reactors were constructed at La Hague in thenorth of France: UP2, completed in 1966, and UP3, in 1990.
106. Although some systematic reporting of radionuclidedischarge data is available beginning in 1972 [C10], some
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION180
of this may reflect the reprocessing of commercial reactorfuel. It should be possible to estimate plutonium productionamounts at the various installations, and some reports ofenvironmental monitoring (e.g. [M9]) maygiveindicationsof early operating experience.
5. China
107. A nuclear weapons development programme wasinitiated in China that led to the first nuclear explosion of thatcountry, conducted in 1964. The Institute of Atomic Energywas created in 1950. The first experimental reactor wasconstructed in Beijing, and a uranium enrichment plant wasbuilt at Lanzhou in Ganzu Province in western China. Thefirst nuclear test was of an enriched uranium device. Pluton-
ium production and reprocessing were conducted at theJiuquan complex, also located in Ganzu Province. Theproduction reactor began operation in 1967 and thereprocessing plant in 1968. Production and reprocessing alsooccurred in Guangyuan in Sichuan Province, where largerinstallations were constructed. The weapons were assembledat the Jiuquan complex.
108. Assessment of exposures from nuclear weaponsproduction in China have been reported by Pan et al. [P4,P5, P6]. Exposures to populations surrounding specificinstallations were estimated. This experience relates to themilitary fuel cycle, since the commercial nuclear powerprogramme started only in the last decade.
II. NUCLEAR POWER PRODUCTION
109. The Committee has routinely collected data on releasesof radionuclides from the operation of nuclear fuel cycleinstallations. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], anoverview was provided of annual releases of radionuclides forthe general types of reactors and other fuel cycle installationssince the beginning of the practice of commercial nuclearpower generation. Data for individual mines, mills, reactors,and reprocessing plants were given for the years 1985�1989.In this Annex, the data for another five-year period,1990�1994, anda three-year period, 1995�1997, areassessed.
110. Thegeneration ofelectrical energybynuclear meanshasgrown steadily from the start of the industry in 1956. Therelatively rapid rate of expansion that occurred from 1970 to1985, an increase in energy generation of more than 20% peryear, slowed to a pace averaging just over 2% per year from1990 to 1996 [I1]. At the end of 1997, there were 437 nuclearreactors operating in 31 countries. The total installed capacitywas 352 GW, and the energygenerated in 1997 was 254 GW a[I1]. It is projected [I1] that nuclear energy will continue tosupplyabout 17%ofthetotal electrical energygenerated in theworld, as at present, or possibly a few percent less.
111. The nuclear fuel cycle includes the mining andmilling of uranium ore and its conversion to nuclear fuelmaterial; the fabrication of fuel elements; the production ofenergy in the nuclear reactor; the storage of irradiated fuelor its reprocessing, with the recycling of the fissile andfertile materials recovered; and the storage and disposal ofradioactive wastes. For some types of reactors, enrichmentof the isotopic content of 235U in the fuel material is anadditional step in the fuel cycle. The nuclear fuel cycle alsoincludes the transport of radioactive materials between thevarious installations.
112. Radiation exposures of members of the public resultingfrom discharges of radioactive materials from installations ofthe nuclear fuel cycle were assessed in previous UNSCEARreports [U3, U4, U6]. In this Annex, the trends in normalized
releases and the resultant doses from nuclear reactor operationare presented for the years 1970�1997. The doses areestimated using the environmental and dosimetric modelsdescribed in Annex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”.
113. The doses to the exposed individuals vary widely fromone installation to another, between different locations andwith time. Generally, the individual doses decrease markedlywith distance from a specific source. To evaluate the totalimpact of radionuclides released at each stage of the nuclearfuel cycle, the results are evaluated in terms of collectiveeffective dose per unit electrical energy generated, expressedas man Sv(GW a)�1. Onlyexposures to members of the publicare considered in this Annex. Occupational exposuresassociated with nuclear power production are included inAnnex E, “Occupational radiation exposures”.
A. MINING AND MILLING
114. Uranium mining involves the removal from theground of large quantities of ore containing uranium andits decay products. Underground and open-pit mining arethe main techniques. Underground mines produced 40% ofthe world´s total uranium production in 1996 and open-pitmines, 39% [O1]. Uranium is also mined using in situleaching, which produced 13% of the world uranium in1996 [O1]. The remaining 8% was recovered as a by-product of other mineral processing. Milling operationsinvolve the processing of the ore to extract the uranium ina partially refined form, known as yellowcake.
115. Uranium mining and milling operations are con-ducted in several countries. Production in recent years isgiven in Table 28. In 1997 about 90% of world uraniumproduction took place in 9 countries: Australia, Canada,Kazakhstan, Namibia, Niger, the Russian Federation,South Africa, the United States, and Uzbekistan. It is notedthat oversupply, leading to large stockpiles and low prices,
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 181
has led to considerable reductions in output since 1989[O1]. However, beginning in 1995, production of uraniumwas substantially increased in some countries, mainlyAustralia, Canada, Namibia, Niger, and the United States.The world production in 1997 was 35,700 t uranium.
1. Effluents
116. There are few new data on releases of radionuclides,mainly radon, in mining and milling operations. Limiteddata for underground mines, based on concentrations inexhaust air, were given in the UNSCEAR 1993 Report[U3] for Australia, Canada, and Germany. There were noestimates of releases in open-pit operations. For under-ground mines the release of radon, normalized to theproduction of uranium oxide (U3O8), ranged from 1 to2,000 GBq t�1, with a production-weighted average of 300GBq t�1. Based on the estimated uranium (fuel) require-ments for the reactor types presently in use, 250 t uraniumoxide are required to produce 1 GW a of electrical energy[U3]. This leads to an average normalized radon releasefrom mines of approximately 75 TBq (GW a)�1.
117. In the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], the averagenormalized radon release from mills in Australia andCanada, also from the limited data available, was estimatedto be 3 TBq (GW a)�1 [U3]. These values are not expectedto change with current mining and milling practices. Formining operations in arid areas, liquid effluents areminimal, and radionuclide releases via this pathway areestimated to be of little consequence.
118. The mining and milling processes create variouswaste residues in addition to the uranium product. Thetailings consist of the crushed and milled rock from whichthe mineral has been extracted, together with anychemicals and fluids remaining after the extractionprocess. The long-lived precursors of 222Rn, namely 226Ra(half-life 1,600 a) and 230Th (half-life 80,000 a), present inthe mill tailings provide a long-term source of radonrelease to the atmosphere. Based on available data, theradon emission rates were estimated in the UNSCEAR1993 Report [U3] to be 10 Bq s�1 m�2 of tailings during theoperational phase of the mill (assumed to be five years) and3 Bq s�1 m�2 from abandoned but stabilized tailings(assumed period of unchanged release of 10,000 years).Assuming that the production of a mine generates about1 ha (GW a)�1, the normalized radon releases are 3 and1 TBq (GW a)�1 for the operational and abandonedtailings, respectively. The in situ leach facilities have nosurface tailings and little radon emissions after closure.Release estimates from mining and milling operations aresummarized in Table 29.
119. In a recent study of eight major uranium productionfacilities in Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger [S6],measured emission rates were reported to range frombackground to 35 Bq s�1 m�2 from the tailings of presentlyoperating mills. Following decommissioning, therelease ratesare at present or are expected to be no more than 7 Bq s�1 m�2
[S6]. For many of the uranium mill tailings, the long-termmanagement involvessubstantial water-saturatedcover,whichreduces the radon emission rate to 0�0.2 Bq s�1 m�2. Takinginto account present tailings areas yet to be rehabilitated withgood present techniques and the anticipated future practice,the emission rate from abandoned mill tailings can beassumed to be less than 1 Bq s�1 m�2. This value is adopted forthe present evaluation. The previous estimate was 3 Bqs�1 m�2 [U3]. For comparison, the average emission ratecorresponding to soils in normal background areas is 0.02Bq s�1 m�2 [U3].
2. Dose estimates
120. The methodologyused bythe Committee toestimate thecollective dose from mining and milling is described in theUNSCEAR 1977 and 1982 Reports [U4, U6]. The doseestimate is based on representative release rates from a modelmine and mill site having the typical features of existing sites.An air dispersion model is used to estimate the radonconcentrations from releases as a function ofdistance from thesite, and the most common environmental pathways areincluded to estimate dose. Thus, the results are not applicableto any given site without duly considering site-specific databut are meant to reflect the overall impact of mining andmilling facilities.
121. The previously estimated exposures for the model mineand mill site assumed population densities of 3 km�2 at0�100 km and 25 km�2 at 100�2,000 km. The collectiveeffective dose factor for atmospheric discharges in a semi-aridarea with an effective release height of 10 m was 0.015man Sv TBq�1 [U3], based on the dose coefficient for radon of9 nSv h�1 per Bq m�3 (EEC). As the dilution factor at 1 kmhas been reduced from 3 10�6 to 5 10�7 s m�3, the dose per unitrelease of radon becomes 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1. Using thisfactor, the collective effective dose per unit electrical energygenerated is estimated to be 0.2 man Sv (GW a)�1 duringoperation of the mine and mill and 0.00075 man Sv (GW a)�1
per year of release from the residual tailings piles. For theassumed 10,000-year period of constant, continued releasefrom the tailings, the normalized collective effective dosebecomes 7.5 man Sv (GW a)�1 (Table 29). The variousrevisions in the parameters have led to a considerablereduction from the previously estimated value of 150 man Sv(GW a)�1 [U3].
122. An alternative assessment of exposures from milltailings has been proposed in a study prepared for theUranium Institute [S6]. In this study, site-specific datarelating to currently operating mills in four countries(Australia, Canada, Namibia, and Niger) were utilized.Differences from the UNSCEAR results arise from the useof a more detailed dispersion model, much-reducedpopulation densities (<3 km�2 within 100 km and from 2 to7 km�2 in the region between 100 and 2,000 km), and moreambitious future tailings management with substantialcovers to reduce radon emissions. The overall result (adjust-ing for the radon dose coefficient of 9 nSv h�1 per Bq m�3, asused above) is 1.4 man Sv (GW a)�1 over a 10,000-year
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION182
period, which although less by a factor of 5, it is in reason-able agreement with the estimate derived in the previousparagraph.
123. In France, exposures from mill tailings at Lodevemining site were assessed considering measurements ofradon releases prior toand after remediation [T6]. Calcula-tions were based on a Gaussian plume dispersion model,and actual population densities of 63 km�2 at 0�100 kmand 44 km�2 at 100�2,000 km were used. Before re-mediation the average measured flux was found to be28 Bq m�2 s�1. The average annual effective dose toindividuals within 10 km from the tailings was assessed tobe about 20 µSv. Considering that 12,850 tonnes ofuranium were extracted during the whole duration ofprocessing, the collective effective dose to the populationliving within 2,000 km of the tailings and over a period of10,000 years was estimated to be 380 man Sv (GWa)�1.This value is much higher than the estimate of the previousparagraph, which is due to higher radon fluxes andpopulation densities and to the different atmosphericdispersion model. After remediation of the site, the radonfluxes were found not to be different from the background,and the collective dose was assess to be almost zero.
124. For the model mining and milling operations, theannual release of radon is of the order of 80 TBq (GW a)�1
(Table 29). With annual average production of 4,000 t inthe main producing countries (Table 28: 36,000 t mostlyfrom 9 countries) and assuming the collective dose isreceived by the population within 100 km from the mineand mill sites (3 km�2 to 100 km = 90,000 persons), theannual dose is estimated to be about 40 µSv [4,000 t ÷250 t (GW a)�1 × 80 TBq (GW a)�1 × 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1
÷ 90,000 persons]. This dose rate would be imperceptiblefrom variations of the normal background dose rate fromnatural sources.
125. The Committee recognizes that considerable devia-tions are possible from the representative values ofparameters selected for the more general conditions ofpresent practice. For example, much higher populationdensities are reported in areas surrounding the mills inChina [P4], and previously abandoned tailings may nothave been so carefully secured as is evidently possible.Although careful management of tailings areas would beexpected in the future, the extremes of leaving the tailingsuncovered to providing secure and covered impoundmentcould increase or decrease the estimated exposure by atleast an order of magnitude. Further surveys of site-specificconditions would be useful to establish realistic parametersfor the worldwide practice.
B. URANIUM ENRICHMENT AND FUELFABRICATION
126. For light-water-moderated and -cooled reactors (LWRs)and for advanced gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors(AGRs), the uranium processed at the mills needs to be
enriched in the fissile isotope 235U. Enrichments of 2%�5%are required. Before enrichment, the uranium oxide (U3O8)must be converted to uranium tetrafluoride (UF4) and then touranium hexafluoride (UF6). Enrichment is not needed forgas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs) or heavy-water-cooled and -moderated reactors (HWRs).
127. In fuel fabrication for LWRs (PWRs and BWRs) andAGRs, the enriched UF6 is chemically converted to UO2. TheUO2 powder is sintered, formed into pellets, and loaded intotubes (cladding) of Zircaloy and stainless steel, which aresealed at both ends. These fuel rods are arranged in arrays toform the reactor fuel assemblies. The fuel pins for HWRs areproduced from natural uranium or slightly enriched uraniumsintered into pellets and clad in zirconium alloy. The naturaluranium metal fuel for GCRs is obtained by compressing theUF4 with shredded magnesium and heating. The reduceduranium is cast into rods that are machined and inserted intocans.
128. The releases of radioactive materials from theconversion, enrichment, and fuel fabrication plants aregenerallysmall and consist mainlyof uranium series isotopes.Available data from operating installations were reported inthe UNSCEAR1993 Report [U3]. For the model installations,the normalized collective effective dose from these operationswas estimated to be 0.003 man Sv (GW a)�1. Inhalation is themost important exposure pathway. The collective doses fromliquid discharges comprise less than 10% of the totalexposure.
C. NUCLEAR REACTOR OPERATION
129. The reactors used for electrical energy generation areclassified, for the most part, by their coolant systems andmoderators: light-water-moderated and -cooledpressurized orboiling water reactors (PWRs, BWRs), heavy-water-cooledand -moderated reactors (HWRs), gas-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (GCRs), and light-water-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors (LWGRs). These are all thermal reactorsthat use the moderator material to slow down fast fissionneutrons to thermal energies. In fast breeder reactors (FBRs),there is no moderator, and the fission is induced by fastneutrons; the coolant is a liquid metal. FBRs are making onlyminor contributions to energy production. The electricalenergy generated by these various types of reactors from 1970through 1997 is illustrated in Figure XV and the data since1990 for individual reactor stations are given in Table 30 [I3].
130. The Committee derives average releases of radio-nuclides from reactors based on reported data, and theseaverages are used to estimate the consequent exposures for areference reactor. Mathematical models for the dispersion ofradionuclides in the environment are used to calculate, foreach radionuclide or a combination of radionuclides, the dosesresulting from released activity. The geographical location ofthe reactor, the release points, the distribution of thepopulation, food production and consumption habits, and the
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 183
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
EL
EC
TR
ICA
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ER
AT
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1970
1970
1971
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1981
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1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
PWRs
BWRs
GCRs
HWRs
LWGRs
Figure XV. Contributions by reactor type to total electrical energy generated worldwide by nuclear means.
environmental pathways of radionuclides are factors thatinfluence the calculated dose. The same release of activityandradionuclide composition from different reactors can give riseto different radiation doses to the public. Thus, the calculatedexposures for a reference reactor provide only a generalizedmeasure of reactor operating experience and serve as astandardized parameter for analysing longer-term trends fromthe practice.
1. Effluents
131. Theradioactivematerials released in airborneand liquideffluents from reactors during routine operation are reportedwith substantial completeness. The data for 1990�1997 areincluded in Tables 31�36: noble gases in airborne effluents(Table31), tritium in airborne effluents (Table32), iodine-131in airborne effluents (Table 33), particulates in airborneeffluents (Table 34), tritium in liquid effluents (Table 35), andradionuclides other than tritium in liquid effluents (Table 36).Each table also includes a summary of the total releases andthe normalized releases (amount of radionuclide released perunit electrical energy generated) for each year of the five-yearperiod 1990�1994 and for the three-year period 1995�1997for each type of reactor and for all reactors together. Averagenormalized releases of radionuclides from each reactor type infive-year periods beginning in 1970 and for the three-yearperiod 1995�1997 are presented in Table 37.
132. The normalized releases have traditionally beencompiled for each reactor type. This is justified by thedifferent composition of the releases, e.g. for noble gases, 41Arfrom GCRs and krypton and xenon isotopes from other typesof reactors. In this case, different dose factors are required toestimate the doses. For other release components, e.g. 14C or131I, there may be no inherent differences between reactortypes, and atypical releases from one or a few reactors maydominate the normalized release values. In this case, theaverage normalized releases reflect only the prevailingoperating experience, which cannot be taken as representativeof the releases from a particular reactor type. With relativelycomplete data, little extrapolation is needed for estimating the
collective doses from the total releases, and the normalizedvalues are retained by reactor type mainly for convenience.
133. The release experience of individual reactors duringthe last five-year period (1990�1994) is evaluated inFigure XVI and shown as the characteristic distributions ofthe different reactor types. All reactors with relativelycomplete entries in Tables 31�36 (four or five years of datafor both release amount and energygenerated) are includedin the figures. Each point has been derived from the totalrelease of the radionuclide in 1990�1994 divided by theelectrical energy generated in the same period. Thisevaluation of normalized release partly eliminatesvariations in annual values during the five-year period.There are, however, substantial differences in values fromone reactor to another. Some factors affecting releases ofradionuclides include the integrity of the fuel, the wastemanagement systems, and procedures and maintenanceoperations conducted during the period of interest.
134. To obtain the characteristic distribution diagrams, thedata are put in ranked order. The cumulative fractional valueof point i of n points is specified as i/(n + 1). The inverse ofthe standard normal cumulative distribution ofeach fractionalpoint is then derived. The value expresses the standarddeviation of the data point from the centre of the distribution.In Figure XVI, the abscissa has been transformed to apercentage scale (0 = 50%, 1 SD = 84.14%, 2 SD = 97.73%,etc.). With a logarithmic scale on the ordinate, a straight lineindicates a log-normal distribution. A steep slope indicateswide variations in the data. Breaks in the line indicateseparate subpopulations of the available data. Outlier pointsare readily identified in these plots.
135. The distribution of normalized releases from reactorsare approximately log-normal, often with a wide distributionof the data. The normalized releases of noble gases(Figure XVI) span seven orders of magnitude. There may besome differences in the composition of noble gases reported inairborne effluents, particularly the short-lived isotopes. The
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION184
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PERCENTAGE��� ��� � � � �� �� �� �� �� �� � � �� �� � �� ���� ���
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Radionuclides other than tritiumin liquid effluents
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Figure XVI. Normalized release of noble gases, tritium, iodine-131 and particulates in airborne effluentsand tritium and other radionuclides in liquid effluents from reactors during 1990�1994.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION186
distributions for PWRs and BWRs are similar, but withdeviations to higher normalized releases from BWRs in theupper range of the distribution. The highest values for BWRsare from the reactors Big Rock Point, Ringhals 1, and Tarapur1�2, ranging from 3,400 to 41,000 TBq (GW a)�1. The meanvalue for all BWRs is 18 TBq (GW a)�1. The distributions forGCRs and HWRs are similar and somewhat higher than thosefor PWRs and BWRs.
136. The normalized releases of tritium in airborne effluents(Figure XVI) are less wide ranging. The distributions forPWRs and BWRs are identical; the distribution for GCRs issomewhat higher, with fewer values available, however. Thedistribution for HWRs is much higher, reflecting the largeamounts of tritium produced in the moderator of thesereactors. Among HWRs, those in Canada and the reactorsFugen, Embalse, and Wolsong 1 are all below 800 TBq(GW a)�1, while Karachi, Atucha 1, and the Indian reactorsare at higher values.
137. The distribution of 131I releases in airborne effluents(Figure XVI) are quite wide and are somewhat higher forBWRs and HWRs than for PWRs. There are fewer values forGCRs; however, when several reactors with data for threeyears in 1990�1994 are included, the distribution is similar tothat of BWRs and HWRs.
138. The distributions of particulate releases are also shownin Figure XVI. The strikingly high values in Table 34 for theSwedish BWR Ringhals 1 in 1994 and 1995 are attributableto damage in fuel elements beginning in 1993 and a problemin delaying releases of radionuclides entering turbine room air[N3]. These releases were to a large extent due to rather short-lived nuclei. Nuclei with half-lives of less than 83 minutesgave rise to98% of the released activity. Authorized dischargelimits were not exceeded; the atmospheric releases reached amaximum of 36% of the total dose limit for individuals(0.1 mSv a�1) of the hypothetical critical group. The averagevalue for 1990�1994 for this reactor [17 TBq (GW a)�1] is thehighest in the distribution for BWRs (Figure XVI). Relativelyhigh values [0.04�0.1 TBq (GW a)�1] were also derived forthe BWRs Forsmark 1�3, Tarapur 1�2, and Oskarshamn1�3. The distributions ofparticulate releases are verydifferentfor the different reactor types and are somewhat higher forBWRs and GCRs than for PWRs.
139. Normalized releases of tritium in liquid effluents(Figure XVI) are fairly uniform about the mean values formost of the reactors. The distribution for BWRs is lowest andfor HWRs, highest. Intermediate are the distributions forPWRs and GCRs. The mean value for the group is about1 TBq (GW a)�1. The GCRs seem to form two distributions,with newer reactors at the higher end and the older reactors atthe lower end, the opposite of the case for the noble gasreleases. The HWRs are gathered about a mean normalizedrelease of tritium in liquid effluents of about 400 TBq(GW a)�1; at the lower extreme is the Pickering 5�8 station[28 TBq (GW a)�1] and at the higher end [1,100�3,700 TBq(GW a)�1] are Bruce 1�4, Kalpakkam 1�2, and Atucha 1.
140. A wide range (eight orders of magnitude) is necessaryto illustrate the normalized releases of radionuclides otherthan tritium in liquid effluents (Figure XVI); this may be aresult of the radionuclides identified and of the hold-up timesprovided in the waste treatment systems. The distributions aresimilar, although that for GCRs is somewhat higher. A dualityin the GCR distribution is again noted, this time taking thepattern for noble gases mentioned above (higher normalizedreleases from the older reactors).
141. The radionuclide composition of releases has beenexamined for the various reactor types. In general, thereleases of noble gases from PWRs are dominated by 133Xe,with a half-life of 5.3 days, but short-lived radionuclides suchas 135Xe (half-life = 9.2 h) are also present. For the BWRs thecomposition of the noble gas releases is more varied, withmost krypton and xenon radionuclides included. The releasesof particulates from BWRs are also variable and difficult togeneralize from the limited data available. The radionuclides88Rb (half-life = 17.8 min), 89Rb (half-life = 15.2 min), 138Cs(half-life = 33.4 min), and 139Ba (half-life = 83.1 min) wereprominent in the large releases mentioned above from theRinghals 1 reactor. The radionuclide compositions of liquidreleases from PWRs seem to vary from reactor to reactor; thecobalt isotopes (58Co, 60Co) as well as the caesium isotopes(134Cs, 137Cs) are usually present. In some cases, large relativeproportions of 110mAg and 124Sb are reported. It may be thatsome differences are accentuated by the various measuringand reporting practices at reactor stations.
142. The longer-term temporal trends in normalized releasesof radionuclides for the various reactor types are illustrated inFigure XVII. The trends are shown for the time designated“pre-1970" to 1994, averaged over five-year time periods, andfor the three-year period from 1995 to 1997. Except for theatmospheric releases of particulates, the normalized releasesare either fairly constant or slightlydecreasing. The increasedrelease of particulates to air reflects the operation of a specificreactor and is not characteristic of all reactors.
2. Local and regional dose estimates
143. The concentrations of the released radionuclides in theenvironment are generally too low to be measurable exceptclose to the nuclear facility and then for a limited number ofradionuclides only. Therefore, dose estimates for the popula-tion (individual and collective doses) are generally based onmodelling the atmospheric and aquatic transport and environ-mental transfer of the released radioactive materials and thenapplying a dosimetric model.
144. The environmental and dosimetric models previouslyused for dose estimates were described in the UNSCEAR1982 and 1988 Reports [U4, U6]. Based on the review inAnnex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”, the values of thedose coefficients for some radionuclides have been revised.The dose assessment procedures are applied to a model sitewith representative environmental conditions. The averagepopulation density is 20 km�2 within 2,000 km of the site.Within 50 km of the site, the population density is taken to be
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 187
Noble gases
Tritium (air) Tritium (liquid)
Carbon-14
Other (liquid)
Iodine-131
Particulates
Pre-1970 1970-1974 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997
NO
RM
AL
IZE
DR
EL
EA
SE
[TB
q(G
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]-1
-410
-310
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Figure XVII. Trends in releases of radionuclides from reactors.Values of 1970�1974 are assumed to apply prior to 1970.
400 km�2. For the model site the collective effective doses perunit release (man Sv PBq�1) for the different releasecategories and reactor types are presented in Table 38.Because of the variability in annual releases, normalizedreleases [TBq (GW a)�1] have been averaged over a five-yearperiod (Table 37) to assess the collective dose.
145. The collective effective dose per unit electrical energygenerated [man Sv (GW a)�1] is obtained by multiplying thenormalized releases per unit electrical energy generated
(Table 37) by the collective effective dose per unit release(Table 38). The resulting estimates for 1990�1994 are givenin Table 39. The total normalized collective effective dose forall reactors, weighted bythe relative energyproduction ofeachreactor type (Table 39), is 0.43 man Sv (GW a)�1. Theradionuclide releases were generally similar to those thatprevailed in the preceding five-year assessment period [U3],but revisions in the dose coefficients have reduced thenormalized collective effective dose by a factor of 3.
Figure XVIII. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual releases of radionuclidesfrom reactors. The increasing trend in electrical energy generated is indicated with scale on left in units of GW a.
146. From the total energy generated and the normalizedcollective dose, the local and regional collective dose from theoperation of nuclear power plants during 1990�1994 isestimated to be 490 man Sv. During 1985�1989 thecorresponding collective dose was 390 man Sv. This is anincrease of just over 25%, which is nearly the same as theincrease in the energy generated by nuclear reactors(1985�1989: 936 GW a; 1990�1994: 1,147 GW a). Toreduce the effect of variability in annual releases, thecalculation of the collective dose is based on normalizedreleases averaged over five-year periods (Table 37). However,
outliers in the data set can still have a substantial impact onthe dose estimate. If, for example, the particulate releases fromthe Ringhals 1 reactor are excluded, the corresponding doseestimates will be 0.39 man Sv (GW a)�1 and 450 man Sv,respectively. However, this point could not be taken out of thedata set without examining other possible outliers for1990�1994 and for earlier years.
147. It should be noted that the average normalized dosesderived here may not apply to specific reactors of a particulartype. There may be further variations in release compositions,
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION188
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population densities, and local environmental pathways thatcould significantlychange the collective dose contributions. Ina few cases, reactor operators report estimates of doses to localresidents based on possible exposure scenarios. The data have,however, not been collected or assessed by the Committee.
148. The temporal trends of the local and regional collectiveeffective doses for the different radionuclide categories over alonger time are shown in Figure XVIII. The collective dosefrom 131I has decreased for a number of years, and thisdecrease continues for the latest five-year and three-yearperiods. The collective doses from tritium (airborne andliquid), 14C, and particulates have been increasing through the1990�1994 period. Overall, the total collective dose has beenrelatively constant since 1970�1979, even though theelectrical energy generated has continuously increased.
149. For the model site, the annual average effective doses toindividuals, estimated from the release data and assuming thetotal collective dose for a reactor type exposes a single localpopulation group (400 km�2 to 50 km), are 5 µSv for PWRsand GCRs, 10 µSv for BWRs and HWRs, 2 µSv for LWGRs,and 0.04 µSv for FBRs. In comparison, reported annualindividual doses from a number of reactor sites are in therange 1�500 µSv.
D. FUEL REPROCESSING
150. Fuel reprocessing is carried out to recover uranium andplutonium from spent fuel for reuse in reactors. Most spent
fuel from reactors is retained on-site in interim storage,pending decisions on ultimate disposal or retrievable storage.Only about 5%�10% of fuel is submitted to the reprocessingstage of the nuclear fuel cycle. The main commercial repro-cessing plants are in France, Japan, and the United Kingdom.
1. Effluents
151. Relatively large quantities of radioactive materials areinvolved at the fuel reprocessing stage. The radionuclides arefreed from their contained state as the fuel is brought intosolution, and the potential for release in waste discharges isgreater than for other stages of the fuel cycle. Routine releaseshave been largely in liquid effluents to the sea. Operatingstandards have been considerably improved at these plantsover the years, with substantial reductions occurring inreleased amounts.
152. Some revisions and additions have been made to therelease quantities previously reported by the Committee. Also,more direct data on fuel throughput, which were previouslyestimated from 85Kr discharges, are available. Therefore, theannual release data for fuel reprocessing plants from 1970through 1997 are given in Table 40. The average normalizedreleases per unit of energy generated in five-year periods(except for 1970�1979, a 10-year period) are summarized inTable 41 and shown in Figure XIX. It can be observed thatthe releases to both air and sea of most radionuclides havebeen decreasing over the long term. This is particularly so forthe releases of 106Ru, 90Sr, and 137Cs to the sea and for 137Csand 131I to the air (Table 41).
Figure XIX. Trends in releases of radionuclides from fuel reprocessing plants.Average values ere derived for 1970-1979 and assumed to apply also prior to 1970.
2. Local and regional dose estimates
153. Collective doses from nuclear fuel reprocessing can beestimated from the normalized releases per unit of energygenerated, the electrical energy equivalent of the fuelreprocessed, and the collective dose per unit release ofradionuclides [U3]. This analysis is given in Table 41. For theentire period of fuel reprocessing, the total collective effective
dose is estimated to be 4,700 man Sv. Liquid releases of 137Cscontributed 87% of the total dose. The collective effective dosefrom each radionuclide is shown in Figure XX. In the mostrecent five-year period (1990�1994) the dose from 14Cexceeded that from 137Cs. During the 1980s and 1990s, thecollective dose from fuel reprocessing has been decreasing,even though the amount of fuel reprocessed has beenincreasing (Figure XX).
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 189
-310
-210
-110
010
110
210
410
310
1970-1974Pre-1970 1975-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997
CO
LL
EC
TIV
EE
FF
EC
TIV
ED
OS
E(m
anSv
)
Iodine-131
Iodine-129
Krypton-85
Strontium-90
Ruthenium-106
Caesium-137
Carbon-14
Total
Tritium
Figure XX. Local and regional collective effective doses from average annual release of radionuclides fromfuel reprocessing plants. The amount of fuel reprocessed is indicated by the heavy dashed line (units GW a).
154. From the data provided in Table 41, it may bedetermined that the annual components of collective dosefrom fuel reprocessing are of the order of 20�30 man Sv. Ifthis were received only by a single local population (3.1 106
persons within 50 km), the effective dose commitment toindividuals would be about 10 µSv per year of operation. Thisdose commitment is delivered over a longer-term, especiallyfrom 14C, and is distributed, as well, among separate installa-tions (in three countries).
E. GLOBALLY DISPERSED RADIONUCLIDES
155. Radionuclides that are sufficiently long-lived and easilydispersed in the environment can give rise to global doses.The radionuclides of specific interest are 3H, 14C, 85Kr, and129I, with half-lives of 12.26, 5,730, 10.7, and 1.6 107 years,respectively. The large uncertainties involved in estimatingdoses over prolonged time periods are due to problems inpredicting environmental pathways, population distributions,dietary habits, climate change, etc. The uncertainties of dosecalculations increase when the integration is carried out forvery long periods of time, hundreds or thousands of years oreven longer. In this assessment, as was done for the case ofcollective dose from mill tailings, the global dosecommitments are truncated at 10,000 years.
156. The normalized releases of the globally dispersedradionuclides given in Tables 37 and 41 are summarized inTable 42. From the electrical energy generated or the energyequivalent offuel reprocessed, the total activityrelease of theseradionuclides may be calculated (Table 43). Applying thefactors of collective dose per unit release to these results givesestimates of the collective effective dose commitments(Table 44). For the very long-lived radionuclides (14C and129I), a world population of 1010 was assumed at the time of the
release, and for 3H and 85Kr, a population of 5 109 wasassumed.
157. The total collective effective dose per unit electricalenergy generated is obtained from the normalized releasesfrom reactors and reprocessing plants (Table 42) and thefactors of collective dose per unit release (as revised inAnnex A, “Dose assessment methodologies”). In normalizingto the total energy generated, the contribution from thereprocessing plants is weighted according to the fraction of thefuel reprocessed (0.11 for 1990�1994). The estimates of thenormalized collective dose commitments are 41 and 43man Sv (GW a)�1 for 1990�1994 and 1995�1997,respectively, which are due mostly to 14C (Table 44).
158. The commitment calculations may be used to indicatethe maximum dose rate for a continuing practice. The 14Ccollective dose commitment (10,000 years) based on presentpractice is roughly 40 man Sv (GW a)�1. This means that acontinuing practice of 250 GW a energyproduction each yearinto the future, as at present, would result in an maximumdose rate of 1 µSv a�1 [40 man Sv (GW a)�1 × 250 GW a/a ÷1010 persons]. A limited practice of nuclear power generationwould result in progressively less annual dose, e.g. a 100 or200 year practice would cause 0.1 or 0.16 µSv a�1,respectively (1950�2000 actual practice with 50 or 150 yearprojected releases as at present). This is illustrated inFigure XXI.
159. In a similar fashion, the maximum dose rates for theother globally dispersed radionuclides may be determined.These are of the order of 0.1 µSv a�1 for 85Kr and 0.005µSv a�1 for 3H and 129I. For limited duration practice, themaximum annual dose rates reached will be less. These arethus negligible annual dose rates for these globally dispersedradionuclides.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION190
100-year practice
200-year practice
1950 2050 2100 2150 220020000
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
-1E
FF
EC
TIV
ED
OS
ER
AT
E(
Sv
a)
µ
Figure XXI. Average annual dose rate from globally dispersed 14C released from nuclear installations based onactual practice 1950�2000 and projection of current releases for the duration of the practice.
The equilibrium annual dose rate for a constant, continuing practice is 1 µSv a�1.
F. SOLID WASTE DISPOSALAND TRANSPORT
160. Solid wastes arise at various stages of the nuclear fuelcycle. They include low- and intermediate-level wastes,mainly from reactor operations, high-level wastes from fuelreprocessing, and spent fuel for direct disposal. Low- andintermediate-level wastes are generallydisposed ofbyshallowburial in trenches or concrete-lined structures, but there arealsomoreadvanceddisposal sites. High-level wastesand spentfuel are retained in interim storage tanks until adequatesolutions for disposal have been devised and disposal siteshave been selected.
161. Doses from solid waste disposal have been estimatedbased on the projected eventual migration of radionuclidesthrough the burial site into groundwater. These estimatesdepend criticallyon the assumptions used for the containmentof the solid wastes and the site characteristics and are,accordingly, highly uncertain in a general sense. Theapproximate normalized collective effective dose from low-and intermediate-level waste disposal is, however, quite low,of the order of 0.5 man Sv (GW a)�1, due almost entirely to14C [U3, U4].
162. A repository for high-level waste and spent fuel has notyet been constructed. The radiological impact assessment ofsuch a repository has to rely on modelling of the long-termbehaviour of the waste packages and the migration of releasedradionuclides near the site and at greater distance over a longperiod of time. To carry out such performance assessments, anumber of site-specific data, including waste characterizationand transport models, are needed. Such assessmentshavebeenperformed, mainly to help in formulating design criteria forthe hypothetical repositories.
163. The transportation of radioactive materials of varioustypes between nuclear fuel cycle installations may causemembers of the public who happen to be near the transport
vehicles to be exposed. Doses can be estimated only byapplyinghypothetical assumptions. Aconservativeestimateis,in this case, of the order of 0.1 man Sv (GW a)�1 [U4].
164. Decommissioning of nuclear facilities gives rise toradioactive waste, and some experience is accumulating. Theinformation available indicates that exposures of the publicfrom the decommissioning practice will be very small.
G. SUMMARY OF DOSE ESTIMATES
165. The normalized collective effective doses to members ofthe public from radionuclides released in the various stages ofthe nuclear fuel cycle are summarized in Table 45. The localand regional collective dose in the twomost recent assessmentperiods is 0.9 man Sv (GW a)�1. The largest part of this doseis received within a limited number of years after the releasesand is mainly due to the normal operation of nuclear reactorsand mining operations. The global dose, which is estimatedfor 10,000 years, amounts to 50 man Sv (GW a)�1. The maincontribution is from globally dispersed 14C (reactors andreprocessing). The longer-term trends in collective effectivedoses per unit electrical energy generated show decreases,attributable to reductions in the release of radionuclides fromreactors and fuel reprocessing plants. The components ofnormalized collective effective dose have decreased by muchmore than an order of magnitude for releases fromreprocessing plants, bya factor of 7 for releases from reactors,and by a factor of 2 for globally dispersed radionuclides,compared to the earliest assessment period, 1970�1979.
166. The local and regional collective dose from thebeginning of nuclear power production can be derived fromthe normalized collective doses (Table 45) and the electricalenergy generated in each period (Table 43). The result isabout 5,000 man Sv from fuel reprocessing, 3,000 man Svfrom reactor operations, and 900 man Sv from mining and
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 191
milling. This analysis is summarized in Table 46. In recentyears, the annual total from all these operations amounts to200 man Sv received by the local and regional population.Assuming that the current practice of nuclear powerproduction continues for 100 years, the maximum per caputdose can be estimated from the truncated collective dose perunit electrical energygenerated. Figure XXI shows that about10% of the dose from globally dispersed radionuclides iscommitted in the first hundred years, and using Table 45, the
collective effective dose in the hundredth year of the practice,from globally dispersed radionuclides, would be 5 man Sv(GW a)�1. For an annual production of 250 GW a thisamounts to 1,250 man Sv per year, which when added to thelocal and regional dose of 200 man Sv per year gives a totaldose of nearly 1,500 man Sv in the last year of the practice.The maximum annual effective dose arising from 100 yearsof the practice of nuclear power production is then less than0.2 µSv per caput for a global population of 1010 persons.
III. OTHER EXPOSURES
A. RADIOISOTOPE PRODUCTIONAND USE
167. Radioisotopesarewidelyused in industry,medicine, andresearch. Exposures may occur from trace amounts releasedin production or at subsequent stages of the use or disposal ofthe radionuclide-containing products. For very long-livedradionuclides such as 14C, all of the amount utilized mayultimately reach the environment. For short-lived radio-nuclidessuch asmost radiopharmaceuticals, radioactivedecayprior to release is an essential consideration. The isotopes usedmost widely in medical examinations and nuclear medicineprocedures are 131I and 99mTc.
168. Estimates ofdoses from radioisotopeproduction and useare uncertain, owing to limited data on the commercial pro-duction of the radioisotopes and on the release fractions fromproduction and use. The main radionuclides of interest are 3H,14C, 125I, 131I, and 133Xe. The estimated annual collective effect-ive dose from the practice is of the order of 100 man Sv [U3].
169. An important use of radionuclides is in medicaldiagnostic examinations and in therapeutic treatments.Medical radioisotopes or their parent radionuclides can beproduced in a reactor (by fission of uranium, e.g. 99Mo, 131I, orby activation, e.g. 59Fe) or in a cyclotron (by nuclear reaction,e.g.123I, 201Tl). The main radioisotope, used in 80% of alldiagnostic examinations, is 99Mo. In many countries theproduction, isolation, and incorporation of the radioisotopesinto generators, diagnostic kits, or pharmaceuticals are oftensubdivided in different facilities [K11]. As an example, severalresearch reactors in neighbouring countries supply99Moto theradioisotope production plant in Belgium [W6]. Threedifferent facilities are involved in the Netherlands in thegeneration of 99Mo, its extraction and incorporation into 99mTcgenerators [L10]. This subdivision of the manufacturingprocess hampers quantification of the fractional releaseamounts from the overall production phase.
170. In its request for a permit in 1996, a medicalradioisotope production plant in the Netherlands reported acontrolled annual release of 131I to the atmosphere of at most300 MBq. Since it handles more than 52 TBq in a year, therelease fraction would be less than 0.001%. The maximum
annual dose to an individual from this release would 1 µSv[L10]. This plant receives the 131I as raw material deliveredfrom another company. Therefore, the data are unsuited forthe entire production phase.
171. Over the period 1989�1992, a single facility supplied90% of the annual amount of 131I (35.9 TBq) used in Chinaand 100% of the 125I (0.98 TBq) [P7]. The average releasefraction was reported to be 0.01% for 131I ( a reduction from4.6% in 1975�1978) and 0.7% for 125I. The annual collectivedose was estimated to be 0.13 man Sv for 131I and 0.1�0.6man Sv for 125I, assuming a local population density of500 km�2. The collective dose per unit release of 131I is thus 36man Sv TBq�1. This maybe compared with 0.3 man SvTBq�1
that was estimated for release from a representative nuclearinstallation (Table 38).
172. Global usage of 131I in nuclear therapy is approximately600 TBq (Table 47). With application of the above dosefactors, and assuming the release fraction on production to be0.01%, the global annual collective dose from 131I productionand usage is 0.02�2 man Sv. A further contribution to thecollective dose arises from wastes discharged from hospitals.
173. Limited data on 131I releases from hospitals were citedin the UNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. Discharges of 131I fromhospitals in Australia and Sweden in the late 1980scorresponded to110�190 GBq per 106 population [U3]. Thereis high excretion of 131I from patients following oraladministration, but waste treatment systems with hold-uptanks are effective in reducing the amounts in liquid effluentsto 5 10�4 of the amounts administered to patients [J4]. Thisseems to be confirmed by the very low concentrations of 131Imeasured in the surface waters and sewage systems of severalcountries [U3]. This information seems not to besystematically collected.
174. With the estimated global annual usage of 131I intherapeutic treatments of 600 TBq, a release fraction of 5 10�4
and a dose coefficient of 0.03 man Sv TBq�1 for 131I releasedin liquid effluents (from Annex A, “Dose assessmentmethodologies”), the further contribution tothecollectivedoseis just 0.009 man Sv. The presence of the hold-up tanksshould reduce the release of 99mTc, the other majorradionuclide, to negligible levels.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION192
175. Several recent studies consider the external exposure ofthe groups that are mainly exposed, i.e. parents, infants, whocome in contact with therapeutically treated patients or fellowtravellers on the journey home from the hospital [B12, C12,D8, G9, M11]. These assessments are based either on use ofintegrating dosimeters or on dose-rate measurements close tothe patients with appropriate occupancy factors. Assessmentsbased on the first approach gave doses of 0.04�7 mSv topartners and children of the patients treated forhyperthyroidism with 200�800 MBq of 131I [B12, M11].Average doses were 1 mSv to partners and 0.1 mSv tochildren [M11]. Treatment of thyroidcancer patientswith 4�7GBq of 131I resulted in doses below 0.5 mSv to familymembers [M11]. All of about 200 family members involvedin these studies were given advice, according to currentpractice, about limiting close contact with the patient. Doserates to fellow travellers ranged from 0.02�0.5 mSv h�1.
176. An approximate estimate of the collective dose to familymembers of patients therapeutically treated with 131I can bederived as follows. In developed countries about 20% oftherapeutic treatments with 131I are for thyroid cancer and80% for hyperthyroidism with average administered amountsof 5 GBq and 0.5 GBq, respectively. The weighted averageamount administered is thus 1.4 GBq per patient. For globalusage of 600 TBq of 131I, 430,000 patients could be treated.With average exposures of 0.5 mSv to 2�3 family members,the collective dose to those other than the patients could be400�600 man Sv.
177. The importance of inhalation of radioiodine exhaled bypatients treated with radioiodine (0.3�1.3 GBq), was assessedby whole body measurements of their relatives [W7]. Theeffective dose ranged from 0.3 to about 60 µSv (17 persons)with a median value of about 4 µSv. Diagnostic procedureswith most radionuclides are estimated to result in cumulativedoses of less than 40 µSv to someone who remains in theclose vicinity of the patient [B13]. Breast feeding followingmaternal radiopharmaceutical administration mayresult in aneffective dose to the infant of more than 1 mSv, if the feedingis not temporarily interrupted or ceased. This is the case for alimited number of treatments with radioiodine but also forsome with 99mTc and 67Ga [M11, M12].
178. The most important component in the overall dose tothegeneral population from radioisotopeproduction andusageis that to relatives of patients given therapeutic treatments.The dominant component of the global collective dose is from131I. It was assumed that decay between production and use ofthe isotope can be neglected, which means that the data onisotope consumption can be used. The resulting global annualcollective dose is estimated to range up to about 600 man Sv.The small doses to relatives of patients after diagnosticprocedures may add up to a comparable collective dose, sincetheir number exceeds that of the therapeutic treatments bytwoorders of magnitude. The dose to family members was notconsidered in the previous assessment bytheCommitteein theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3]. The earlier estimate of 100man Sv, of which 80% was from 14C, represented possiblereleases mainly at the production stage. Since this estimate is
quite uncertain and likely an overestimate, it is seen that theexposure of family members of patients treated with 131I maybe considered tobe the most important component ofexposureto radioisotopes used in medicine, industry and education.
B. RESEARCH REACTORS
179. Research reactors differ from reactors producingelectrical energy in their wide varietyof designs and modes ofoperation, as well as a wide range of use. Research reactorsare used for tests of nuclear fuels and different materials, forinvestigations in nuclear and neutron physics, biology, andmedicine, and for the production of radioisotopes. At the endof 1999, there were 292 nuclear research reactors operating inthe world, with a total thermal energyof 3,000 MW. The totaloperating experience exceeds 13,000 reactor-years. TheCommittee has not previously collected data on releases ofradionuclides from research reactors.
180. Exposures resulting from the operation of researchreactors are exemplified by some data reported from theRussian Federation. From 1993 to 1996, annual releases fromtwo research reactors in Obninsk averaged 0.7 PBq of noblegases, 5 GBq 131I, 0.3 GBq 90Sr, 0.6 GBq 137Cs, and 0.1 GBqplutonium [M8, M10]. The annual effective doses toindividuals in Obninsk were estimated not to exceed 30 µSv[M8]. Further data on research reactors are not available.
C. ACCIDENTS
181. Accidents involving releases of radionuclides to theenvironment occur from time to time. To the extent that theseresult in significant human exposures, they are reviewed andanalysed. A separate Chapter on accidents was included in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3], and a brief account was givenof all earlier accidents. Since then only one accident hasoccurred at a nuclear installation involving some exposure ofthe local population. This was the accident on 30 September1999 at the Tokaimura nuclear fuel processing plant in Japan[J6]. A criticality event took place because of improperprocedures. During the 24-hour event and because of onlylimited shielding provided by the building, some directirradiation was measurable outside the plant site. There wasonly trace release of gaseous fission products. Three workersinside the plant received serious overexposures. Their doseswere estimated to be in the range 16�20 Gy, 6�10 Gy, and1�4.5 Gy (gamma equivalent dose). The doses to 169 otheremployees were determined from personal dosimeters, whole-body counting, and survey of their locations during theaccident [I8, J6, S9]. Doses to members of the public, about200 in all, who were living or working within 350 m of thefacility were estimated individually [F6]. Direct exposures topersons outside the site were estimated to be up to 21 mGy(gamma plus neutron). The highest dose, estimated bywhole-body counting, was received by a person at a constructioncompany just beyond the plant boundary.
182. Themisuseor mishandlingofradiation sources isgener-ally a hazard to workers. Improper administration of thera-
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 193
peutic treatment sometimes result in accidental overexposuresof patients. Lost or unregulated (orphaned) sources can causeexposures of the public. These topics are considered further inthe separate assessments by the Committee of occupationaland medical radiation exposures. The Committee has nootherinformation on recent accidents that may have involved
exposures of the public. The Committee has begun a morecomplete analysis of the doses and effects from the Chernobylaccident in the populations living nearest to the reactor inareas of the former Soviet Union. These results are presentedseparately in Annex J, “Exposures and effects of theChernobyl accident”.
CONCLUSIONS
183. Releasesof radioactive materials totheenvironment andexposures of human populations have occurred in severalactivities, practices, and events involving radiation sources.The main contribution to the collective doses to the worldpopulation in such cases has come from the testing of nuclearweapons in the atmosphere. This practice occurred from 1945through 1980. Each nuclear test resulted in unrestrainedrelease to the environment of substantial quantities ofradioactive materials. These were widely dispersed in theatmosphere and deposited everywhere on the earth’s surface.
184. The Committee has given special attention to theevaluation of exposures from atmospheric nuclear testing.Numerous measurements of the global deposition of 90Sr and137Cs and of the occurrence of these and other falloutradionuclides in diet and the human body were made at thetime the testing was taking place. The worldwide collectivedose from this practice was evaluated in the UNSCEAR 1982Report [U6], and a systematic listing of transfer coefficientsfor a number of fallout radionuclides was given in theUNSCEAR 1993 Report [U3].
185. New information has become available on the numbersand yields of nuclear tests. These data were not fully revealedearlier by the countries that conducted the tests because ofmilitary sensitivities. An updated listing of atmosphericnuclear tests conducted at each of the test sites is included inthis Annex. Although the total explosive yields of each testhave been divulged, the fission and fusion yields are stillmostly suppressed. Some general assumptions have beenmade to allow specifying the fission and fusion yields of eachtest in order to estimate the amounts of radionuclidesproduced in the explosions. The estimated total of fissionyields of individual tests is in agreement with the globaldeposition of the main fission radionuclides 90Sr and 137Cs, asdetermined by worldwide monitoring networks.
186. With improved estimates of the production of eachradionuclide in individual tests and using an empiricalatmospheric transport model, it is possible to determine thetime course of the dispersion and deposition of radionuclidesand to estimate the annual doses from various pathways ineach hemisphere of the world. In this way it has beenestimated that theworld average annual effective dose reacheda peak of 110 µSv in 1963 and has since decreased to about5 µSv, from residual levels in the environment, mainly of 14C,
90Sr, and 137Cs. The average annual doses are 10% higher thanthe world average in the northern hemisphere, where most ofthe testing took place, and much lower in the southernhemisphere. Although there was considerable concern at thetime of testing, the exposures remained relatively low,reaching at most about 5% of the background level fromnatural radiation sources.
187. The exposures to local populations surrounding the testsites have also been assessed using available information. Thelevel of detail is still not sufficient to document the exposureswith great accuracy. Attention to the local conditions and thepossibilities of exposure was not great in the early years of thetest programmes. However, dose reconstruction efforts areproceeding toclarifythis experience and todocument the localand regional exposures that occurred.
188. Underground testing caused exposures beyond the testsites only if radioactive gases leaked or were vented. Mostunderground tests had a much lower yield than atmospherictests, and it was usually possible to contain the debris.Underground tests were conducted at the rate of 50 or moreper year from 1962 to 1990. Although it is the intention ofmost countries to agree to ban all further tests, bothatmospheric and underground, the treatyhas not yet come intoforce. Further underground testing occurred in 1998. Thus, itcannot yet be stated that the practice has ceased.
189. During the time when nuclear weapons arsenals werebeing built up and especially in the earlier years (1945�1960),there were releases of radionuclides and exposures of localpopulationsdownwindor downstream ofnuclear installations.Since there was little recognition of exposure potentials andmonitoring of releases was limited, the exposure evaluationsmust be based on the reconstruction of doses. Results are stillbeing obtained that document this experience. Practices havegreatly improved and arsenals are now being reduced.
190. A continuing practice is the generation of electricalenergy by nuclear power reactors. In recent years, 17% of theworld’s electrical energy has been generated by this means.During routine operation of nuclear installations, the releasesof radionuclides are low, and exposures must be estimatedwith environmental transfer models. For all fuel cycleoperations (mining and milling, reactor operation, and fuelreprocessing) the local and regional exposures are estimated
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION194
at present to be 0.9 man Sv (GW a)�1. With present worldnuclear energy generation of 250 GW a, the collective doseper year of practice is of the order of 200 man Sv. Theassumed representative local and regional population sur-rounding a single installation is about 250 million persons,and the per caput dose to this population would be less than1 µSv. The collective doses from globally dispersed radio-nuclides are delivered over very long periods and to theprojected maximum population of the world. If the practice ofnuclear power production is limited to the next 100 years atthe present capacity, the maximum annual effective dose percaput to the global population would be less than 0.2 µSv.This dose rate is small compared to that from natural back-ground radiation.
191. Except in the case of accidents, in which more localizedareas can be contaminated to significant levels, there are noother practices that result in important exposures fromradionuclides released to the environment. Estimates ofreleases of isotopes produced and used in industrial andmedical applications are being reviewed, but these seem to beassociated with rather insignificant levels of exposure. Thehighest exposures, averaging about 0.5 mSv, may be receivedby family members of patients who have received 131Itherapeutic treatments. Possible future practices, such asweapons dismantling, decommissioning of installations, andwaste management projects, can be reviewed as experience isacquired, but these should all involve little or no release ofradionuclides and consequently little or no exposure.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 195
Table 1Atmospheric nuclear tests
CHINA
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Lop Nor
1964: 16 October Land surface 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.01
1965: 14 May Air 0.04 0 0.04 0.037 0.003
1966: 9 May27 October28 December
AirAirLand surface
0.20.020.2
0.10
0.1
0.30.020.3 0.10
0.110.02
0.056
0.09
0.044
1967: 17 June24 December
AirAir
1.70.02
1.30
30.02 0.02
1.7
1968: 28 December Air 1.5 1.5 3 1.5
1969: 29 September Air 1.9 1.1 3 1.9
1970: 14 October Air 1.9 1.1 3 1.9
1971: 18 November Land surface 0.02 0 0.02 0.01 0.01
1972: 7 January18 March
AirAir
0.020.1
00
0.020.1
0.020.08 0.02
1973: 27 June Air 1.4 1.1 2.5 1.4
1974: 17 June Air 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.065 0.235
1976: 23 January26 September17 November
Land surfaceAirAir
0.020.12.2
00
1.8
0.020.14
0.01 0.010.08 0.02
2.2
1977: 17 September Air 0.02 0 0.02 0.02
1978: 15 March14 December
Land surfaceLand surface
0.020.02
00
0.020.02
0.010.01
0.010.01
1980: 16 October Air 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.11 0.39
FRANCE
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Algeria
1960: 13 February1 April
27 December
TowerLand surfaceTower
0.067 b
0.003 b
0.002 b
000
0.0670.0030.002
0.03350.00150.001
0.03260.00150.001
0.0009
1961: 25 April Tower 0.0007 b 0 0.0007 0.00035 0.00035
Test site: Fangataufa
1966: 24 September Barge 0.125 b 0 0.125 0.0625 0.0595 0.003
1968: 24 August Balloon 1.3 1.3 2.6 1.3
1970: 30 May3 August
BalloonBalloon
0.47250.072
0.47250
0.9450.072 0.07
0.47250.002
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION196
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Mururoa
1966: 2 July19 July11 September4 October
BargeAir dropBalloonBarge
0.028 b
0.05 b
0.11 b
0.205 b
0000
0.0280.050.11
0.205
0.014
0.1025
0.0140.049
0.0921
0.0010.11
0.0104
1967: 5 June27 June2 July
BalloonBalloonBarge
0.015 b
0.12 b
0.022 b
000
0.0150.12
0.022 0.011
0.015
0.0110.12
1968: 7 July15 July3 August8 September
BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloon
0.115 b
0.45 b
0.15 b
0.64
000
0.64
0.1150.450.151.28
0.1150.450.150.64
1970: 15 May22 May24 June3 July
27 July6 August
BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonBalloon
0.013 b
0.1500.012 b
0.4570.00005 b
0.297
00.074
00.457
00.297
0.0130.2240.0120.914
0.000050.594
0.013
0.012
0.00005
0.150
0.457
0.297
1971: 5 June12 June4 July8 August
14 August
BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonBalloon
0.034 b
0.290.009 b
0.004 b
0.478
00.15
00
0.477
0.0340.44
0.0090.0040.955
0.034
0.0090.004
0.29
0.478
1972: 25 June30 June27 July
BalloonBalloonBalloon
0.0005 b
0.004 b
0.006 b
000
0.00050.0040.006
0.00050.0040.006
1973: 21 July28 July18 August24 August28 August
BalloonBalloonBalloonBalloonAir drop
0.011 b
0.00005 b
0.004 b
0.0002 b
0.006 b
00000
0.0110.00005
0.0040.00020.006
0.0110.00005
0.0040.00020.006
1974: 16 June7 July
17 July25 July15 August24 August14 September
BalloonBalloonBalloonAir dropBalloonBalloonBalloon
0.004 b
0.100.004 b
0.008 b
0.0960.014 b
0.221
00.05
0000
0.111
0.0040.15
0.0040.0080.0960.0140.332
0.004
0.0040.0080.0930.014
0.10
0.003
0.221
UNITED KINGDOM
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Monte Bello Islands, Australia
1952: 3 October Water surface 0.025 0 0.025 0.0125 0.0125
1956: 16 May19 June
Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)
0.0150.06
00
0.0150.06
0.00750.03
0.00750.0293 0.0007
Test site: Emu, Australia
1953: 14 October26 October
Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)
0.010.008
00
0.010.008
0.0050.004
0.0050.004
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 197
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Maralinga, Australia
1956: 27 September4 October
11 October22 October
Tower (31 m)Land surfaceAir drop (150 m)Tower (31 m)
0.0150.00150.0030.01
0000
0.0150.00150.0030.01
0.00750.00075
0.005
0.00750.00075
0.0030.005
1957: 14 September25 September9 October
Tower (31 m)Tower (31 m)Balloon (300 m)
0.0010.0060.025
000
0.0010.0060.025
0.00050.003
0.00050.0030.025
Test site: Malden Island, Pacific
1957: 15 May31 May19 June
Air burstAir burstAir burst
0.20.360.13
0.10.360.07
0.30.720.20
0.170.2650.12
0.030.0950.01
Test site: Christmas Island, Pacific
1957: 8 November Air burst 0.9 0.9 1.8 0.315 0.585
1958: 28 April22 August2 September
11 September23 September
Air burstAir burstAir burstAir burstAir burst
1.50.024
0.50.4
0.025
1.50
0.50.40
30.024
10.8
0.025
0.120.0240.3250.2850.025
1.38
0.1750.115
UNITED STATES
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: New Mexico
1945: 16 July Tower 0.021 0 0.021 0.011 0.01
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan (combat use)
1945: 5 August9 August
Air dropAir drop
0.0150.021
00
0.0150.021
0.0150.021
Test site: Nevada
1951: 27 January28 January1 February2 February6 February
22 October28 October30 October1 November5 November
19 November29 November
Air drop (320 m)Air drop (330 m)Air drop (330 m)Air drop (335 m)Air drop (340 m)Tower (100 m)Air drop (340 m)Air drop (340 m)Air drop (430 m)Air drop (900 m)SurfaceSurface (-5 m)
0.0010.0080.0010.0080.0220.00010.00350.0140.0210.0310.0120.001
000000000000
0.0010.0080.0010.0080.0220.00010.00350.0140.0210.0310.00120.001
0.00005
0.00060.0005
0.0010.0080.0010.0080.022
0.000050.00350.0140.0210.0310.00060.0005
1952: 1 April15 April22 April1 May
Air drop (240 m)Air drop (320 m)Air drop (1050 m)Air drop (300 m)
0.0010.0010.0310.019
0000
0.0010.0010.0310.019
0.0010.0010.0310.019
1952: 7 May25 May1 June5 June
Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)
0.0120.0110.0150.014
0000
0.0120.0110.0150.014
0.0060.00550.00750.007
0.0060.00550.00750.007
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION198
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Nevada (continued)
1953: 17 March24 March31 March6 April
11 April18 April25 April8 May
19 May25 May4 June
Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Air drop (1835 m)Tower (30 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Air drop (740 m)Tower (90 m)Airburst (160 m)Air drop (400 m)
0.0160.0240.00020.0110.00020.0230.0430.0270.0320.0150.061
00000000000
0.0160.0240.00020.0110.00020.0230.0430.0270.0320.0150.061
0.0080.0120.0001
0.00010.0120.022
0.016
0.0080.0120.00010.0110.00010.0110.0210.0270.0160.0150.0595 0.0015
1955: 18 February22 February1 March7 March
12 March22 March29 March29 March6 April9 April
15 April5 May
15 May
Air drop (230 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (150 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (150 m)Tower (150 m)Air drop (225 m)Air drop (1120 m)Tower (90 m)Tower (120 m)Tower (150 m)Tower (1560 m)
0.0010.0020.0070.0430.0040.0080.0140.0030.0030.0020.0220.0290.028
0000000000000
0.0010.0020.0070.0430.0040.0080.0140.0030.0030.0020.0220.0290.028
0.0010.00350.02150.0020.0040.007
0.0010.0110.01450.014
0.0010.0010.00350.02150.0020.0040.0070.0030.0030.0010.0110.01450.014
1957: 28 May2 June5 June
18 June24 June5 July
15 July19 July24 July25 July7 August
18 August23 August30 August31 August2 September6 September8 September
14 September16 September23 September28 September7 October
Tower (150 m)Tower (90 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (210 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (150 m)Rocket (6100 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (230 m)Tower (210 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (230 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (460 m)
0.0120.00014
0.00000050.01
0.0370.0740.0170.0020.01
0.00970.0190.0170.0110.00470.0440.0110.00020.0010.0110.0120.0190.0120.008
00000000000000000000000
0.0120.00014
0.00000050.01
0.0370.0740.0170.0020.01
0.00970.0190.0170.0110.00470.0440.0110.00020.0010.0110.0120.0190.0120.008
0.0060.00007
0.0085
0.005
0.0085
0.0220.0055
0.0055
0.0095
0.0060.00007
0.00000050.01
0.0370.0720.00850.0020.0050.00970.0190.00850.0110.00470.0220.00550.00020.0010.00550.0120.00950.0120.008
0.002
1958: 19 September29 September10 October13 October15 October16 October18 October22 October22 October22 October26 October26 October29 October29 October30 October
Balloon (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (30 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (15 m)Balloon (140 m)Tower (22 m)Balloon (440 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (150 m)Balloon (460 m)Balloon (460 m)Tower (10 m)TowerBalloon(460 m)
0.0000830.002
0.0000790.0014
0.00000120.0000370.00009
0.0060.000120.000190.00490.0022
0.00000780
0.0013
000000000000000
0.0000830.002
0.0000790.0014
0.00000120.0000370.00009
0.0060.000120.000190.00490.0022
0.00000780
0.0013
0.00004
0.0000006
0.000045
0.00000390
0.0000830.002
0.0000390.0014
0.00000060.0000370.000045
0.0060.000120.000190.00490.0022
0.00000390
0.0013
1962: 11 July7 July
14 July17 July
Surface (- 1 m)SurfaceTowerSurface
0.00050.020.020.02
0000
0.00050.02 c
0.02 c
0.02 c
0.000250.010.010.01
0.000250.010.010.01
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 199
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Bikini, Pacific
1946: 30 June24 July
Air dropUnderwater (-30 m)
0.0210.021
00
0.0210.021 0.011
0.0210.01
1954: 28 February26 March6 April
25 April4 May
SurfaceBargeSurfaceBargeBarge
9 d
7.3 d
0.0754.6 d
9.0 d
63.7
0.0352.34.5
1511
0.116.913.5
4.53.65
0.0372.34.5
0.037
4.53.65
0.0012.34.5
1956: 20 May27 May11 June25 June10 July20 July
Air dropSurfaceBargeBargeBargeBarge
1.6 d
1.25 d
0.183 d
0.551.5 d
2.3 d
2.22.25
0.1820.553.02.7
3.83.5
0.3651.14.55
0.6250.0920.2750.751.15
0.0760.0380.0770.1680.0180.005
1.520.5870.0140.1070.7321.145
1958: 11 May21 May31 May10 June14 June27 June29 June2 July
12 July22 July
BargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBarge
0.680.02510.0920.1420.2120.2750.0140.153.2 d
0.065
0.6800
0.0710.1070.137
00.076.10
1.360.02510.0920.2130.3190.4120.0140.229.3
0.065
0.340.01260.0460.0710.1060.1370.0070.075
1.60.0325
0.1750.01250.04460.0630.0910.1640.0070.076
0.0316
0.165
0.00140.0080.0150.024
1.60.0009
Test site: Enewetak, Pacific
1948: 14 April30 April14 May
TowerTowerTower
0.0370.0490.018
000
0.0370.0490.018
0.0190.0250.009
0.0180.0240.009
1951: 7 April20 April8 May
24 May
TowerTowerTowerTower
0.0810.0470.15
0.0455
00
0.0750
0.0810.0470.2250.0455
0.0410.0240.0750.0228
0.0390.0230.0660.0227
0.001
0.009
1952: 31 October15 November
SurfaceAir drop
5.7 d
0.254.70.25
10.40.5
2.850.2
2.850.05
1954: 13 May Barge 0.845 0.845 1.69 0.423 0.164 0.258
1956: 4 May27 May30 May6 June
11 June13 June16 June21 June2 July8 July
21 July
SurfaceTowerTowerSurfaceTowerTowerAir dropTowerTowerBargeBarge
0.040.000190.01490.01370.008
0.001490.00170.0152
0.240.9250.167
00000000
0.120.9250.083
0.040.000190.01490.01370.008
0.001490.00170.0152
0.361.850.25
0.020.0000950.007450.00685
0.0040.000745
0.00760.12
0.4630.084
0.020.0000950.007450.00685
0.0040.000745
0.00170.0076
0.100.1530.074
0.0200.3090.009
1958: 5 May11 May12 May16 May20 May26 May26 May30 May2 June8 June
14 June18 June27 June28 June1 July5 July
17 July22 July26 July6 August
18 August
SurfaceBargeSurfaceUnder waterBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeUnder waterBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeBargeSurfaceSurface
0.0180.0810.6850.0090.0059
0.220.0570.01160.0150.0080.7250.0110.443 d
0.00520.2650.1700.135
10
0.00002
00
0.68500
0.110000
0.7250
0.445.90
0.1320.0850.067
100
0.0180.0811.37
0.0090.0059
0.330.0570.01160.0150.0081.45
0.0110.888.9
0.00520.3970.2550.202
20
0.00002
0.0090.0410.3430.00450.0030.11
0.02850.00580.00750.0040.3630.0055
0.221.5
0.00260.1330.0850.067
0.50
0.00001
0.0090.03880.1750.00450.00290.0940.02780.00580.00750.0040.1740.00550.151
0.00260.1090.0740.0600.138
00.00001
0.00120.167
0.0160.0007
0.188
0.0691.5
0.0240.0110.0070.363
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION200
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Pacific
1955: 14 May Under water 0.03 0 0.03 0.015 0.015
1958: 28 April Balloon 0.0017 0 0.0017 0.0017
1962: 5 May11 May
RocketUnder water
0.050.02
00
0.05 c
0.02 c 0.01 0.010.05
Test site: Atlantic, 38��50�S
1958: 27 August30 August6 September
RocketRocketRocket
0.00150.00150.0015
000
0.00150.00150.0015
0.00150.00150.0015
Test site: Johnston Island, Pacific
1958: 1 August12 August
RocketRocket
1.91.9
1.91.9
3.83.8
1.91.9
1962: 9 July2 October6 October
18 October20 October26 October27 October30 October1 November4 November
RocketAir dropAir dropAir dropRocketRocketAir dropAir dropRocketRocket
0.70.0750.01130.7950.020.250.44.150.250.02
0.700
0.7950
0.250.44.150.25
0
1.40.0750.0113
1.590.02 c
0.5 c
0.88.30.5 c
0.02 c
0.0730.01130.341
0.285
0.70.002
0.4540.020.25
0.1154.150.250.02
Test site: Christmas Island, Pacific
1962: 25 April27 April2 May4 May8 May9 May
11 May12 May14 May19 May25 May27 May8 June9 June
10 June12 June15 June17 June19 June22 June27 June30 June10 July11 July
Air dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir dropAir drop
0.1270.27
0.5450.335
0.10.10.050.25
0.0970.0730.00260.0430.3910.141.50.60.4
0.0520.00220.0815
3.830.630.51.94
0.0630.14
0.5450.335
000
0.250000
0.3910.071.50.60.4000
3.820.640.51.94
0.190.411.090.670.10.10.050.5
0.0970.0730.00260.0430.7820.21
31.20.8
0.0520.00220.0815
7.651.27
13.88
0.1140.2260.3360.2520.0970.0970.049
0.20.0940.0710.00260.0430.2810.1240.12
0.3450.28
0.0510.00220.0791
0.3460.3250.089
0.0140.0470.2090.0830.0030.0030.0010.05
0.0030.002
0.1100.0161.38
0.2550.12
0.001
0.00243.83
0.2840.1751.851
USSR
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
Test site: Semipalatinsk
1949: 29 August Surface 0.022 0 0.022 0.011 0.011
1951: 24 September18 October
SurfaceAir
0.0380.042
00
0.0380.042
0.019 0.0180.039
0.0010.003
1953: 12 August23 August3 September
SurfaceAirAir
0.040.0280.0058
0.3600
0.4 e
0.0280.0058
0.02 0.00890.0280.0058
0.011
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 201
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
1953: 8 September10 September
AirAir
0.00160.0049
00
0.00160.0049
0.00160.0049
1954: 29 September1 October3 October5 October8 October
19 October23 October26 October30 October
AirAirAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirAirSurface
0.00020.00003
0.0020.0040.0008
0.0000010.0620.0028
0.01
000000000
0.00020.00003
0.0020.0040.0008
0.0000010.0620.0028
0.01
0.002
0.0000005
0.005
0.00020.00003
0.0020.0020.0008
0.00000050.0540.00280.005
0.008
1955: 29 July2 August5 August6 November
22 November
SurfaceSurfaceSurfaceAirAir
0.00130.0120.00120.167
0.8
000
0.0830.8
0.00130.0120.0012
0.251.6
0.000650.0060.0006
0.000650.0060.00060.1060.003
0.0610.797
1956 16 March25 March24 August30 August2 September10 September17 November14 December
SurfaceSurfaceSurfaceAirAirAirAirAir
0.0140.00550.0270.45
0.0510.0380.450.04
000
0.4500
0.450
0.0140.00550.027
0.90.0510.038
0.90.04
0.0070.002750.0135
0.0070.002750.01350.0200.0460.0360.0200.037
0.4300.0050.0020.4300.003
1957: 8 March3 April6 April
10 April12 April16 April22 August26 August13 September26 September28 December
AirAirAirHigh atmosphereAirAirAirAirAirAirAir
0.0190.0420.0570.34
0.0220.2130.26
0.00010.00590.0130.012
000
0.340
0.1070.26
0000
0.0190.0420.0570.68
0.0220.320.52
0.00010.00590.0130.012
0.0190.0390.050
0.0220.1150.0780.00010.00590.0130.012
0.0030.0070.34
0.0980.182
1958: 4 January17 January13 March14 March15 March18 March20 March22 March
AirAirAirAirHigh atmosphereAirHigh atmosphereAir
0.00130.00050.00120.0350.014
0.000160.0120.018
00000000
0.00130.00050.00120.0350.014
0.000160.0120.018
0.00130.00050.00120.033
0.00016
0.018
0.0020.014
0.012
1961: 1 September4 September5 September6 September9 September
10 September11 September13 September14 September17 September18 September18 September19 September20 September21 September26 September1 October4 October
12 October17 October19 October25 October30 October1 November2 November
AirAirAirAirSurfaceAirAirAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir
0.0160.0090.0160.0011
0.000380.000880.00030.0040.0004
0.040.0000040.000750.000030.00480.00080.00120.0030.0130.0150.00660.0040.0005
0.000090.00270.0006
0000000000000000000000000
0.0160.0090.0160.0011
0.000380.000880.00030.004 f
0.00040.04 f
0.0000040.000750.000030.00480.00080.00120.0030.0130.0150.00660.004 e
0.00050.000090.00270.0006
0.00019
0.0002
0.000002
0.000015
0.0160.0090.0160.0011
0.000190.000880.00030.0040.00020.037
0.0000020.000750.000015
0.00480.00080.00120.0030.0130.0150.00660.0040.0005
0.000090.00270.0006
0.003
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION202
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
1961: 3 November3 November4 November
SurfaceAirSurface
0.0000010.00090.0002
000
0.0000010.00090.0002
0.0000005
0.0001
0.00000050.00090.0001
1962: 1 August3 August4 August7 August
18 August18 August21 August22 August23 August25 August27 August31 August22 September24 September25 September28 September9 October
10 October13 October14 October20 October28 October28 October30 October31 October1 November3 November4 November5 November
11 November13 November14 November17 November24 November26 November1 December
23 December24 December24 December
AirAirAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirSurfaceAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirSurfaceAirAirAirAirSurfaceSurfaceSurfaceAirAirSurfaceSurfaceAirSurfaceSurfaceSurface
0.00240.00160.00380.00990.00740.0058
0.040.0030.00250.0040.0110.0027
0.000210.00120.0070.00130.0080.00920.00490.0040.00670.00780.00780.0012
0.010.0030.00470.00840.00040.0001
0.0000010.0120.018
0.0000010.000031
0.00240.0000010.0000070.000028
000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0.00240.00160.00380.00990.00740.00580.04 e
0.0030.00250.004 e
0.0110.0027
0.000210.00120.0070.00130.0080.00920.00490.004 e
0.00670.00780.00780.0012
0.010.0030.00470.00840.00040.0001
0.0000010.0120.018
0.0000010.000031
0.00240.0000010.0000070.000028
0.00495
0.00011
0.0035
0.0006
0.00020.00005
0.0000005
0.00000050.000016
0.00000050.00000035
0.000014
0.00240.00160.0038
0.004950.00740.00580.0370.0030.00250.0040.0110.00270.00010.00120.00350.00130.0080.00920.00490.0040.00670.00780.00780.0006
0.010.0030.00470.00840.0002
0.000050.0000005
0.0120.018
0.00000050.000015
0.00240.00000050.00000035
0.000014
0.003
Test site: Novaya Zemlya
1955: 21 September Under water 0.0035 0 0.0035 0.00175 0.00175
1957: 7 September24 September6 October
10 October
SurfaceAirAirUnder water
0.0320.81.450.01
00.81.45
0
0.0321.62.90.01
0.016
0.005
0.01540.003
0.005
0.00060.7971.45
1958: 23 February27 February27 February14 March21 March30 September30 September2 October2 October4 October5 October6 October
10 October12 October15 October18 October19 October19 October20 October21 October
AirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir
0.430.1630.750.04
0.3250.60.45
0.1930.04
0.0090.0150.00550.0680.7250.751.450.04
0.0000010.2930.002
0.430.0870.75
00.325
0.60.45
0.09700000
0.7250.751.45
00
0.1470
0.860.251.50.040.651.20.90.290.04
0.0090.0150.00550.0681.451.52.90.04
0.0000010.44
0.002
0.0250.1030.0040.0370.0540.0050.0200.1120.0370.0090.0150.00550.0590.0040.004
0.0370.000001
0.1150.002
0.4050.0600.7460.0030.2710.5950.4300.0710.003
0.0090.7210.7461.45
0.003
0.178
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 203
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
1958: 22 October24 October25 October25 October
AirAirAirAir
1.40.5
0.1270.0001
1.40.5
0.0630
2.81
0.190.0001
0.0050.0900.0001
1.40.4950.037
1961: 10 September10 September12 September13 September14 September16 September18 September20 September22 September2 October4 October6 October8 October
20 October23 October23 October25 October27 October30 October31 October31 October2 November2 November4 November4 November4 November
AirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirUnder waterAirAirWater surfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir
1.350.0120.5750.006
0.60.415
0.50.2660.1730.167
22
0.0150.7250.0048
4.170.2
0.0161.5 b
2.50.2670.08
0.1870.0150.2670.006
1.350
0.5750
0.60.415
0.50.1340.0870.083
220
0.7250
8.330.10
48.5 b
2.50.1330.04
0.0930
0.1330
2.70.0121.15
0.0061.20.83
10.4 e
0.260.254 e
40.0151.45
0.004812.50.3
0.016505
0.4 e
0.120.28
0.0150.4 e
0.006
0.0024
0.008
0.0120.0050.0060.0050.0290.0050.1180.1070.106
0.0150.0040.0024
0.1130.008
0.1180.0630.1110.0150.1180.006
1.35
0.570
0.5950.3860.4950.1480.0660.061
22
0.721
4.170.087
1.52.5
0.1490.0170.076
0.149
1962: 5 August10 August20 August22 August22 August25 August27 August2 September8 September
15 September16 September18 September19 September21 September25 September27 September7 October9 October
22 October27 October29 October30 October1 November3 November3 November
18 December18 December20 December22 December23 December23 December23 December24 December24 December25 December25 December
AirAirAirAirWater surfaceAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir
7.030.267
1.40.8
0.0062
2.10.080.951.55
1.6250.675
21.26.378.070.32
0.0154.1
0.1730.24
0.1870.160.26
0.0450.0730.0690.00830.00630.2870.00830.0024
0.558.071.55
0.0085
14.070.133
1.40.802
2.10
0.951.55
1.6250.675
21.2
12.7316.13
00
4.10.0870.12
0.0930.080.13
00.037
000
0.14300
0.5516.131.55
0
21.10.4 f
2.81.6
0.0064 f
4.20.081.93.13.251.354 f
2.419.124.2 f
0.320.015
8.20.260.360.280.240.39
0.0450.11
0.0690.00830.0063
0.430.00830.0024
1.124.23.1
0.0085
0.003
0.118
0.0030.003
0.0670.001
0.004
0.1730.015
0.1070.1180.1110.1040.1190.0410.0580.0590.00830.00630.1170.00830.00240.005
0.0085
7.030.149
1.40.797
22.1
0.0130.9491.55
1.6250.671
21.26.378.07
0.147
4.10.0660.1220.0760.0560.1410.0040.0150.010
0.170
0.5458.071.55
Table 1 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION204
Date Type of testYield (Mt) a Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
a Estimated fission and fusion yields unless otherwise indicated; reported total yields.b Reported fission or fusion yield.c Indefinite reported yield; value assigned as follows: low, 0.02 Mt; no indication, 0.05 Mt; submegatonne, 0.5 Mt.d Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 1952�1954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),
1956 = 9 Mt (8 Mt from >1 Mt events), 1957�1958 = 19 Mt (14 Mt from >1 Mt events) [D7].e Thermonuclear explosion; fission yield estimated [G7].f Indefinite reported yield; value assigned as follows: 0.000001�0.02 Mt, 0.004 Mt; 0.02�0.15 Mt, 0.04 Mt; 0.15�1.5 Mt, 0.4 Mt; 1.5�10 Mt, 4 Mt;
>10 Mt, 24.2 Mt.
Test site: Totsk, Aralsk
1954: 14 September Air 0.04 0 0.04 0.037 0.003
1956: 2 February Surface 0.0003 0 0.0003 0.00015 0.00015
Test site: Kapustin Yar
1957: 19 January Air 0.01 0 0.01 0.01
1958: 1 November3 November
AirAir
0.010.01
00
0.010.01
0.010.01
1961: 6 September6 October
27 October27 October
AirAirHigh atmosphereHigh atmosphere
0.0110.04
0.00120.0012
0000
0.0110.04
0.00120.0012
0.0110.037 0.003
0.00120.0012
1962: 22 October28 October1 November
High atmosphereHigh atmosphereHigh atmosphere
0.20.20.2
0.10.10.1
0.30.30.3
0.20.20.2
Note: The dates of tests have been reported as Greenwich Mean Time.
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 205
a Includes 22 safety tests of the United States, 12 safety tests of the United Kingdom, and 5 safety tests of France not listed inTable 1.
Table 2Atmospheric nuclear tests at each test site
Test site Number oftests
Yield (Mt) Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Stratosphere
China
Lop Nor 22 12.2 8.5 20.72 0.15 0.66 11.40
France
AlgeriaFangataufaMururoa
44
37
0.0731.974.13
01.772.25
0.0733.746.38
0.0360.060.13
0.0350.130.41
0.0011.783.59
Total 45 6.17 4.02 10.20 0.23 0.57 5.37
United Kingdom
Monte Bello IslandEmuMarilingaMalden IslandChristmas Island
32736
0.10.0180.0620.693.35
000
0.533.30
0.10.0180.0621.226.65
0.0500.0090.023
00
0.0490.0090.0380.561.09
0.000700
0.132.26
Total 21 4.22 3.83 8.05 0.07 1.76 2.39
United States
New MexicoJapan (combat use)NevadaBikiniEnewetakPacificAtlanticJohnston IslandChristmas Island
12
86234243
1224
0.0210.0361.0542.215.5
0.1020.0045
10.512.1
000
34.616.1
00
10.311.2
0.0210.0361.0576.831.7
0.1020.0045
20.823.3
0.0110
0.2820.37.63
0.025000
0.0100.0360.771.072.02
0.0270
0.713.62
00
0.00420.85.85
0.0500.0059.768.45
Total 197 81.5 72.2 153.8 28.2 8.27 44.9
USSR
SemipalatinskNovaya ZemlyaTotsk, AralskKapustin Yar
116912
10
3.7480.8
0.0400.68
2.85158.8
00.30
6.59239.60.0400.98
0.0970.036
00
1.232.93
0.0370.078
2.4177.8
0.0030.61
Total 219 85.3 162.0 247.3 0.13 4.28 80.8
All countries
Total 543 a 189 251 440 29 16 145
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION206
a Estimated from measured stratospheric inventories [L7, L8] and global deposition [F7].b Fission yield arbitrarily adjusted to obtain agreement with reported total fission yields for test series: 1952�1954 = 37 Mt (36 Mt from >1 Mt events),
1956 = 9 Mt (8 Mt from >1 Mt events), 1957�1958 = 19 Mt (14 Mt from >1 Mt events) [D7].c Officially reported value [M2].d Reported yield: >10 Mt.e Reported yield: 1.5�10 Mt.
Table 3Estimated fission and fusion yields of atmospheric nuclear tests of total yields equal to or greater than 4 Mt
Date Designation Type of test Test siteYield (Mt)
Fission Fusion Total
China
17 November 1976 Air Lop Nor 2.2 a 1.8 4
United States
28 February 19544 May 195426 March 195431 October 195212 July 195828 June 195830 October 196227 June 196225 April 195420 July 195610 July 1956
BravoYankeeRomeoMikePoplarOakHousatonicBighornUnionTewaNavaho
SurfaceBargeBargeSurfaceBargeBargeAir dropAir dropBargeBargeBarge
BikiniBikiniBikiniEnewetakBikiniEnewetakJohnston IslandChristmas IslandBikiniBikiniBikini
9.0 b
9.0 b
7.3 b
5.7 b
3.2 b
3.0 b
4.153.834.6 b
2.3 b
1.5 b
6.04.53.75.76.15.94.153.822.32.73.0
1513.511
10.49.38.98.37.656.95
4.5
USSR
30 October 196124 December 19625 August 196225 September 196227 September 196223 October 196122 October 196231 October 196127 August 19624 October 19616 October 196125 August 196219 September 1962
Test 130Test 219Test 147Test 173Test 174Test 123Test 183Test 131Test 160Test 113Test 114Test 158Test 168
AirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAirAir
Novaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya ZemlyaNovaya Zemlya
1.5 c
8.077.036.378.074.174.12.52.12222
48.516.1314.0712.7316.138.334.12.52.12222
5024.221.119.1
24.2 d
12.58.25
4.24 e
44 c
4 c
Total
25 tests 106 183 289
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 207
a Includes two cases of military combat use in Japan.b Total includes additional 39 safety tests: 22 by the United States, 12 by the United Kingdom, and 5 by France.c Inferred from 90Sr measurements. Since radioactive decay of 2%�3% occurred prior to deposition of 90Sr, the estimated dispersed amount (injection
into atmosphere) would also be about 160 Mt.
Table 4Annual fission and fusion yields of nuclear tests and atmospheric partitioning, all countries
Year Number oftests
Yield (Mt) Partitioned fission yield (Mt)
Fission Fusion TotalLocal andregional
Troposphere Fission
194519461947194819491950195119521953195419551956195719581959196019611962196319641965196619671968196919701971197219731974197519761977197819791980
3 a
2
31
1811181620324691
359118
11856196568
312
1
0.0570.042
0.100.022
0.516.080.3530.91.1810.05.2526.5
0.07218.271.8
0.020.040.941.884.161.93.380.840.131.420.75
2.320.020.04
0.5
00
00
0.084.950.3617.40.8812.94.3730.3
068.398.5
00
0.201.303.441.12.400.62
01.10.46
1.800
0.1
0.0570.042
0.100.022
0.5911.00.7148.32.0622.99.6456.8
0.07286.5
170.4
0.020.041.143.187.60
35.781.460.132.521.21
4.120.020.04
0.6
0.0110.011
0.0530.011
0.182.89
0.09915.40.103.680.145.86
0.0360.0110.052
0.0100
0.280.011
000
0.01000
0.010
0.02
0
0.0460.031
0.0510.011
0.320.280.240.310.220.991.613.31
0.0351.155.77
0.0100.0370.41
0.0460
0.0950.0570.11
0.0210.19
0.090.020.02
0.11
00
00
0.0142.91
0.01315.20.865.313.5017.3
0.000917.166.0
00.0030.251.824.161.903.280.770.021.400.56
2.2200
0.39
TotalTotal 543 b 189 251 440 29 16 145
Total worldwide dispersion (troposphere and stratosphere) 160.5
Total measured global deposition 155 c
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION208
a Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <17 km, lower stratosphere 17�24 km, upper stratosphere 24�50 km.b Atmospheric heights: Troposphere <9 km, lower stratosphere 9�17 km, upper stratosphere 17�50 km.
Table 5Empirical estimates of the partitioning of yields from atmospheric tests into the troposphere and stratosphere[P1]
Totalyield(Mt)
Partitioned yield (Mt)
Equatorial airburst a (0��30� latitude) Polar airburst b (30��90� latitude)
TroposphereLower
stratosphereUpper
stratosphereTroposphere
Lowerstratosphere
Upperstratosphere
0.030.050.070.10.20.30.50.712357
10203050
0.030.0490.0680.0970.180.260.400.520.650.550.240.02
00.0010.0020.0030.020.040.100.180.351.452.764.434.975.253.002.10.5
0.552.034.7517.027.949.5
0.0290.0450.060.080.140.170.160.080.01
0.0010.0050.010.020.060.130.340.620.991.61.450.950.560.06
0.41.554.056.449.94203050
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 209
a Yields were partitioned according to values of Table 5. For sites at temperate locations (30��60� latitude) and yields of 1�4 Mt, input to the upperstratospheric region was reduced by one half, essentially averaging equatorial and polar partitioning assumptions; polar partitioning was maintainedfor the tropospheric portion. For tests in June, July, and August, inputs from temperate sites were assumed to be to the equatorial atmosphere and fromall other months to the polar atmosphere. Partitioning from equatorial sites (Christmas Island and high altitude tests at Johnston Island) were assumedequally divided between the northern and southern hemispheres.
Table 6Estimated annual injections of nuclear debris into atmospheric regions a
Year
Fission energy (Mt)
High equatorialatmosphere
Polar stratospherenorth
Equatorialstratosphere north
Equatorialstratosphere south
TroposphereTotal
North South Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower North South
194519461947194819491950195119521953195419551956195719581959196019611962196319641965196619671968196919701971197219731974197519761977197819791980
0.341.93
0.0021.28
1.90
0.62
0.096
0.801.58
11.041.5
0.780.980.98
1.46
0.004
0.0110.760.441.466.05
6.149.48
0.0030.13
0.730.920.92
0.02
0.76
0.39
1.35
7.95
0.27
1.30
1.91
0.44
0.25
0.0101.55
0.0137.26
4.610.483.70
0.0009
7.02
1.26
1.150.24
0.63
1.09
0.00070.430.84
3.58
0.120.121.56
1.380.77
0.32
0.0460.031
0.0510.011
0.320.270.230.310.220.940.872.92
0.0351.153.96
0.0100.0370.19
0.020
0.0100.10
0.065
0.0900.0200.020
0.11
0.0130.009
0.0530.740.39
1.81
0.210.026
0.0950.0470.0110.0210.12
0.0460.031
0.0510.011
0.333.190.2515.51.086.305.1120.6
0.03618.2571.8
0.0100.0400.661.874.161.903.380.830.131.420.75
2.310.020.02
0.5
TotalNorthSouth
3.842.52
59.2 28.2 13.5 27.31.72 9.12
12.13.55
14416.9
Global 6.36 139 15.6 161
Tab
le7
An
nu
alco
nce
ntr
atio
ns
inai
ran
dd
epo
siti
on
amo
un
tso
f90
Sr
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Ave
rage
annu
alco
ncen
trat
ion
inai
rof
mid
-lat
itude
s(m
Bq
m-3
)A
nnua
lhem
isph
eric
depo
sitio
n(P
Bq)
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sit(
PB
q)
Nor
ther
nhe
mis
pher
eSo
uthe
rnhe
mis
pher
eN
orth
ern
hem
isph
ere
Sout
hern
hem
isph
ere
Nor
thSo
uth
Tota
l
Cal
cula
ted
aM
easu
red
bC
alcu
late
da
Mea
sure
dc
Cal
cula
ted
aM
easu
red
dC
alcu
late
da
Mea
sure
dd
Mea
sure
de
Mea
sure
de
Mea
sure
de
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
0.00
20.
002
-f
0.00
20.
001
-0.
014
0.01
40.
061
0.16
0.24
0.22
0.22
0.36
0.33
0.14
0.14
0.67
1.41
0.87
0.40
0.18
0.08
60.
062
0.07
80.
088
0.09
00.
051
0.02
60.
037
0.02
00.
014
0.05
20.
031
0.01
40.
011
0.01
5
0.23
0.48
0.72
0.15
0.17
0.99
2.17
1.25
0.45
0.19
0.07
50.
098
0.07
00.
120.
110.
035
0.01
80.
056
0.03
20.
011
0.03
20.
035
0.01
10.
008
0.01
9
- - - - - - -0.
001
0.00
90.
053
0.05
50.
057
0.07
20.
081
0.06
10.
043
0.03
00.
185
0.13
90.
109
0.07
30.
054
0.03
60.
041
0.05
10.
056
0.04
90.
029
0.01
80.
020
0.01
20.
006
0.00
30.
003
0.00
20.
001
0.00
1
0.11
0.07
40.
056
0.07
50.
110.
160.
180.
160.
085
0.05
00.
046
0.08
90.
066
0.07
80.
053
0.02
40.
018
0.01
90.
007
0.00
30.
002
0.00
20.
003
0.00
2
0.01
70.
130.
000.
200.
04 -1.
161.
185.
0013
.019
.417
.917
.629
.427
.211
.311
.554
.611
571
.232
.914
.67.
005.
116.
347.
187.
374.
152.
173.
061.
671.
144.
252.
501.
110.
911.
23
23.3
38.9
9.69
13.0
53.4
97.0
61.3
28.6
12.1
6.24
7.22
5.45
7.62
6.97
3.19
1.18
4.46
2.16
1.00
3.01
3.70
1.16
1.11
1.85
- - - - - - -0.
050.
714.
384.
554.
706.
346.
734.
823.
522.
4915
.211
.58.
976.
024.
482.
993.
404.
204.
604.
042.
401.
461.
680.
990.
460.
270.
210.
150.
090.
07
9.45
6.84
6.22
6.44
9.75
11.4
15.6
13.2
7.66
4.07
3.76
5.21
4.74
5.56
3.55
1.13
1.45
1.27
0.77
0.81
0.67
0.39
0.39
0.29
0.17
0.29
0.29
0.47
0.50
0.49
1.61
2.72
7.52
20.1
38.5
55.0
70.9
92.2
128
135
145
194
285
339
359
362
360
358
355
354
353
347
340
336
331
324
319
315
308
302
297
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.75
5.02
9.35
13.7
19.6
28.5
34.5
39.9
45.3
53.8
63.8
77.7
88.9
94.3
96.1
97.5
100
103
106
107
105
104
103
101
100
97.8
95.8
93.9
92.0
0.17
0.29
0.29
0.47
0.50
0.49
1.61
2.77
8.27
25.1
47.8
68.7
90.4
121
163
175
190
248
349
416
448
457
456
456
455
457
458
454
445
441
433
425
418
413
404
396
387
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION210
Tab
le7
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ave
rage
annu
alco
ncen
trat
ion
inai
rof
mid
-lat
itude
s(m
Bq
m-3
)A
nnua
lhem
isph
eric
depo
sitio
n(P
Bq)
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sit(
PB
q)
Nor
ther
nhe
mis
pher
eSo
uthe
rnhe
mis
pher
eN
orth
ern
hem
isph
ere
Sout
hern
hem
isph
ere
Nor
thSo
uth
Tota
l
Cal
cula
ted
aM
easu
red
bC
alcu
late
da
Mea
sure
dc
Cal
cula
ted
aM
easu
red
dC
alcu
late
da
Mea
sure
dd
Mea
sure
de
Mea
sure
de
Mea
sure
de
aA
nnua
lave
rage
ofm
onth
lyca
lcul
ated
valu
e.b
Ave
rage
ofm
easu
rem
ents
perf
orm
edm
onth
lyat
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.,an
dM
iam
i(19
57-1
962)
,atN
ewY
ork
City
,Mia
mi,
and
Ster
ling,
Vir
gini
a(1
963-
1973
)an
dat
New
Yor
kC
ityan
dM
iam
i(19
74-1
963)
[F4,
L6]
.c
Ave
rage
ofm
easu
rem
ents
perf
orm
edm
onth
lyat
Ant
ofag
asta
and
Sant
iago
,Chi
le(1
958-
1976
)an
dat
Lim
a,Pe
ruan
dSa
ntia
go,C
hile
(197
7-19
83)
[F4,
L6]
.d
Mea
sure
din
glob
alm
onito
ring
netw
ork
[L9,
V2]
.e
Cal
cula
ted
from
deca
yed
mon
thly
mea
sure
dde
posi
tion;
prio
rto
1958
only
calc
ulat
edm
onth
lyde
posi
tion
valu
esar
eav
aila
ble.
fL
ess
than
0.00
1m
Bq
m-3
or0.
001
PBq.
gM
easu
red
valu
esin
clud
edpr
efer
entia
llyin
tota
l.h
Prev
ious
lyde
rive
dva
lue
base
don
mea
sure
dcu
mul
ativ
ede
posi
tion
prio
rto
1958
[U6]
.
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
0.00
30.
002
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
50.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
2-
0.30
0.09
0.04
0.01
30.
005
0.00
20.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - -
0.47
0.33
0.27
0.07
8
0.05
50.
033
0.01
70.
008
0.00
40.
002
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.22
0.19
0.11
0.05
2
289
283
276
269
263
256
250
244
238
233
227
222
216
211
206
201
196
192
187
90.3
88.2
86.1
84.0
82.0
80.0
78.1
76.2
74.4
72.6
70.9
69.2
67.5
65.9
64.3
62.8
61.3
59.8
58.4
379
370
362
353
344
336
328
320
313
305
298
291
284
277
270
264
258
251
245
Tot
alg
6.1
mB
qa
m-3
8.9
mB
qa
m-3
1.3
mB
qa
m-3
1.7
mB
qa
m-3
499
PBq
470
PBq
460
PBq
h11
1PB
q14
2PB
q14
4PB
qh
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 211
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION212
a Distributions valid only for long-lived radionuclides where majority of fallout is from debris originally injected into the stratosphere.b Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 4.0 used for radionuclides with half-lives less than 100 d to reflect greater proportion of fallout from
debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.c Valid only for long-lived radionuclides. Value of 6.7 and 5.7 used for nuclides with half-lives less than 30 d and 30�100 d, respectively, to reflect
greater proportion of fallout from debris injected into the troposphere at low latitudes.
Table 8Latitudinal distribution of radionuclide deposition from atmospheric nuclear testing based onmeasurements of 90Sr a
Latitudeband
(degrees)
Areaof band
(1012 m2)
Populationdistribution
(%)
Integrateddeposition
of 90Sr(PBq)
Fractionaldeposition
in band
Depositiondensity per unit
deposition(Bq m-2 per PBq)
Latitudinalvalue relativeto hemispheric
value
Northern hemisphere
80�9070�8060�7050�6040�5030�4020�3010�200�10
3.911.618.925.631.536.440.242.844.1
00
0.413.715.520.432.7116.3
17.932.973.9
101.685.371.250.935.7
0.0020.0170.0710.1610.2210.1850.1550.1110.078
0.561.483.786.277.015.093.852.581.76
0.120.320.811.351.511.090.830.560.38
Total 255 100 460 1.0
Population-weighted value b 4.65 1.00
Southern hemisphere
80�9070�8060�7050�6040�5030�4020�3010�200�10
3.911.618.925.631.536.440.242.844.1
000
0.50.913
14.916.754
0.32.56.712.128.127.628.117.821
0.0020.0170.0460.0840.1950.1910.1950.1230.146
0.531.502.463.286.195.264.852.893.30
0.140.400.660.881.651.401.290.770.88
Total 255 100 144 1.0
Population-weighted value c 3.74 1.00
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 213
a For fission products, the value is 1.45 1026 fissions per Mt times the fission yield times the decay constant (ln2 / half-life) divided by 3.15 107 s a-1.b Corresponds to total globally dispersed fission energy of atmospheric tests of 160.5 Mt or fusion energy of 250.6 Mt (excludes releases associated with
local and regional deposition).c Estimate of Miskel [M3].d Production per unit fusion energy of atmospheric tests.e Estimated from total production up to 1972 [U6] and present data on fusion yields.f Because of mobility and half-lives of 3H and 14C, the release is associated with a total fusion energy of 251 Mt.g Estimated from ratios to 90Sr in global deposition.
Table 9Radionuclides produced and globally dispersed in atmospheric nuclear testing
Radionuclide Half-lifeFission yield
(%)Normalized production a
(PBq Mt-1)Global release b
(PBq)
3H14C
54Mn55Fe89Sr90Sr91Y95Zr
103Ru106Ru125Sb
131I140Ba141Ce144Ce137Cs239Pu240Pu241Pu
12.33 a5 730 a312.3 d2.73 a
50.53 d28.78 a58.51 d64.02 d39.26 d373.6 d2.76 a8.02 d
12.75 d32.50 d284.9 d30.07 a
24 110 a6 563 a14.35 a
3.173.503.765.075.202.440.402.905.184.584.695.57
740 c, d
0.85 c, e
15.9 c
6.1 c
7303.88748921
1 54076.04.62
4 2104 7301 6401915.90
186 000 f
213 f
3 9801 530
117 000622
120 000148 000247 00012 200
741675 000759 000263 00030 700
9486.52 g
4.35 g
142 g
Tab
le10
An
nu
ald
epo
siti
on
of
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
13.7
9.82 -b
15.9
3.34 -
96.5
90.5
69.5
144
70.1
303
278
961
0.25
10.4
395
126
040
.73.
0411
.046
.518
.52.
9911
.45.
883.
1330
.32.
4020
.2 -34
.06.
705.
530.
4735
.60.
023
- - - - -
24.3
17.2 -
28.0
5.95 -
171
165
129
322
127
556
511
178
05.
3118
.474
02
320
124
5.39
19.7
81.9
37.1
6.61
33.7
16.8
6.27
54.5
6.84
36.6
0.01
63.0
15.3
9.23
1.45
65.4
0.52 - - - - -
15.8
10.3 -
10.1
2.15
0.01
88.8
107
98.3
240
71.5
300
412
111
079
.16.
6659
31
960
435
2.07
14.5
60.4
38.7
7.85
68.9
33.4
18.0
41.1
13.4
29.4
0.58
45.2
36.5
3.04
0.91
49.7
6.87
0.00
05 - - - -
18.2
12.6
0.01
120
.64.
400.
028
124
123
143
437
97.8
489
434
155
012
813
.761
92
110
627
4.76
15.0
62.4
43.7
9.97
85.9
43.5
29.5
43.3
16.5
32.1
1.09
48.2
49.4
6.10
2.00
51.0
10.4
0.00
3- - - -
9.23
6.39
0.01
110
.52.
230.
023
62.7
62.4
84.4
253
55.5
263
234
822
109
7.19
319
116
050
14.
857.
7132
.125
.37.
3755
.830
.724
.022
.710
.418
.61.
1424
.435
.63.
191.
0825
.98.
190.
011
- - - -
11.9
8.24
0.01
913
.52.
860.
038
80.5
80.2
119
350
80.4
350
314
1089
182
9.84
414
158
082
511
.710
.041
.635
.112
.282
.147
.839
.730
.115
.026
.62.
1231
.355
.44.
381.
4533
.313
.20.
038
0.00
02 - - -
14.0
9.19
0.02
38.
911.
890.
028
76.8
92.3
118
284
79.6
322
421
113
626
47.
8454
72
160
127
021
.613
.355
.248
.418
.811
770
.959
.140
.221
.237
.73.
4639
.581
.63.
700.
9843
.919
.80.
083
0.00
05 - - -
6.95
4.70
0.05
04.
480.
930.
040
37.1
45.0
103
231
193
263
355
791
572
97.5
297
179
02
820
791
162
57.3
45.2
59.1
143
145
142
54.9
26.1
62.1
20.2
22.6
122
32.2
6.40
22.2
32.1
3.04
0.37
0.05
10.
0074
0.00
11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.24
2.39
5.80
12.1
9.13
21.1
25.0
57.7
52.3
9.85
19.0
299
408
131
27.9
6.44
3.08
3.83
11.0
8.54
7.88
2.25
1.74
4.55
1.52
0.61
8.24
2.34
0.48
0.42
0.58
0.12
00.
025
0.00
500.
0010
0.00
01
3.19
2.28
0.02
93.
670.
760.
035
21.2
21.4
72.4
183
182
178
186
417
299
65.2
130
777
131
044
711
035
.822
.429
.064
.468
.868
.428
.112
.929
.110
.710
.454
.417
.94.
389.
4714
.41.
690.
250.
043
0.00
80.
002
0.20
0.15
0.00
20.
240.
049
0.00
31.
351.
375.
3513
.717
.716
.116
.230
.526
.08.
6110
.557
.311
256
.520
.97.
773.
553.
265.
466.
316.
463.
181.
512.
661.
260.
934.
292.
060.
740.
781.
180.
220.
054
0.01
40.
0039
0.00
11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.10
0.95
2.89
6.08
6.51
11.3
14.6
28.6
31.4
10.4
10.9
158
265
138
50.2
17.1
6.34
4.03
6.47
5.84
5.47
2.35
1.42
2.81
1.33
0.57
4.41
2.12
0.75
0.38
0.37
0.07
70.
019
0.00
540.
0015
0.00
04
0.18
0.13
0.00
20.
202
0.04
20.
002
1.16
1.18
5.00
13.0
19.4
17.9
17.6
23.3
38.9
9.69
13.0
53.4
97.0
61.3
28.6
12.1
6.24
7.22
5.45
7.62
6.97
3.19
1.18
4.46
2.16
1.00
3.01
3.70
1.16
1.11
1.65
0.47
0.33
0.27
0.07
80.
0053
0.26
0.19
0.00
30.
300.
062
0.00
41.
731.
777.
5019
.529
.126
.926
.534
.958
.414
.519
.580
.114
691
.942
.918
.29.
3610
.88.
1711
.410
.54.
781.
776.
693.
231.
504.
515.
551.
741.
672.
470.
71 0.5
0.41
0.12
0.00
81
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION214
Tab
le10
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
04 - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
03 - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
230.
0011
0.00
050.
0003
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - - -
0.00
350.
0016
0.00
080.
0005
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - -
Tot
al4
000
750
06
000
750
04
300
600
07
500
956
01
144
489
244
679
747
470
6
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
- - - - - -0.
004
4.33
3.07
1.39
0.00
0128
.225
114
70.
0007
0.00
000.
012
642
0.00
560.
0000
0.00
0174
.013
.914
.09
0.00
340
.521
.2
- - - - - -0.
024
7.72
5.41
9.48 -
62.5
442
273
0.04
50.
000
0.06
01
160
0.09
50.
000
0.00
113
030
.040
.80.
091
81.7
44.2
- - - - - -0.
043
2.73
2.16
24.5
10.
116
47.0
273
218
1.84
0.00
20.
1692
14.
870.
007
0.00
258
.335
.268
.94.
3388
.950
.6
- - - - - -0.
126.
045.
3173
.20.
7490
.434
327
84.
060.
010
0.21
21
060
11.2
0.04
00.
004
102
44.2
87.5
8.37
109
62.8
- - - - - -0.
077
2.99
3.37
51.5
1.23
50.8
172
150
4.27
0.03
50.
1355
413
.10.
140.
003
50.9
25.3
51.1
7.98
62.1
36.6
- - - - - -0.
124.
145.
6085
.13.
1575
.124
021
88.
850.
130.
1979
128
.00.
520.
010
70.6
37.8
76.9
15.5
92.7
55.8
- - - - - -0.
088
2.75
4.27
62.4
2.97
68.8
282
270
12.9
0.28
0.27
107
047
.51.
210.
027
60.1
50.9
107
24.9
129
78.5
- - - - - -0.
071
1.12
8.88
66.5
33.2
53.0
140
169
61.4
22.4
7.79
550
206
74.0
22.1
30.8
34.6
75.8
74.5
102
81.2
- - - - - -0.
003
0.00
90.
613.
211.
695.
1310
.515
.06.
242.
420.
8843
.122
.89.
963.
401.
781.
423.
424.
846.
735.
50
- - - - - -0.
061
0.92
8.19
59.0
35.1
39.0
73.0
82.4
37.4
16.0
6.39
231
102
44.2
16.0
20.8
16.3
33.2
36.2
46.2
37.9
- - - - - -0.
004
0.05
90.
704.
553.
893.
925.
916.
484.
002.
461.
4316
.110
.16.
413.
472.
661.
782.
743.
494.
043.
48
- - - - - -0.
001
0.00
40.
373
1.72
1.44
2.85
5.39
7.58
4.78
3.01
1.80
20.2
17.0
12.3
7.04
3.76
2.02
2.25
3.40
4.16
3.68
- - - - - -0.
004
0.05
10.
714.
384.
554.
706.
349.
456.
846.
226.
449.
7511
.415
.613
.27.
664.
073.
765.
214.
745.
56
- - - - - -0.
006
0.07
71.
065
6.57
6.83
7.05
9.51
14.2
10.3
9.34
9.66
14.6
17.1
23.4
19.8
11.5
6.11
5.65
7.82
7.11
8.34
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 215
Tab
le10
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
3.58
11.0
44.5
0.00
050.
0003
0.00
000.
0000
0.00
000.
0007 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6.22
23.4
82.1
0.02
90.
001
- - -0.
003
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
5.37
25.0
66.4
1.03
0.00
10.
041
- -0.
005
0.01
0- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
6.95
30.0
76.1
1.89
0.00
30.
110.
001
0.00
00.
006
0.02
4
- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - -
4.57
16.4
39.6
1.69
0.00
60.
135
0.00
40.
000
0.00
30.
032
0.00
23 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7.65
23.9
56.4
3.16
0.02
10.
300.
015
0.00
00.
005
0.07
10.
0068 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
11.5
32.7
76.1
5.00
0.04
80.
510.
033
0.00
10.
007
0.12
0.14
0.00
03 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
30.8
22.9
43.7
14.6
2.80
2.25
1.45
0.54
0.15
0.56
0.35
0.11
0.02
60.
0005
0.00
090.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -
2.25
1.37
1.37
0.77
0.17
0.16
0.11
0.04
50.
014
0.01
30.
0078
0.00
260.
0006
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
15.8
10.7
19.1
7.31
1.73
1.21
0.86
0.38
0.13
0.29
0.19
0.07
50.
021
0.00
500.
0012
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.81
1.09
1.52
0.78
0.28
0.17
0.13
0.08
0.04
00.
039
0.02
90.
015
0.00
620.
0022
0.00
080.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.95
1.06
0.92
0.64
0.25
0.16
0.14
0.08
0.04
20.
024
0.01
30.
0060
0.00
230.
0008
0.00
030.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -
3.55
1.13
1.45
1.27
0.77
0.81
0.67
0.39
0.39
0.29
0.22
0.19
0.11
0.05
20.
0036
0.00
170.
0008
0.00
040.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - - - -
5.32
1.70
2.17
1.90
1.15
1.22
1.01
0.59
0.59
0.43
0.33
0.28
0.17
0.07
70.
0055
0.00
260.
0012
0.00
060.
0004
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - - -
Tot
al1
300
240
01
900
240
01
300
190
02
400
193
415
599
894
110
142
213
Wo
rld
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
13.6
9.82 -
15.9
3.34 -
96.5
94.9
72.6
145
70.1
331
24.3
17.2 -
28.0
5.95 -
171
172
134
331
127
618
15.8
10.3
0.00
410
.02.
150.
009
88.8
109
100
265
71.6
347
18.2
12.6
0.01
120
.64.
400.
028
125
129
149
510
98.5
579
9.23
6.39
0.01
110
.42.
230.
023
62.8
65.4
87.8
304
56.8
314
11.9
8.24
0.01
913
.52.
860.
038
80.7
84.4
125
435
83.6
426
14.0
9.20
0.02
38.
911.
890.
028
76.9
95.0
122
346
82.5
391
6.95
4.70
0.05
04.
480.
930.
040
37.1
46.1
112
298
227
317
0 0 0 0 0 00.
252.
406.
4115
.310
.826
.3
3.19
2.28
0.02
93.
670.
760.
035
21.2
22.3
80.5
242
217
217
0.20
0.15
0.00
20.
240.
049
0.00
31.
351.
436.
0618
.321
.620
.0
0 0 0 0 0 00.
100.
963.
267.
807.
9514
.1
0.18
0.13
0.00
20.
200.
042
0.00
21.
161.
235.
7117
.424
.022
.6
0.26
0.19
0.00
30.
300.
062
0.00
41.
741.
848.
5726
.135
.933
.9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION216
Tab
le10
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ann
uald
epos
ition
(PB
q)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
aD
eriv
edfr
omes
timat
edfi
ssio
n/fu
sion
yiel
dsof
test
sw
ithat
mos
pher
icm
odel
.Mea
sure
dre
sults
used
pref
eren
tially
for
90Sr
and
137 C
sdu
ring
1958
-198
5.M
odel
valu
esfo
r13
1 I,14
4 Ba,
141 C
e,10
3 Ru,
89Sr
,91Y
,and
95Z
rno
rmal
ized
toto
talh
emis
pher
icde
posi
tion
estim
ated
from
avai
labl
em
easu
rem
ents
.Lat
itudi
nald
istr
ibut
ions
for
long
-liv
edra
dion
uclid
esm
aybe
estim
ated
byus
eof
para
met
ers
inT
able
8.b
Indi
cate
ses
timat
edva
lue
less
than
0.00
01PB
q.
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
529
111
00.
2510
.439
51
900
40.7
3.04
11.0
121
32.4
17.1
11.4
46.4
24.4
33.9
13.4
64.7
0.00
134
.06.
715.
530.
4735
.60.
023
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
953
205
05.
3518
.474
03
470
124
5.39
19.7
212
67.1
47.5
33.8
98.5
50.5
60.7
30.2
119
0.03
963
.015
.39.
231.
4565
.40.
518
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
685
133
081
.06.
6759
32
880
440
2.07
14.5
119
73.9
76.8
73.2
122
68.6
46.5
38.4
95.8
1.61
45.2
36.5
3.04
0.92
49.7
6.88 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
777
182
013
213
.761
93
170
638
4.80
15.0
165
87.9
97.5
94.3
153
92.4
50.2
46.4
108
2.98
48.2
49.5
6.10
2.00
51.0
10.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
406
972
113
7.23
319
172
051
44.
997.
7183
.050
.658
.563
.892
.860
.727
.326
.858
.22.
8224
.435
.83.
201.
0825
.98.
220.
013
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
554
131
019
19.
9841
42
370
853
12.2
10.0
112
72.9
89.1
97.5
141
95.4
37.7
39.0
82.9
5.28
31.3
55.7
4.39
1.45
33.3
13.3
0.04
5- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
702
141
027
78.
1254
83
220
131
022
.813
.311
599
.312
614
219
913
851
.754
.011
48.
4639
.682
.13.
730.
9843
.919
.90.
220.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
495
960
633
120
305
234
03
030
865
184
88.1
79.7
135
217
247
223
85.7
49.1
106
34.8
25.4
124
33.6
6.94
22.4
32.6
3.39
0.48
0.07
70.
008
0.00
20.
0003 - - - - - - - - - - - -
35.6
72.7
58.6
12.3
19.9
342
430
141
31.3
8.22
4.50
7.24
15.9
15.3
13.4
4.49
3.11
5.92
2.29
0.79
8.40
2.46
0.53
0.44
0.59
0.12
0.02
60.
005
0.00
10.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
259
500
336
81.3
136
101
01
420
491
126
56.5
38.7
62.1
101
115
106
43.9
23.7
48.2
18.0
12.1
55.6
18.8
4.77
9.60
14.7
1.88
0.33
0.06
40.
013
0.00
30.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - - -
22.1
37.0
37.0
11.1
11.9
73.4
122
63.0
24.3
10.5
5.33
6.00
8.95
10.4
9.94
4.99
2.60
4.18
2.04
1.21
4.45
2.19
0.82
0.82
1.22
0.25
0.07
0.02
0.00
60.
002
0.00
050.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - -
20.0
36.2
36.2
13.4
12.7
178
282
150
57.3
20.9
8.36
6.28
9.87
9.99
9.15
4.30
2.48
3.73
1.98
0.81
4.58
2.26
0.84
0.42
0.39
0.09
00.
025
0.00
80.
002
0.00
10.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - -
24.0
32.7
45.8
15.9
19.4
63.2
108
76.9
41.8
19.8
10.3
11.0
10.7
12.4
12.5
6.74
2.31
5.91
3.42
1.77
3.82
4.37
1.55
1.50
1.93
0.69
0.52
0.39
0.13
0.00
890.
0039
0.00
190.
0010
0.00
050.
0003
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - -
36.0
49.1
68.6
23.9
29.2
94.8
163
115
62.7
29.7
15.5
16.5
16.0
18.5
18.8
10.1
3.47
8.86
5.13
2.66
5.73
6.56
2.33
2.25
2.90
1.04
0.78
0.58
0.19
0.01
40.
0060
0.00
290.
0015
0.00
080.
0005
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - -
Tot
al5
300
990
07
900
990
05
600
790
09
900
1149
41
299
589
054
090
761
291
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 217
Tab
le11
Po
pu
lati
on
-wei
gh
ted
cum
ula
tive
dep
osi
tio
nd
ensi
tyo
fra
dio
nu
clid
esp
rod
uce
din
atm
osp
her
icn
ucl
ear
test
ing
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1.73
1.17 -b
1.94
0.43 -
12.2
11.2
9.33
18.2
8.70
38.0
33.5
121
4.06
1.31
49.8
155
10.2
0.38
1.40
5.39
2.57
0.65
1.46
0.74
0.39
3.88
0.30
2.58
0.00
4.08
0.96
0.57
0.19
4.50
0.03 - - - - -
4.92
3.31 -
5.49
1.21 -
33.7
29.6
30.6
65.0
23.5
111
96.1
356
17.2
3.69
141
449
51.6
1.05
4.04
15.3
8.05
2.02
6.63
3.23
1.43
11.3
1.37
7.35
0.00
11.4
4.05
1.43
0.75
12.6
0.78 - - - - -
7.53
5.28
0.22
5.02
1.02
0.15
36.9
41.1
70.9
121
27.6
151
182
522
135
3.57
200
896
434
1.75
7.70
28.0
21.3
5.53
30.6
16.8
14.2
21.8
6.03
15.3
0.89
15.2
25.5
1.94
0.91
16.6
12.5
0.00
5- - - -
9.99
7.84
0.61
12.3
2.51
0.52
63.1
55.9
119
261
56.1
285
235
869
249
9.38
225
114
071
07.
1810
.134
.428
.78.
7845
.327
.125
.328
.38.
4020
.52.
0318
.340
.24.
312.
3218
.319
.90.
032
0.00
01 - - -
5.96
5.27
0.72
7.80
1.73
0.51
38.5
36.0
87.5
187
50.6
186
165
568
237
8.97
126
774
667
19.4
6.70
22.0
20.9
8.68
37.1
25.5
24.9
19.4
6.27
15.6
2.64
10.4
35.2
3.95
1.59
9.94
17.1
0.11
0.00
1- - -
8.33
7.99
1.43
11.3
2.76
0.91
54.7
53.6
139
289
96.0
276
261
845
429
20.0
169
118
01
200
60.8
10.7
32.1
33.0
16.7
62.1
46.6
46.0
30.4
10.0
25.9
5.58
14.3
60.6
7.85
2.48
13.2
29.1
0.39
0.00
5- - -
10.2
10.1
1.96
8.04
2.10
0.73
51.3
67.3
155
255
95.1
276
358
944
605
30.6
229
173
01
950
133
16.3
45.8
49.3
28.0
95.8
76.3
75.0
44.3
15.2
40.2
9.86
18.0
94.8
12.2
2.02
17.8
45.2
0.16
50.
0006 - - -
8.70
21.7
17.0
16.2
12.1
6.99
57.2
128
362
637
982
105
01
340
234
03
460
210
01
150
394
010
300
874
04
660
217
01
040
619
582
693
749
566
308
302
235
134
350
340
184
94.4
168
69.0
28.4
11.7
4.80
1.97
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.49
1.30
20.2
36.2
52.0
68.4
104
179
290
197
109
625
156
01
430
825
407
193
98.8
70.0
61.5
54.5
37.1
20.6
21.9
18.4
10.2
23.1
24.4
14.2
7.14
5.51
2.45
1.09
0.48
0.22
0.10
4.17
11.4
10.4
13.2
11.8
7.83
39.5
77.8
251
526
976
102
01
090
157
02
240
156
095
92
100
529
05
250
339
01
910
105
063
348
347
548
238
824
121
116
710
719
320
513
478
.710
050
.825
.713
.06.
583.
33
0.28
0.96
1.15
1.46
1.58
1.38
3.61
7.41 23
.52
.711
615
217
523
432
230
626
234
166
584
980
167
354
343
535
530
126
022
117
914
812
198
.688
.981
.668
.555
.148
.337
.429
.022
.517
.513
.6
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.23
0.69
11.5
25.8
48.7
71.1
106
172
280
288
253
548
139
01
890
181
01
530
123
097
277
762
951
241
232
626
321
316
814
212
410
180
.464
.249
.938
.730
.123
.418
.1
0.25
0.96
1.36
1.85
2.25
2.35
4.62
8.99
25.9
61.4
146
222
281
368
535
604
634
795
114
01
480
162
01
670
167
01
660
165
01
640
163
01
620
159
01
560
154
01
510
1480
1470
144
01
410
138
01
350
132
01
290
126
01
230
0.38
1.44
2.05
2.78
3.39
3.54
6.95
13.5
38.9
92.2
219
333
423
554
805
910
955
120
01
710
222
02
440
252
02
520
251
02
490
248
02
480
246
02
410
238
02
350
230
02
260
224
02
200
216
02
120
208
02
040
199
01
950
190
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION218
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
No
rth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.81
0.33
0.14
0.05
70.
023
0.01
00.
0039
0.00
160.
0007
0.00
030.
0001 - -
0.04
30.
019
0.00
840.
0038
0.00
170.
0007
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - -
1.68
0.85
0.43
0.22
0.11
0.05
60.
028
0.01
40.
0072
0.00
370.
0019
0.00
090.
0005
10.5
8.16
6.33
4.91
3.81
2.96
2.29
1.78
1.38
1.07
0.83
0.64
0.50
14.1
10.9
8.49
6.60
5.12
3.98
3.09
2.40
1.86
1.45
1.12
0.87
0.68
120
01
170
115
01
120
109
01
070
104
01
020
991
967
944
921
899
186
01
820
178
01
740
170
01
660
162
01
580
155
01
510
148
01
440
141
0
Tot
alc
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
510
152
03
080
466
03
440
556
07
590
5000
06
560
3330
00.
0003
816
01.
7514
600
2.3
5290
033
900
300
029
2
8100
055
300
555
062
0
1945
- �51
01
520
308
04
660
344
05
560
759
050
000
656
033
300
816
014
600
9000
014
200
0
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
- - - - - -0.
0009
0.92
0.65
0.30 -
5.97
50.1
31.5
0.85 -
0.00
213
50.
006
- - - - - -0.
008
2.53
1.83
3.29
0.00
120
.913
796
.13.
23 -0.
0238
90.
17
- - - - - -0.
029
1.44
1.70
17.3
1.09
31.4
163
169
25.1
0.01
70.
059
642
31.3
- - - - - -0.
095
3.47
5.09
59.6
7.01
69.4
248
253
51.2
0.13
0.08
086
178
.5
- - - - - -0.
073
1.89
4.03
49.5
11.6
46.0
155
170
50.4
0.57
0.05
554
199
.6
- - - - - -0.
122.
757.
4388
.829
.174
.124
628
110
1.1
2.26
0.12
847
221
- - - - - -0.
093
1.87
5.95
68.3
27.0
71.5
296
380
151
4.76
0.24
121
038
2
- - - - - -0.
072
0.76
11.5
85.9
175
168
289
484
540
314
165
717
129
0
- - - - - -0.
003
0.00
90.
664.
58 9.1
11.5
23.8
41.6
50.9
32.8
18.7
57.4
118
- - - - - -0.
064
0.66
10.8
81.4
186
188
232
320
358
248
155
364
672
- - - - - -0.
005
0.04
90.
977.
4221
.129
.036
.149
.058
.955
.549
.661
.894
.9
- - - - - -0.
001
0.00
60.
433.
128.
1912
.521
.537
.553
.353
.749
.966
.411
8
- - - - - -0.
004
0.04
71.
017.
9225
.441
.857
.084
.511
713
715
618
521
9
- - - - - -0.
007
0.07
01.
5111
.938
.162
.885
.712
717
720
623
527
833
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 219
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
So
uth
ern
hem
isp
her
e(c
ontin
ued)
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- -15
.62.
962.
990.
008.
594.
540.
732.
339.
460.
0014 - - - -
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- -43
.110
.713
.60.
2527
.615
.02.
087.
8627
.70.
120
- - - -0.
001
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.06
70.
002
35.2
31.4
39.8
15.1
58.6
38.9
8.12
17.0
44.1
6.84
0.00
50.
028
0.00
2-
0.00
20.
009
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.46
0.00
4167
.257
.857
.031
.281
.660
.715
.323
.558
.613
.90.
036
0.08
40.
011
0.00
00.
002
0.02
3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.84
0.02
337
.943
.439
.332
.353
.848
.315
.315
.336
.913
.90.
150.
130.
033
0.00
060.
0011
0.03
3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
7.16
0.16
56.0
74.9
65.4
65.2
86.9
87.7
31.0
24.7
58.6
27.7
0.57
0.31
0.11
0.00
360.
0017
0.07
800.
0010 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
17.0
0.52
51.6
88.4
96.8
107
127
137
51.7
36.0
84.7
45.3
1.33
0.56
0.24
0.01
130.
0026
0.14
000.
0005 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
867
470
245
188
178
313
305
375
306
180
147
150
79.9
37.8
20.4
11.0
5.32
2.93
1.20
0.50
0.20
0.08
40.
035
0.01
40.
0058
0.00
240.
0010
0.00
040.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - -
94.5
58.9
32.4
18.2
12.4
18.7
20.3
26.7
22.8
13.9
9.49
7.49
4.42
2.31
1.40
0.83
0.44
0.23
0.10
0.04
50.
020
0.00
890.
0040
0.00
180.
0008
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
01 - - - - - - - -
539
353
218
167
134
186
187
220
191
127
99 95 59.1
33.2
19.7
11.8
6.63
3.83
1.94
0.98
0.50
0.25
0.13
0.06
40.
033
0.01
70.
0083
0.00
420.
0021
0.00
110.
0005
0.00
030.
0001 - - -
102
95.9
83.9
730
62.5
60.4
57.8
58.3
54.8
46.9
40.2
35.8
29.5
23.6
18.8
14.9
11.8
9.26
7.19
5.57
4.32
3.36
2.60
2.02
1.57
1.22
0.94
0.73
0.57
0.44
0.34
0.27
0.21
0.16
0.12
0.10
142
144
130
110
91.5
81.3
74.1
71.8
65.9
55.8
46.4
39.0
31.8
25.3
20.1
16.0
12.7
9.93
7.71
5.99
4.65
3.61
2.80
2.18
1.69
1.31
1.02
0.79
0.61
0.48
0.37
0.29
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.10
262
313
341
355
359
368
377
388
396
395
389
386
380
374
368
361
353
346
339
331
324
317
309
302
294
287
281
274
267
261
255
249
243
237
231
226
394
472
514
536
542
557
571
587
601
599
591
587
578
570
561
551
541
530
520
509
498
487
476
466
455
445
435
425
415
406
396
387
379
370
362
353
Tot
alc
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
273
808
138
02
100
147
02
490
713
08
120
714
547
01
380
0.40
163
00.
3012
600
848
075
273
1920
013
400
139
015
5
1945
- �27
380
81
380
210
01
470
249
07
130
812
071
45
470
138
01
630
2190
035
000
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION220
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Wo
rld
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1.54
1.04 -
1.73
0.38 -
10.9
10.0
8.38
16.3
7.74
34.5
35.3
111
3.71
1.17
44.3
153
9.11
0.34
1.25
6.51
2.62
0.91
1.30
1.60
0.84
3.53
0.52
3.34
0.00
3.63
0.86
0.51
0.17
4.00
0.02
9- - - - -
4.38
2.94 -
4.89
1.07 -
30.0
26.6
27.4
58.2
20.9
101
101
327
15.7
3.29
125
443
45.9
0.93
3.60
18.4
8.34
3.29
5.93
5.91
2.92
10.3
2.08
9.59
0.02
10.1
3.61
1.27
0.67
11.2
0.70 - - - - -
6.70
4.70
0.20
4.47
0.91
0.13
32.9
36.8
63.3
110
24.7
138
180
483
123
3.18
178
868
390
1.56
6.86
28.8
22.5
9.30
28.9
21.4
17.0
20.3
7.24
18.5
1.54
13.6
22.7
1.73
0.81
14.8
11.2
0.00
46 - - - -
8.89
6.98
0.54
10.9
2.24
0.47
56.1
50.1
107
239
50.7
261
236
802
228
8.36
200
111
064
16.
448.
9538
.031
.914
.143
.833
.129
.226
.910
.124
.73.
3316
.335
.83.
842.
0616
.217
.70.
0280 - - - -
5.31
4.69
0.64
6.94
1.54
0.45
34.2
32.3
78.3
172
46.3
171
164
525
216
8.05
112
748
604
17.5
5.97
23.7
23.4
12.1
36.5
28.6
27.5
19.0
7.26
17.9
3.89
9.29
31.3
3.51
1.41
8.84
15.3
0.10
20.
0007 - - -
7.41
7.11
1.27
10.1
2.45
0.81
48.7
48.0
124
267
88.7
254
259
782
393
18.0
151
114
01
090
54.9
9.58
34.8
37.6
22.0
62.4
51.1
50.6
30.4
11.7
29.5
8.01
12.8
54.0
7.00
2.21
11.8
25.9
0.34
0.00
45 - - -
9.06
8.99
1.74
7.15
1.87
0.65
45.7
60.1
139
234
87.6
253
352
882
555
27.8
204
167
01
770
120
14.6
46.4
53.6
35.6
97.1
81.9
81.9
45.2
17.5
45.1
13.8
16.2
84.5
10.9
1.79
15.8
40.3
0.15
0.00
05 - - -
7.74
19.3
15.1
14.4
10.8
6.22
50.9
114
323
576
893
949
123
02
130
314
01
900
104
03
590
929
07
870
420
01
960
942
570
553
650
708
538
294
285
225
128
316
305
165
84.6
150
61.5
25.3
10.4
4.28
1.76
- - - - - -0.
441.
1618
.032
.747
.262
.295
.016
426
317
999
.556
21
400
128
074
136
617
489
.364
.357
.051
.435
.519
.920
.617
.29.
5920
.821
.912
.76.
414.
922.
190.
970.
430.
190.
086
3.71
10.1
9.24
11.7
10.5
6.97
35.2
69.3
224
477
889
926
992
142
82
030
142
087
11
900
478
04
730
306
01
720
954
578
450
444
453
366
229
198
159
102
176
185
121
70.8
89.7
45.4
23.0
11.6
5.88
2.98
0.25
0.85
1.03
1.30
1.40
1.23
3.22
6.60
20.7
47.7
106
139
160
214
293
278
239
311
602
767
723
608
491
394
323
274
238
202
164
137
113
91.0
81.7
74.7
62.6
50.3
44.0
34.1
26.5
20.5
15.9
12.4
- - - - - -0.
210.
6110
.323
.344
.364
.696
.715
725
526
223
049
51
250
169
016
301
370
110
087
570
056
846
337
429
623
919
415
312
911
291
.872
.958
.345
.335
.127
.321
.216
.5
0.22
0.86
1.21
1.65
2.01
2.09
4.11
8.01
23.2
55.5
133
202
257
337
489
553
581
728
104
01
340
148
01
520
152
01
520
151
01
500
150
01
480
146
01
430
141
01
380
136
01
340
132
01
290
127
01
240
121
01
190
116
01
130
0.33
1.28
1.82
2.47
3.02
3.15
6.19
12.0
34.8
83.4
199
304
386
507
736
833
876
110
01
560
202
02
230
230
02
300
229
02
280
227
02
270
225
02
210
218
02
150
211
02
080
206
02
020
198
01
950
191
01
870
183
01
790
175
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 221
Tab
le11
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Cum
ulat
ive
depo
sitio
nde
nsity
(Bq
m-2
)a
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
aD
eriv
edfr
omes
timat
edfi
ssio
n/fu
sion
yiel
dsof
test
sw
ithat
mos
pher
icm
odel
.Inc
lude
sre
sidu
alde
posi
tion
from
prev
ious
year
s.M
easu
red
resu
ltsus
edpr
efer
entia
llyfo
r90
Sran
d13
7 Cs
duri
ng19
58-1
985.
Lat
itudi
nal
valu
esm
aybe
deri
ved
byus
eof
para
met
ers
inT
able
8.T
here
sults
for
the
wor
ldar
eth
epo
pula
tion-
wei
ghte
dav
erag
esof
the
nort
hern
and
sout
hern
hem
isph
eres
(89%
and
11%
ofth
ew
orld
popu
latio
n,re
spec
tivel
y).
bIn
dica
tes
estim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
Bq
m-2
.c
Inte
grat
edde
posi
tion
dens
ityw
ithun
itsB
qa
m-2
.
Wo
rld
(con
tinue
d)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.72
0.30
0.12
00.
050
0.02
10.
0085
0.00
350.
0014
0.00
06 - - - -
0.03
80.
017
0.00
760.
0034
0.00
150.
0007
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - -
1.51
0.76
0.39
0.20
0.10
0.05
00.
025
0.01
30.
0065
0.00
330.
0017
0.00
080.
0004
9.58
7.44
5.77
4.48
3.47
2.69
2.09
1.62
1.26
0.98
0.76
0.59
0.46
12.8
9.92
7.70
5.98
4.65
3.61
2.80
2.18
1.69
1.31
1.02
0.79
0.61
110
01
080
105
01
030
100
097
895
493
290
988
786
684
582
5
171
01
670
163
01
590
156
01
520
149
01
450
142
01
390
136
01
330
130
0
Tot
alc
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
-�
482
144
02
900
438
03
220
522
07
130
4540
05
920
3030
00.
0007
742
01.
813
200
2.1
4844
031
000
275
026
8
7410
050
700
509
056
9
1945
- �48
21
440
290
04
380
322
05
220
713
045
400
592
030
300
742
013
200
8300
013
100
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION222
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 223
a Values from Beck [B2], converted with 0.869 rad R-1, 0.01 Gy rad-1, 0.7 Sv Gy-1 and applying a shielding/occupancy factor of 0.36. Relaxation lengthof 0.1 cm assumed for 131I and 140Ba, 1 cm for 141Ce, 103Ru and 95Zr; 3 cm for remainder.
b Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] divided by the mean life of the radionuclide (T½ divided by ln 2) applied to the average cumulative deposition.c Transfer coefficient P25 [U3 (page 127)] applied to the annual deposition density (nSv per Bq m-2). The exposure occurs only in the year of deposition.d Includes decay product.e Time�dependent model used for components of annual dose.
Table 12Coefficients for evaluating annual effective doses from radionuclides produced in atmospheric nucleartesting
RadionuclideDose coefficient (nSv a-1 per Bq m-2)
External a Ingestion b Inhalation c
131I140Ba141Ce103Ru89Sr91Y95Zr
144Ce54Mn106Ru125Sb55Fe90Sr
137Cs238Pu239Pu240Pu241Pu
241Am
3.2818.5 d
0.3762.72�
�
11.3 d
0.175 d
3.260.809 d
1.64�
�
2.24�
�
�
�
�
1330.357�
�
0.601�
�
�
�
�
�
0.506�
e
�e
�
�
�
�
�
0.170.0140.0340.0330.160.18
0.1041.30
0.0221.70
0.0450.0043
4.600.1180084084012920
Tab
le13
Ext
ern
alex
po
sure
tora
dio
nu
clid
esp
rod
uce
din
atm
osp
her
icn
ucl
ear
test
ing
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
141 C
e10
3 Ru
95Zr
,Nb
144 C
e,P
r54
Mn
106 R
u,R
h12
5 Sb13
7 Cs
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
0.00
510.
0034
-a
0.00
570.
0012 -
0.03
60.
033
0.02
70.
053
0.02
50.
110.
120.
370.
012
0.00
380.
150.
500.
030
0.00
110.
0041
0.02
10.
0086
0.00
300.
0043
0.00
530.
0028
0.01
20.
0017
0.01
1-
0.01
20.
0028
0.00
170.
0006
0.08
10.
055
-0.
091
0.02
00.
0001
0.56
0.50
0.51
1.08
0.39
1.89
1.87
6.09
0.29
0.06
12.
338.
230.
850.
017
0.07
0.34
0.16
0.06
0.11
0.11
0.05
40.
190.
039
0.18
0.00
030.
190.
067
0.02
40.
012
0.00
250.
0018
0.00
010.
0017
0.00
03 -0.
012
0.01
40.
024
0.04
10.
009
0.05
20.
068
0.18
0.04
60.
0012
0.06
70.
330.
150.
0006
0.00
260.
011
0.00
840.
0035
0.01
10.
0081
0.00
640.
0076
0.00
270.
0069
0.00
060.
0051
0.00
850.
0006
0.00
03
0.02
0.02 -
0.03
0.01 -
0.15
0.14
0.29
0.65
0.14
0.71
0.64
2.19
0.62
0.02
0.55
3.03
1.75
0.01
80.
024
0.10
0.08
70.
038
0.12
0.09
00.
080
0.07
30.
027
0.06
70.
009
0.04
50.
098
0.01
00.
006
0.10
0.10
0.02
00.
082
0.02
10.
0074
0.52
0.69
1.58
2.67
1.00
2.89
4.01
10.1
6.32
0.32
2.32
19.0
20.2
1.37
0.17
0.53
0.61
0.41
1.11
0.93
0.93
0.51
0.20
0.51
0.16
0.18
0.96
0.12
0.02
0
0.00
140.
0034
0.00
260.
0025
0.00
190.
0011
0.00
890.
020
0.05
70.
100.
160.
170.
210.
370.
550.
330.
180.
631.
631.
380.
740.
340.
160.
100.
100.
110.
120.
094
0.05
10.
050
0.03
90.
022
0.05
50.
053
0.02
9
- - - - - -0.
0014
0.00
380.
059
0.11
0.15
0.20
0.31
0.53
0.86
0.58
0.32
1.83
4.54
4.17
2.41
1.19
0.56
0.29
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.12
0.06
50.
067
0.05
60.
031
0.06
80.
071
0.04
1
0.00
300.
0082
0.00
750.
0095
0.00
850.
0056
0.02
80.
056
0.18
0.39
0.72
0.75
0.80
1.15
1.64
1.15
0.70
1.54
3.86
3.82
2.47
1.39
0.77
0.47
0.36
0.36
0.37
0.30
0.18
0.16
0.13
0.08
0.14
0.15
0.10
0.00
040.
0014
0.00
170.
0021
0.00
230.
0020
0.00
530.
011
0.03
40.
079
0.17
0.23
0.26
0.35
0.48
0.46
0.39
0.51
0.99
1.27
1.19
1.00
0.81
0.65
0.53
0.45
0.39
0.33
0.27
0.23
0.19
0.15
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.00
070.
0029
0.00
410.
0055
0.00
680.
0071
0.01
40.
027
0.07
80.
190.
450.
680.
861.
141.
651.
861.
962.
463.
494.
534.
985.
155.
165.
135.
115.
095.
085.
044.
964.
894.
834.
734.
654.
604.
53
0.22
0.20
0.03
70.
230.
068
0.02
51.
341.
482.
845.
363.
217.
679.
1622
.412
.54.
798.
9738
.137
.516
.612
.110
.18.
347.
157.
667.
357.
216.
685.
806.
175.
405.
456.
195.
164.
84
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION224
Tab
le13
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
141 C
e10
3 Ru
95Zr
,Nb
144 C
e,P
r54
Mn
106 R
u,R
h12
5 Sb13
7 Cs
Tota
l
aE
stim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
0.01
30.
0001 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.21
0.01
3- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
560.
0042 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.04
40.
048
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.18
0.46
0.00
17 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.01
50.
026
0.01
10.
0044
0.00
180.
0007
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - -
0.02
10.
016
0.00
710.
0032
0.00
140.
0006
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
01 - - - - - - - - - - -
0.05
70.
072
0.03
70.
019
0.00
940.
0048
0.00
240.
0012
0.00
060.
0003
0.00
020.
0001 - - - - - - - -
0.08
30.
073
0.05
60.
044
0.03
40.
026
0.02
00.
016
0.01
20.
0095
0.00
740.
0057
0.00
440.
0034
0.00
270.
0021
0.00
160.
0012
0.00
100.
0008
4.44
4.36
4.27
4.18
4.09
4.00
3.91
3.82
3.73
3.65
3.57
3.49
3.41
3.33
3.25
3.18
3.11
3.04
2.97
2.90
5.07
5.07
4.39
4.25
4.14
4.03
3.93
3.84
3.75
3.66
3.57
3.49
3.41
3.33
3.26
3.18
3.11
3.04
2.97
2.90
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
1.58
26.7
1.09
12.0
81.3
7.94
19.2
24.5
12.2
0.00
316
611
411
.41.
3
353
114
11.4
1.3
1945
- �1.
5826
.71.
0912
.081
.37.
9419
.224
.512
.229
247
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 225
Tab
le14
Ing
esti
on
exp
osu
reto
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
89Sr
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Tota
l3 H
14C
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
0.21
0.14 -a
0.23
0.05
1-
1.45
1.33
1.11
2.16
1.03
4.59
4.69
14.8
0.49
0.16
5.89
20.4
1.21
0.04
60.
170.
870.
350.
120.
170.
210.
110.
470.
069
0.44 -
0.48
0.11
0.06
80.
023
0.00
160.
0011 -
0.00
170.
0004 -
0.01
10.
010
0.01
00.
021
0.00
750.
036
0.03
60.
120.
0056
0.00
120.
045
0.16
0.01
60.
0003
0.00
130.
0066
0.00
300.
0012
0.00
210.
0021
0.00
100.
0037
0.00
070.
0034 -
0.00
360.
0013
0.00
050.
0002
0.00
320.
0028
0.00
040.
0042
0.00
090.
0003
0.02
10.
019
0.05
0.10
0.02
80.
100.
100.
320.
130.
0048
0.06
70.
450.
360.
010
0.00
360.
014
0.01
40.
0072
0.02
20.
017
0.01
70.
011
0.00
440.
011
0.00
230.
0056
0.01
90.
0021
0.00
09
- - - - - -0.
0001
0.00
030.
0052
0.01
20.
022
0.03
30.
049
0.07
90.
130.
130.
120.
250.
630.
860.
820.
690.
560.
440.
350.
290.
230.
190.
150.
120.
100.
077
0.06
50.
057
0.04
6
0.00
440.
0088
0.00
590.
0082
0.01
00.
0060
0.03
40.
072
0.18
0.53
1.02
1.32
1.46
1.77
2.50
2.45
1.94
3.11
5.58
6.56
5.47
4.45
3.83
3.57
3.42
3.30
3.22
3.00
2.72
2.60
2.50
2.30
2.19
2.15
2.02
0.02
70.
040
0.01
60.
032
0.03
10.
0063
0.18
0.32
0.92
2.69
4.69
5.25
5.10
6.06
9.15
6.53
3.62
10.3
21.9
21.8
12.7
6.29
3.32
2.71
2.57
2.70
2.86
2.17
1.33
1.55
1.57
1.10
1.25
1.57
1.25
0.24
0.19
0.02
20.
280.
093
0.01
31.
691.
752.
285.
536.
8011
.311
.423
.212
.49.
2711
.734
.629
.729
.319
.212
.38.
076.
856.
546.
516.
445.
854.
284.
734.
183.
973.
643.
853.
33
0 0 0 0 0 0 - - 0.2
0.7
0.2
0.7
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.7
7.2
2.7
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.09
0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.
06 0.1
0.3
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.6
1.9
2.0
2.9
5.5
7.4
7.7
7.5
7.1
6.6
6.1
5.5
5.0
4.6
4.3
4.0
3.8
3.5
3.3
3.1
2.9
2.6
0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.
06 0.3
1.0
0.8
1.5
1.7
2.4
2.7
2.4
3.6
12.7
10.1
9.3
8.7
8.1
7.4
6.7
6.1
5.4
5.0
4.6
4.3
4.0
3.7
3.4
3.3
3.0
2.7
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION226
Tab
le14
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a,La
89Sr
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Tota
l3 H
14C
Tota
l
aIn
dica
tes
estim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
0.53
0.00
38 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
400.
0002 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.00
530.
0092 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.03
70.
029
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.85
1.77
1.66
1.53
1.44
1.35
1.26
1.18
1.11
1.04
0.98
0.92
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.63
0.59
0.56
0.92
0.98
0.85
0.67
0.63
0.57
0.52
0.50
0.48
0.47
0.45
0.44
0.43
0.41
0.40
0.39
0.38
0.37
0.36
0.35
3.35
2.79
2.51
2.20
2.07
1.92
1.78
1.68
1.59
1.51
1.43
1.36
1.29
1.22
1.16
1.10
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
90.
009
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.0
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
64.2
0.51
1.9
6.6
97.0
8.6
0.02 -
154
10 0.50
0.03
324
19 0.52
0.03
23.7
0.10
144
120
502
180
167
120
502
180
1945
- �64
.20.
511.
96.
610
616
534
423
.82
494
251
7
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 227
aE
stim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
Tab
le15
Inh
alat
ion
exp
osu
reto
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Wor
ldw
ide
aver
age
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
131 I
140 B
a14
1 Ce
103 R
u89
Sr91
Y95
Zr14
4 Ce
54M
n10
6 Ru
125 Sb
55F
e90
Sr13
7 Cs
Pu,
Am
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
0.00
830.
0059
-a
0.00
960.
0020 -
0.05
80.
055
0.04
20.
087
0.04
20.
190.
200.
600.
0002
0.00
630.
240.
840.
025
0.00
180.
0067
0.03
70.
013
0.00
360.
0069
0.00
860.
0046
0.01
90.
0028
0.01
8-
0.02
10.
004
0.00
330.
0003
0.02
2- - - - -
0.00
120.
0009 -
0.00
140.
0003 -
0.00
850.
0083
0.00
650.
016
0.00
630.
028
0.03
00.
092
0.00
030.
0009
0.03
70.
130.
0062
0.00
030.
0010
0.00
540.
0022
0.00
080.
0017
0.00
170.
0008
0.00
280.
0006
0.00
27 -0.
0031
0.00
080.
0005
0.00
010.
0033 - - - - -
0.00
190.
0012 -
0.00
120.
0003 -
0.01
10.
013
0.01
20.
030
0.00
870.
037
0.05
60.
140.
0096
0.00
080.
072
0.26
0.05
30.
0003
0.00
180.
0085
0.00
540.
0024
0.00
840.
0059
0.00
330.
0051
0.00
210.
0050
0.00
010.
0055
0.00
440.
0004
0.00
010.
0060
0.00
08 - - - -
0.00
210.
0015 -
0.00
240.
0005 -
0.01
50.
015
0.01
70.
053
0.01
20.
059
0.05
80.
190.
015
0.00
160.
073
0.27
0.07
40.
0006
0.00
180.
0094
0.00
610.
0030
0.01
00.
0074
0.00
480.
0052
0.00
260.
0053
0.00
020.
0057
0.00
580.
0007
0.00
020.
0060
0.00
12 - - -
0.00
520.
0036 -
0.00
590.
0013 -
0.03
60.
036
0.04
80.
150.
032
0.15
0.15
0.45
0.06
20.
0041
0.18
0.71
0.29
0.00
280.
0044
0.02
30.
017
0.00
930.
032
0.02
40.
017
0.01
30.
0075
0.01
50.
0008
0.01
40.
020
0.00
180.
0006
0.01
50.
005
- - - -
0.00
760.
0053 -
0.00
860.
0018 -
0.05
20.
052
0.07
70.
230.
052
0.23
0.23
0.72
0.12
0.00
630.
271.
100.
530.
0075
0.00
640.
035
0.02
70.
016
0.05
40.
041
0.03
20.
020
0.01
20.
023
0.00
20.
020
0.03
60.
0028
0.00
090.
021
0.00
9- - - -
0.00
010.
0052
0.00
34 -0.
0033
0.00
07 -0.
029
0.03
40.
048
0.11
0.03
40.
140.
170.
420.
097
0.00
290.
270.
800.
470.
0080
0.00
880.
0237
0.02
50.
0086
0.05
20.
031
0.02
30.
017
0.01
30.
014
0.00
130.
015
0.03
00.
0014
0.00
040.
016
- - - -
0.03
80.
025
0.00
030.
024
0.00
500.
0002
0.20
0.24
0.56
1.28
1.06
1.45
1.98
4.35
3.11
0.54
1.60
9.93
15.3
4.29
0.88
0.33
0.26
0.36
0.81
0.84
0.81
0.31
0.15
0.36
0.12
0.12
0.66
0.17
0.03
50.
120.
170.
016
0.00
200.
0003 -
- - - - - - -0.
0002
0.00
050.
0011
0.00
080.
0020
0.00
240.
0054
0.00
480.
0009
0.00
170.
028
0.03
70.
012
0.00
260.
0006
0.00
030.
0004
0.00
100.
0008
0.00
080.
0002
0.00
020.
0004
0.00
010.
0001
0.00
080.
0002 - -
0.00
01 - - - -
0.02
20.
016
0.00
020.
026
0.00
540.
0002
0.15
0.15
0.52
1.33
1.30
1.28
1.36
2.99
2.13
0.47
0.92
5.63
9.31
3.17
0.79
0.27
0.17
0.23
0.48
0.52
0.51
0.21
0.10
0.22
0.08
0.07
50.
380.
130.
031
0.06
70.
102
0.01
20.
0018
0.02
710.
0001
- - - - - -0.
0003
0.00
030.
0010
0.00
260.
0034
0.00
310.
0031
0.00
580.
0049
0.00
160.
0020
0.01
10.
021
0.01
10.
0040
0.00
150.
0007
0.00
070.
0011
0.00
130.
0013
0.00
060.
0003
0.00
050.
0002
0.00
020.
0008
0.00
040.
0001
0.00
010.
0002 - - - -
- - - - - - - -0.
0001
0.00
010.
0001
0.00
020.
0003
0.00
050.
0006
0.00
020.
0002
0.00
290.
0047
0.00
250.
0009
0.00
030.
0001
0.00
010.
0001
0.00
010.
0001 - -
0.00
01 - -0.
0001 - - - - - - - -
0.00
330.
0024 -
0.00
380.
0008 -
0.02
20.
023
0.09
70.
260.
380.
350.
350.
460.
750.
200.
261.
041.
871.
200.
570.
250.
130.
150.
110.
150.
140.
067
0.02
50.
088
0.04
30.
021
0.05
90.
072
0.02
30.
022
0.03
20.
0094
0.00
660.
0053
0.00
16
0.00
010.
0001 -
0.00
01 - -0.
0008
0.00
080.
0035
0.00
920.
014
0.01
30.
013
0.01
70.
027
0.00
700.
0093
0.03
70.
067
0.04
30.
020
0.00
880.
0045
0.00
520.
0041
0.00
550.
0051
0.00
240.
0009
0.00
310.
0016
0.00
070.
0021
0.00
260.
0008
0.00
080.
0011
0.00
030.
0002
0.00
020.
0001
0.01
40.
010
0.00
020.
016
0.00
30.
0002
0.09
00.
092
0.40
1.05
1.55
1.43
1.43
1.89
3.09
0.81
1.06
4.24
7.66
4.90
2.34
1.01
0.52
0.59
0.47
0.63
0.59
0.28
0.10
0.36
0.18
0.08
40.
240.
290.
094
0.09
00.
130.
038
0.02
70.
022
0.00
65
0.10
0.07
80.
006
0.09
70.
026
0.00
20.
630.
721.
814.
514.
615.
216.
0012
.09.
912.
154.
6524
.336
.214
.24.
631.
981.
181.
391.
992.
292.
150.
950.
431.
110.
440.
371.
430.
710.
190.
370.
480.
048
0.03
40.
027
0.00
8
Tot
al2.
580.
400.
770.
932.
564.
072.
9252
.50.
1135
.20.
085
0.01
49.
220.
3337
.814
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION228
Tab
le16
An
nu
alef
fect
ive
do
sefr
om
rad
ion
ucl
ides
pro
du
ced
inat
mo
sph
eric
nu
clea
rte
stin
g
Year
Ave
rage
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
Nor
ther
nhe
mis
pher
eSo
uthe
rnhe
mis
pher
eW
orld
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
lE
xter
nal
Inge
stio
na
Inha
latio
nTo
tal
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
l
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
0.25
0.22
0.04
20.
260.
077
0.02
81.
501.
653.
175.
883.
528.
409.
3824
.213
.65.
269.
9839
.641
.318
.313
.310
.99.
017.
668.
257.
777.
637.
216.
246.
535.
825.
956.
795.
645.
285.
545.
554.
78
0.27
0.21
0.02
50.
310.
100.
014
1.90
2.02
2.92
7.17
8.26
14.0
13.5
27.7
16.6
12.6
16.7
50.0
43.7
42.3
30.4
21.8
16.7
14.6
13.6
12.7
12.2
11.2
9.17
9.27
8.51
7.97
7.43
7.39
6.56
6.46
5.77
5.41
0.12
0.08
70.
0046
0.11
0.02
70.
0016
0.72
0.80
2.01
4.95
5.03
5.76
6.40
13.2
10.8
2.30
5.23
26.5
40.2
15.6
5.04
2.07
1.23
1.42
2.11
2.38
2.25
1.00
0.43
1.16
0.46
0.41
1.59
0.79
0.21
0.41
0.52
0.08
3
0.64
0.52
0.07
10.
680.
210.
043
4.12
4.48
8.10
18.0
16.8
28.2
29.3
65.2
41.0
20.2
31.9
116
125
76.2
48.7
34.8
26.9
23.7
24.0
22.9
22.1
19.4
15.8
17.0
14.8
14.3
15.8
13.8
12.0
12.4
11.8
10.3
-b - - - - -0.
0016
0.08
20.
141.
140.
661.
837.
387.
822.
980.
970.
8325
.36.
622.
141.
783.
252.
933.
032.
933.
883.
782.
392.
233.
222.
061.
431.
361.
321.
271.
241.
211.
18
- - - - - -0.
0010
0.15
0.34
1.35
1.89
3.03
9.47
8.15
4.17
3.45
3.79
25.5
7.36
8.32
8.53
9.11
5.68
4.84
4.49
5.62
5.08
4.21
3.54
4.08
2.72
2.47
2.33
2.20
2.03
1.92
1.87
1.81
- - - - - -0.
0014
0.03
20.
171.
280.
791.
152.
722.
991.
160.
760.
658.
162.
732.
021.
381.
240.
761.
151.
091.
531.
310.
590.
360.
690.
240.
093
0.09
10.
072
0.04
00.
036
0.03
00.
022
- - - - - -0.
0039
0.27
0.65
3.77
3.34
6.01
19.6
19.0
8.31
5.18
5.26
59.0
16.7
12.5
11.7
13.6
9.37
9.02
8.52
11.0
10.2
7.19
6.14
7.98
5.01
4.00
3.78
3.59
3.34
3.20
3.11
3.01
0.22
0.20
0.03
70.
230.
068
0.02
51.
341.
482.
845.
363.
217.
679.
1622
.412
.54.
798.
9738
.137
.516
.612
.110
.18.
347.
157.
667.
357.
216.
685.
806.
175.
405.
456.
195.
164.
845.
075.
074.
39
0.24
0.19
0.02
0.28
0.09
0.01
1.69
1.81
2.58
6.53
7.60
12.8
13.1
25.6
15.1
11.7
15.3
47.3
39.8
38.6
27.9
20.4
15.5
13.6
12.6
11.9
11.4
10.4
8.58
8.73
7.88
7.37
6.94
6.85
6.02
5.93
5.36
4.97
0.10
0.07
70.
0041
0.10
0.02
40.
0014
0.64
0.72
1.81
4.55
4.57
5.26
6.00
12.1
9.75
2.13
4.73
24.5
36.0
14.1
4.63
1.98
1.18
1.39
1.99
2.28
2.15
0.96
0.42
1.11
0.44
0.37
1.43
0.71
0.19
0.37
0.47
0.07
6
0.57
0.47
0.06
0.60
0.19
0.03
93.
674.
017.
2316
.415
.425
.828
.360
.137
.318
.629
.011
011
369
.344
.632
.525
.022
.122
.321
.520
.818
.114
.816
.013
.713
.214
.612
.711
.111
.410
.99.
43
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 229
Tab
le16
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Ave
rage
annu
alef
fect
ive
dose
(µSv
)
Nor
ther
nhe
mis
pher
eSo
uthe
rnhe
mis
pher
eW
orld
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
lE
xter
nal
Inge
stio
na
Inha
latio
nTo
tal
Ext
erna
lIn
gest
ion
aIn
hala
tion
Tota
l
aIn
clud
esco
ntri
butio
nfr
omgl
obal
lydi
sper
sed
3 Han
d14
C.
bE
stim
ated
valu
ele
ssth
an0.
0001
µSv
.
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
4.64
4.51
4.40
4.29
4.18
4.08
3.99
3.90
3.81
3.72
3.63
3.55
3.47
3.39
3.31
3.24
3.16
5.01
4.79
4.57
4.36
4.19
4.04
3.90
3.76
3.63
3.50
3.37
3.26
3.14
3.03
2.92
2.81
2.71
0.04
00.
060
0.00
870.
0006
0.00
03 - - - - - - - - - - - -
9.69
9.36
8.98
8.65
8.38
8.12
7.89
7.65
7.43
7.22
7.01
6.81
6.61
6.42
6.23
6.05
5.87
1.15
1.12
1.10
1.07
1.05
1.02
1.00
0.97
0.95
0.93
0.91
0.89
0.87
0.85
0.83
0.81
0.79
1.77
1.72
1.68
1.64
1.62
1.61
1.60
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.63
1.65
1.68
1.72
1.76
1.82
1.89
0.01
80.
010
0.00
50.
0003
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
2.93
2.85
2.78
2.71
2.66
2.63
2.60
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.54
2.54
2.55
2.57
2.59
2.63
2.68
4.03
3.93
3.84
3.75
3.66
3.57
3.49
3.41
3.33
3.26
3.18
3.11
3.04
2.97
2.90
4.65
4.41
4.26
4.01
3.91
3.82
3.63
3.55
3.38
3.31
3.14
3.07
3.01
2.86
2.81
2.66
2.61
0.03
80.
055
0.00
80.
0006
0.00
02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
8.94
8.60
8.30
7.94
7.75
7.57
7.29
7.12
6.87
6.72
6.48
6.33
6.20
5.97
5.85
5.63
5.51
1945
-199
920
00-2
099
2100
-219
9
2200
- �
382
124
12 1.4
531
141
512
180
164
107
626
463
218
1
115
31 3.1
0.3
178
126
502
180
3532
815
753
218
0
353
114
11 1.3
492
139
512
180
149
994
253
622
181
1945
- �52
02
900
164
358
014
92
530
352
720
479
286
014
93
490
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION230
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 231
a Exposures from Bravo test of 28 February 1954 to residents of Rongelap, Utrik, and Ailinginae atolls.b External exposure to local population only.c Population in settlements bordering the test site. The extended population of Semipalatinsk and Altai regions was 1.7 million in 1960.d Maralinga, Emu, and Monte Bello Island.
a Assumed to be geometric mean of range.
Table 17Local doses from atmospheric nuclear testing
Test site PopulationMaximum absorbed dose
in thyroid of children(Gy)
Maximumeffective dose
(Sv)
Collectiveeffective dose
(man Sv)Ref.
United StatesNevadaPacific a
180 000245
1200 1.9
500 b
160[A1][L4]
Former USSRSemipalatinsk 10 000 c 20 4 600 [T1]
United KingdomAustralian sites d 700 [W1]
Table 18Distribution of cumulative effective doses to individuals exposed in local areas downwind of the Nevada test site[A1]
Effective dose (mSv) Number of individuals Collective effective dose (man Sv)
Range Mean a 1951�1958 1961�1963 1951�1958 1961�1963
<0.06�0.60.6�33�66�30
30�6060�90
0.21.34.2134273
61 00080 00019 00020 000
52045
180 000480
0000
1210480260223.2
360.6
Total (rounded) 180 000 180 000 460 40
Table 19Estimated local exposures from atmospheric nuclear tests conducted by France at the South Pacific testsite[B8]
Location Date of test PopulationEffective dose (mSv) Collective
effective dose(man Sv)External Inhalation Ingestion Total
GambierIslands
2 July 19668 August 1971
4068
3.40.9
0.180.002
1.90.24
5.51.2
0.20.5
Tureia Atoll 2 July 196712 June 1971
516545
0.70.9
0.0230.003
0.170.043
0.91.3
0.70.08
Tahiti(Mahina)
17 July 1974 84,000 0.6 0.08 0.06 0.8 67
Total 70
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION232
a Includes cratering tests carried out by the United States and the USSR, some of which released radionuclides to the atmosphere.
Table 20Effective dose estimates from external exposures at locations 400�800 km downwind of the Lop Nor testsite[Z1]
City PopulationDistance from test site
(km)Absorbed dose in air
(mGy)Effective dose
(mSv)
Xihu )Anxi )Tashi )QiaowanYumenzhen )Yumanshi )JintaJiayuguan
60 000
(Village)
159 000
99 00089 000
500500560600
740720
0.070.060.100.140.120.020.450.44
0.20.20.30.040.03
0.0060.110.11
Table 21Underground nuclear tests a
YearNumber of tests
China France India Pakistan United Kingdom United States USSR
19551957195819611962196319641965196619671968196919701971197219731974197519761977197819791980198119821983198419851986198719881989199019911992199319941995199619971998
1
11
1
122
11
2
21222
113341
259
1110121210988888966
51
1
5 6
2
21
1
1
2131112111
111
15
1410574548394942726160283227252320232015141618191817141618151098
11
9151923232421293122273527365552433734375210
3929118
Total 22 160 6 6 24 908 750
All countries 1 876
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 233
a Includes 5 safety tests.b Includes 12 safety tests.c Includes 22 safety tests and 2 combat explosions.
a Radionuclide composition included, additionally, 89Sr (8.8%) and other (27.9%).
Table 22Summary of nuclear testing
CountryNumber of tests Yield (Mt)
Atmospheric Underground Total Atmospheric Underground Total
ChinaFranceIndiaPakistanUnited KingdomUnited StatesUSSR
2250 a
�
�
33 b
219 c
219
22160
66
24908750
44210
66
571 127969
20.710.2
8.1154247
13
24638
2213
10200285
All countries 543 1 876 2 419 440 90 530
Table 23Radionuclide releases and estimated local exposures from nuclear weapons material production andfabrication plants in the United States
Location Release period Airborne release(GBq)
Liquid release(GBq)
Cumulative effective dose (mSv)Reference
Airborne Liquid
Fernald 1954�1980 50�150 (U) [S5]
Oak Ridge 1942�1984 �1 000 000 (131I) 25 400 (137Cs) [H9, W5]
Rocky Flats 1953�1983 (routine)1957 (fire)
1965�1969 (storage area)
8.8 (U) / 1.7 (Pu)1.9 (Pu)260 (Pu)
0.00150.0130.072
[R3][M4][M5]
Hanford 1944�1987 27 300 000 (131I) 481 000 000 (24Na) 12 15 [H4, S3]
Savannah River 1954�1989 140 (Pu) 23 (Pu) 0.12 0.0024 [C1]
Table 24Releases of radioactive materials associated with the early operation of the materials production complexat Chelyabinsk-40 in the eastern Urals region of the Russian Federation[D5, K4, N8]
Circumstances of release Time periodRadionuclide composition (%) Total
activityrelease(PBq)
90Sr 95Zr 106Ru 137Cs 144Ce
Routine operationAtmospheric effluentsLiquid effluents to Techa River a
1948�19561949�1956 11.6 13.6 25.9 12.2 100
Accident at waste storage site 1957 5.4 24.9 3.7 0.036 66.0 74
Resuspension from shoreline of LakeKarachay 1967 34 48 18 0.022
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION234
a Dry weight.
Table 25Estimated collective effective dose from operation of weapons material production centres in the formerSoviet Union [D5, K4, K5, N8]
Production centre Time period Population exposedCollective effective dose
(man Sv)
ChelyabinskDischarges to Techa RiverWaste storage accident
1949�19561957
28 000273 000
6 2002 500
KrasnoyarskDischarges to Yenesei River 1958�1991 200 000 1 200
TomskDischarges to Tom/Ob Rivers 1958�1992 400 000 200
Total 10 100
Table 26Present (1990�1993) levels of contamination surrounding the Chelyabinsk site [K4]
Location MaterialDeposition density (kBq m�2) Concentration (Bq kg�1)
90Sr 137Cs 90Sr 137Cs
Techa River WaterBottom sedimentsFish
7�2340�2 000 a
50�560
0.06�0.23100�280 000 a
4�10
Eastern Urals
Agricultural areas SoilPotatoesGrainMilkBeef
3.7�74 7.4�370.2�6.70.5�12.60.2�6.30.2�1.7
0.5�3.80.3�2.90.2�4.50.3�2.6
Forest areas SoilMushroomsBerries
37�74 000 37�740400�1 100
700�16 000110�1 600
150
Lakes removed from use WaterBottom sedimentsFish
17�120
70 000�110 000
0.7250�860 a
1 700
Lakes of multipurpose use WaterBottom sedimentsFish
0.10�0.3420�300 a
30�220
0.06�0.3680�240 a
8�26
Table 27Present (1993�1996) exposures from nuclear materials production/processing centres in the RussianFederation [B7, K4]
Installation PopulationAnnual effective dose (mSv) Annual collective
effective dose(man Sv)External Internal Total
ChelyabinskKrasnoyarskTomsk
320 000200 000400 000
0.010.03
0.0004
0.100.02
0.005
0.110.05
0.0054
35102.2
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 235
a Values in parentheses are estimates.b Uranium is produced as a byproduct from imported phosphates.c Decommissioning product.
a Normalization basis: production, 250 t (GW a)�1; tailings, 1 ha (GWa)�1.b Dose coefficient: 0.0025 man Sv TBq�1.c Normalized release rate: TBq a�1 (GWa)�1.d Assuming release period of five years.e Assuming release period of 10,000 years and unchanging population density.
Table 28Production of uranium[O1]
CountryAnnual production of uranium (t) a
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
ArgentinaAustraliaBelgium b
BrazilBulgariaCanadaChinaCzech RepublicFranceGabonGermanyHungaryIndiaKazakhstanMongoliaNamibiaNigerPakistanPortugalRomaniaRussian FederationSloveniaSouth AfricaSpainUkraineUnited StatesUzbekistan
93 530
395
4058 729(800)2 1422 841709
2 972524
(230)(7 120)
893 2112 839(30)111210
3 78053
2 460213
(1 000)3 420
(2 100)
183 776
380
2408 160(800)1 7782 477678
1 207415
(200)(7 350)
1012 4502 963(30)28160
3 0500
1 712196
(1 000)3 0602 100
1232 334
360
1509 297(955)1 5392 149589232430150
(2 802)105
1 6602 965(23)28120
2 6402 c
1 669187
1 0002 1702 680
1262 256
3424100
9 155(780)950
1 730556116380148
2 70054
1 6792 914(23)32
(120)2 697
01 699184
1 0001 1802 600
802 208
4010670
9 647(780)541
1 05365047413155
2 24072
1 8952 975(23)24120
2 5410
1 671256
1 0001 2792 015
653 712
25106
010 473(500)600
1 01665235210
(155)1 630
202 0162 974(23)18120
2 1600
1 421255
1 0002 3241 644
284 974
2800
11 788(500)59894056040200
(200)1 320
02 4523 160(23)15100
2 0000
1 436255500
2 4201 459
355 520
2700
12 029(500)59074847240200
(200)1 000
02 9053 497(23)17100
(2 000)0
1 100255500
2 1702 000
Total 49 571 43 987 36 035 33 237 31 611 33 154 34 996 35 692
Table 29Radon releases in airborne effluents and collective dose from uranium mining and milling
SourceRelease
per unit production(GBq t�1)
Release rateper unit area(Bq s�1 m�2)
Normalizedrelease a
[TBq (GWa)�1]
Normalized collectiveeffective dose
[man Sv (GWa)�1] b
Mining 300 75 0.19
Milling 13 3 0.0075
Mill tailingsOperational millClosed mill
101
3 c
0.3 c0.04 d
7.5 e
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION236
Table 30Worldwide installed capacity and electrical energy generated by nuclear reactors[I3]
CountryCapacity
(GW)
Electrical energy generated (GW a)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PWRs
ArmeniaArmenia 1-2 0.376 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.239 0.163
BelgiumDoel 1-4Tihange 1-3
2.712.791
2.1912.442
2.2842.359
2.2962.413
2.0802.468
1.9232.489
2.2212.266
2.2352.472
2.4782.643
BrazilAngra 1 0.626 0.235 0.149 0.172 0.046 0.005 0.266 0.261 0.341
BulgariaKozloduy 1-6 3.538 1.542 1.387 1.213 1.417 1.612 1.852 1.919 1.877
ChinaGuangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2
1.8120.2881.78
--
1.397
--
1.446
--
1.369
-0.1991.462
1.3310.1881.522
1.1490.2361.468
1.3160.2371.585
1.4160.2301.411
Czech RepublicDukovany 1-4 1.632 1.343 1.272 1.398 1.441 1.481 1.396 1.375 1.426
FinlandLoviisa 1-2 0.89 0.743 0.776 0.751 0.798 0.756 0.736 0.779 0.868
FranceBelleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4
2.623.643.645.23.55
0.305-
3.5553.561.762.662.625.462.625.322.662.67
1.7953.66
1.6252.5412.0761.9942.5850.169
-2.6632.0780.9801.7020.2083.9951.6153.3340.3301.5831.2882.554
1.8882.6881.9082.3852.4940.152
-2.3502.4861.0691.5811.0893.9181.7353.5630.9631.8151.1472.381
1.9132.5561.3803.7182.825
0-
2.4902.4610.8071.8780.8073.9431.8413.1951.4921.2771.2682.673
1.9172.5822.3553.5792.598
0-
2.5792.7001.2931.9731.1543.9761.9293.7861.8991.5761.2232.698
1.6912.3152.3063.6242.573
0-
2.5472.3451.3111.7731.7174.0121.6873.2761.9101.6781.4182.703
1.7922.8412.4153.7132.884
0-
2.5472.5131.2501.8981.7044.2451.7013.7421.9461.8591.1142.784
1.6663.0812.3674.0782.789
0-
2.8022.6661.4112.0532.0414.0701.9073.3982.2021.8801.3242.991
2.0882.9772.5484.0382.842
00.9982.4852.4861.3281.7582.0324.0201.9973.8141.8921.7311.2662.677
GermanyBiblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser
2.3861.3261.2421.2351.632
1.31.31
1.2192.020.34
1.2680.641.23
1.6160.9521.1460.903
01.1561.058
01.7630.1350.9720.4800.969
1.2381.0841.0601.113
01.1371.107
01.6940.1201.1310.2620.740
1.6571.2321.1601.102
01.1901.124
01.7670.2151.0730.4850.997
1.7901.0781.1961.010
01.2191.164
01.7660.2991.1960.5141.236
1.7651.1681.2021.104
01.1721.199
01.8980.3001.1740.6110.877
1.1831.1321.1981.135
01.2301.146
01.8830.2471.2040.4980.911
1.3551.2051.2051.088
01.2091.172
01.9030.3171.2810.5751.131
1.8801.2841.2161.157
01.3541.245
01.8660.3161.2690.5651.134
HungaryPaks 1-4 1.84 1.472 1.473 1.594 1.575 1.510 1.507 1.531 1.501
Table 30 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 237
CountryCapacity
(GW)
Electrical energy generated (GW a)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
JapanGenkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2
2.1851.9221.574.49
1.6923.221.10
1.115
0.8430.9521.3561.3851.4062.2770.5140.822
0.8090.9040.8071.6711.2852.1400.7781.057
0.7710.8150.6552.7801.4912.4620.8320.924
0.9640.8090.7073.6141.4202.5200.9870.895
1.7511.1980.9343.3791.2952.3410.9610.892
1.7461.6910.7682.8551.3062.5520.9261.053
1.7591.4601.1953.8451.4322.4150.8770.921
2.4201.6481.3183.3461.5032.6310.9820.745
NetherlandsBorssele 0.481 0.329 0.311 0.323 0.380 0.379 0.387 0.402 0.248
Republic of KoreaKori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4
2.9511.843.7
2.3881.3371.468
2.4151.5881.530
2.4571.6041.522
2.5001.6221.559
2.5021.5721.754
2.5631.7082.389
2.6231.6863.185
2.4581.5823.298
Russian FederationBalakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5
3.81.9
1.6441.72
1.3621.3681.3171.033
1.6741.2801.2791.064
2.0381.4021.1391.049
1.7301.2321.0851.183
1.5651.0160.7740.793
1.4281.1950.9820.940
1.9361.0300.9381.015
1.7631.0360.9331.234
SlovakiaBohunice 1-4 1.632 1.274 1.240 1.261 1.163 1.280 1.296 1.286 1.233
SloveniaKrsko 0.62 0.501 0.539 0.430 0.430 0.503 0.522 0.498 0.547
South AfricaKoeberg 1-2 1.844 0.966 1.047 1.062 0.835 1.106 1.289 1.342 1.441
SpainAlmaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2
1.861.860.161.071.00
1.6111.5490.1090.7270.837
1.6251.5560.1200.7400.820
1.5151.5930.1280.9060.767
1.6261.5420.1040.8440.789
1.5791.5830.0020.9050.823
1.5301.4480.0400.8530.864
1.5041.5960.1120.8710.857
1.4481.6360.0930.8860.827
SwedenRinghals 2-4 2.63 1.987 2.177 1.969 1.790 2.211 1.966 2.153 2.184
SwitzerlandBeznau 1-2Gösgen
0.70.94
0.5930.814
0.5840.815
0.5540.846
0.5490.846
0.6560.875
0.6180.893
0.6290.905
0.6620.910
UkraineKhmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6
0.951.6952.854.75
0.7421.3411.5562.680
0.5901.1971.8082.933
0.6941.5012.0343.500
0.6261.2371.8862.944
0.7201.2381.6712.614
0.6511.1801.8062.645
0.5131.2291.8143.712
0.7021.3172.1733.884
United KingdomSizewell B 1.188 - - - - - 0.614 0.966 0.959
United StatesArkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
1.6941.6432.242.21
1.1181.65
2.2582.3
0.8210.862.162.08
1.2871.1941.6691.4850.9140.1531.5300.2870.4730.4751.8601.269
1.4461.1961.3201.7231.1391.0391.5930.6120.6230.6671.7221.772
1.2941.3641.8161.8250.9241.2221.8640.7920.6070.8731.9070.733
1.5381.0931.8331.7110.9581.4051.8011.2880.6940.6941.9211.862
1.5891.4301.6021.8611.1421.2861.9941.6700.6780.7291.7431.061
1.3331.3121.8431.8140.9421.4771.9041.9370.8260.8761.8581.598
1.5241.1971.7841.6781.0151.3811.7781.7270.2760.7371.9091.872
1.6221.1631.8641.8571.0221.5002.0302.002
00.8201.9501.190
Table 30 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION238
CountryCapacity
(GW)
Electrical energy generated (GW a)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
1.6540.4780.47
0.5650.86
1.8290.5030.81
2.2582.0051.83
2.5380.73
3.6630.97
1.0030.8730.6652.2122.5861.15
2.2962.5
1.6781.5620.8081.0951.3320.8852.1661.0751.1701.1350.1672.08
1.3910.2760.3940.1360.7241.1710.4450.5551.2841.5441.5082.3000.3432.3510.8360.8710.0040.3791.3071.8810.4671.6011.4301.1241.2110.6070.6970.8870.6981.6230.982
-0.9010.0940.810
1.3880.3710.3980.4230.6771.2760.4200.7151.8680.7791.5192.1740.5562.8650.8350.967
00.5471.6521.8820.7781.8941.6561.5091.2070.6470.1710.2440.6101.8720.830
-0.6730.1131.072
1.2650.2900.3980.4440.6201.4430.4500.6121.6291.0641.3342.0170.5552.9230.8300.767
00.4641.1482.1180.8981.7902.0101.4351.3300.7920.5260.9210.8581.9590.870
-0.969
01.082
1.3840.3540.3990.4270.8590.8130.4360.6551.4111.4611.3602.3010.4052.5150.8730.927
00.4791.3071.6881.0330.3860.1551.1601.2300.681
01.1880.6971.9731.043
-0.903
01.406
1.5080.4700.3850.4340.6920.8720.4520.7571.7741.4951.6312.0440.5152.6450.8740.944
00.5311.3002.1070.7081.3651.6261.3461.2720.752
01.1150.5092.0720.905
-0.976
01.176
1.2380.3840.4150.4180.6810.7270.4330.0232.0491.2251.5832.2610.5323.0800.8190.969
00.5750.5281.5980.9571.7942.1951.2351.2860.729
01.2560.8632.1860.886
-1.149
01.415
1.4710.3570.3310.3170.8071.5640.3620.5781.8060.4021.4921.7640.6073.2930.7940.939
00.623
01.9851.1241.9382.3611.3931.5090.811
01.2460.8171.9621.0190.6330.940
01.477
1.4510.4360.445
00.6750.8580.270
01.559
01.7111.5670.6623.3690.1920.818
00.7070.2931.5410.9071.9462.2661.3951.3800.676
01.2210.8302.1210.7670.8680.964
00.123
BWRs
ChinaChin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2
1.2081.902
0.7311.472
0.9331.488
0.9301.407
0.9541.349
0.8701.430
0.9181.472
0.9211.641
1.0631.526
FinlandOlkiluoto 1-2 1.465 1.325 1.325 1.323 1.348 1.337 1.333 1.353 1.421
GermanyBrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen
0.7712.4880.871.26
0.8640.64
0.5461.9070.5771.0080.5940.125
0.4361.8660.7720.8830.7050.466
0.3981.9120.6700.9500.7430.432
01.6790.6360.7490.5270.449
01.8640.5880.2830.7500.384
0.3432.0610.7361.0520.721
0
0.5362.1550.6640.9410.791
0
0.5832.0800.6851.0560.732
0
IndiaTarapur 1-2 0.3 0.206 0.162 0.181 0.199 0.128 0.198 0.087 0.201
JapanFukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1
4.5464.2683.4697.9651.2940.5051.23
1.0560.341
2.7802.5621.6522.2010.325
-1.0120.8320.224
3.3833.2021.6242.5990.382
-0.9880.8020.258
3.0283.2391.5522.6220.470
-0.9320.7180.227
2.4532.9332.6103.4050.2630.3241.0620.9940.300
3.2483.0762.2583.9690.3910.3780.9700.8360.172
3.8373.5723.1614.5520.8490.3990.9530.7810.266
3.3213.5282.8475.1511.0160.3940.2910.8610.286
3.2953.5932.8786.6131.1690.5061.1221.0140.221
Table 30 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 239
CountryCapacity
(GW)
Electrical energy generated (GW a)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
MexicoLaguna Verde 1-2 1.30 0.232 0.464 0.428 0.539 0.464 0.860 0.858 1.144
NetherlandsDodewaard 0.05 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.049 0.048 0.045 0.045 0.008
SpainConfrentesS. Maria de Garona
0.990.46
0.8070.291
0.7990.420
0.8800.305
0.8010.419
0.7980.358
0.9350.437
0.8780.366
0.7870.384
SwedenBarsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1
1.23.0082.2070.75
0.9742.3551.6190.517
1.0402.6611.8710.644
0.6292.4841.4730.386
0.6822.5341.2500.456
0.9462.7741.4770.615
0.8992.6741.4840.647
0.9032.6801.6730.741
0.8712.4661.8620.255
SwitzerlandLeibstadtMühleberg
0.990.322
0.8670.283
0.8060.276
0.8600.276
0.8380.293
0.7980.302
0.8760.305
0.8800.302
0.8860.291
United StatesBig Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold-1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2
0.0673.1951.58
0.9460.7641.5450.5381.0930.7571.1421.5251.0312.0721.0550.6540.5361.6820.62
2.0861.1410.67
1.5380.9362.07
0.5041.095
0.0490.0120.9600.4110.5831.0580.3450.8130.5250.8451.2140.4651.6961.4690.5820.5140.6230.4911.6250.7580.4841.1090.6381.6820.4130.661
0.0560.4340.9210.6900.5480.6360.4730.7060.3851.0411.1000.8451.7761.7440.2030.4111.1910.3371.1691.0250.3911.0090.7631.8110.4690.488
0.0310.9580.3640.5630.7110.8290.3920.840
00.9331.2390.8061.4001.6810.4130.5080.9220.5171.4680.8180.5410.8710.3151.5510.4260.651
0.0490.6590.4570.6710.4240.9160.3700.9460.5420.9021.1371.0071.4921.8510.6020.4411.3180.5331.6000.4540.4960.9310.6001.5490.3850.815
0.0470.8381.2310.8460.2540.6570.469
00.5681.0981.2310.8131.5271.8760.3760.4521.5150.4151.8630.5240.4370.6490.5581.7490.4930.771
0.0591.1371.3690.6970.4710.6130.4270.5860.5480.8921.3150.8071.6151.8890.4970.5431.2990.5931.8881.0400.5120.9570.9051.7840.4400.793
0.0421.9231.2440.6060.7240.5850.4500.5470.6041.0531.4550.7731.0211.957
00.4421.5270.4951.9500.8540.6080.8390.7831.9270.4340.635
0.0221.9291.474
00.6231.0990.4740.6370.7561.2351.3750.733
02.002
00.4181.3220.5791.9560.9310.4920.9350.7791.9200.4870.700
HWRs
ArgentinaAtucha 1Embalse
0.3350.600
0.1970.571
0.3110.514
0.2550.497
0.2740.545
0.3030.589
0.3050.445
0.2330.558
0.3110.541
CanadaBruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly-2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau
3.3943.3713.5240.642.06
2.0640.635
1.6232.7590.1320.4660.8041.5840.609
2.1633.0190.2510.4481.1431.8380.621
1.8892.6990.2580.5621.2641.5220.551
1.1322.2772.5020.5881.6501.6690.607
1.6122.7423.0420.6171.4751.7320.598
1.6652.6483.1530.5160.8581.7050.184
1.4782.8572.9620.5980.7461.0260.524
0.9732.7042.1180.4811.1421.2110.394
IndiaKakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2
0.2020.440.44
0.414
-0.222
-0.176
-0.1810.0510.125
-0.2000.1500.106
0.1700.0480.151
0.0150.2100.0870.060
0.2190.1550.226
0
0.2990.1920.273
0
0.2280.2110.3600.030
JapanFugen 0.165 0.099 0.128 0.109 0.119 0.110 0.143 0.115 0.077
Table 30 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION240
CountryCapacity
(GW)
Electrical energy generated (GW a)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PakistanKarachi 0.125 0.043 0.042 0.057 0.042 0.060 0.053 0.035 0.044
Republic of KoreaWolsong 1 0.629 0.545 0.578 0.553 0.641 0.523 0.530 0.513 1.026
RomaniaCernavoda 1 0.650 - - - - - 0.135 0.565
United KingdomWinfrith 0.092 0.042 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
GCRs
FranceBugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2
0.540.540.84
0.2290.1430.100
0.1550
0.282
0.1310
0.152
0.17900
0.16600
000
000
000
JapanTokai 1 0.159 0.103 0.102 0.120 0.021 0.072 0.095 0.134 0.109
SpainVandellos 1 0.48 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
United KingdomBerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa
0.1380.2450.1980.1920.4240.720.842.070.471.250.31.15
0.4340.421.250.390.84
00.1690.1570.1630.3420.1690.5640.8110.3030.864
00.9100.3330.3070.4440.3020.770
00.1840.1550.1550.3650.4710.5491.1830.3260.794
00.7720.3630.3140.5900.0370.851
00.1350.1620.1650.4280.3900.8251.5860.2420.858
00.7180.3900.2590.944
00.890
00.1870.1680.1740.3680.6620.9951.9240.3910.980
00.8280.4040.3450.872
00.824
00.2070.1700.1770.4040.5660.9131.9280.3721.025
00.9680.3980.3850.891
00.698
00.1760.1630.1760.3820.1700.8281.8030.4031.062
00.9700.3890.3210.994
00.764
00.1730.1590.1780.3130.6891.0081.8830.3070.905
00.3330.3810.0450.314
00.813
00.1360.157
0.4050.6060.9671.9890.3940.993
00.9770.4020.1991.045
00.858
LWGRs
LithuaniaIgnalina 1-2 2.76 1.792 1.782 1.671 1.260 0.757 1.214 1.446 1.239
Russian FederationBilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3
0.0443.73.71.85
0.0342.6052.4311.999
0.0292.4012.3952.175
0.0322.1202.0922.334
0.0242.3342.3292.228
0.0211.8522.1111.711
0.0141.8571.8881.762
0.0152.0012.0752.088
0.0141.9302.4091.738
UkraineChernobyl 1-3 2.575 1.815 1.509 0.602 1.327 1.089 1.228 1.210 0.463
FBRs
FranceCreys-MalvillePhenix
1.20.233
0.0670.112
00
00
00.004
0.0010.003
0.3870.0003
KazakhstanBn-350 0.135 - - 0.053 0.051 0.043 0.009 0.010 0.035
Russian FederationBeloyarsky 3 0.56 0.365 0.387 0.467 0.447 0.435 0.390 0.425 0.405
Table 30 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 241
CountryCapacity
(GW)
Electrical energy generated (GW a)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United KingdomDounreay PFR 0.25 0.061 0.089 0 0.103 0.038 0 0 0
All reactors
All countriesPWRSBWRsHWRsGCRsLWGRsFBRs
224.172.919.813.915.02.4
138.748.09.97.210.70.61
145.351.911.47.610.30.48
151.849.210.78.48.90.52
152.951.212.49.39.50.61
157.152.813.89.37.50.52
161.760.012.88.78.00.40
169.459.612.57.68.80.82
167.761.612.49.27.80.44
Total 347.9 215.1 227.0 229.5 236.0 241.0 251.6 258.9 259.2
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION242
Table 31Noble gases released from reactors in airborne effluents
Country / reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PWRs
Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 25 600 29 000
Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3
15 60034 100
31 30016 600
26 40010 900
5 19040 500
97211 900
4 1204 120
2 05014 600
73.89 810
Brazil [C7]Angra 1 318 688 20 100 44 800 176 229 7 720 61 600
Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 541 000 402 000 202 000 210 000 264 000 250 000 390 000 203 000
China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2
--
770
--
354
-6.4148
27.574
22 70030.7166
80 20055.2467
43 60036.6866
31 10015.128.4
Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 1 670 10 700 11 800 18 600 20 000 48 300 31 500 5 590
Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 1 000 1 000 1 800 1 600 1 400 24 000 1 100 3 400
France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4
60 000179 00042 00081 000
139 00071 000
-22 000
179 0008 2005 9006 40060 00046 000
129 0008 60010 0004 60030 000
44 000149 00045 00099 000
169 000129 000
-27 00075 00013 0006 50010 00043 00028 000
129 00011 00015 0001 90034 000
16 00029 00012 00048 00076 00050 000
-14 00034 0006 20015 0007 70057 00024 00040 0009 40013 0008 60028 000
46 00053 00019 00022 00040 00037 000
-27 00038 0007 90014 00010 00036 00029 00040 00012 00013 0009 10029 000
22 00067 00011 00026 00041 00045 000
-34 00056 0005 50011 00016 00020 00016 00030 00017 00012 0009 30025 000
20 00057 00013 00024 00044 00040 000
-19 00034 0006 80011 00014 00024 00016 00029 0009 90012 00018 00026 000
22 00017 00012 00022 00034 000
24016 00025 00018 0009 20011 00014 00025 00012 00028 00013 00010 00010 00026 000
23 00016 00010 00024 00025 000
21010 00017 00019 0007 10031 00022 00021 00015 00025 00013 00013 00011 00028 000
Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser
9 80041098
4 800360 000
140220
018 200
130110
2 2003 200
7 000720110510
1 100240
013 500
50480
1 9002 700
10 500300100150
0680280
015 500
1501 8001 6004 500
10 600180270
00
930330
06 1001 200360
1 3004 700
12 1001 000610
00
4 600150
04 000430
11 0002 1003 100
8 30035 000
60000
18 000220
03 700620
1 7001 7003 600
2 600800120160
025 000
1700
4 600330
1 1001 9003 500
4 4903 700100
00
240170
02 150200
5 8001 2003 500
Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 178 000 146 800 195 400 166 000 183 700 174 300 81 300 44 200
Table 31 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 243
Country / reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2
6504.2250680593500.739.6
5202828056032
1 8003.86.5
370480
1 100530384401.62.9
2307.2200470306200.172.7
1700.57110600322000.413.6
1301.1160510392102.50.38
850.45190430373303.03.8
660.60190430343702.43.0
Netherlands [N7]Borssele 7 860 4 300 1 130 763 27 900 6 530 1 950 6 410
Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4
12 6006 1805 770
18 500241
7 290
102 000104
6 590
206 00056.6
59 20
14 00020.0
5 000
4 10041.0
11 000
6 000215
5 500
6 790680
4 220
Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5
40 70056 700
272 00047 400
26 80030 300
359 90044 400
62 90036 700
275 50033 500
60 10031 900
178 30027 000
15 80027 00078 80024 300
13 50020 300
129 60024 300
6 88018 400
101 30033 800
6 38024 70075 60038 000
Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 20 100 26 600 22 200 17 700 17 600 17 800 24 400 26 400
Slovenia [S1]Krsko 1 630 620 2 530 5 030 9 960 24 800 12 580 2 500
South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 14 520 16 970 25 190 44 600 45 480 67 610 132 300 12 200
Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2
4 790168 70045 90010 80079 600
7 48064 11034 900
17.123 400
7 06013 96050 100
17.24 330
13 20023 40056 2001 260306
4 83040 5004 67043657.2
29 70019 41031 1005 060144
52 9003 55021 800
87.2264
46 7002 38015 6008 030283
Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 218 000 69 700 58 700 25 100 18 600 15 300 24 200 1 330
Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen
29 0007 400
46 0005 100
30 0004 500
19 00011 000
28 0003 800
2 60019 000
2 60013 000
2 50024 000
Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6
56 20087 10051 400
101 000
32 00069 30052 800
154 000
74 80089 80078 200
200 000
21 30044 00098 300
122 000
14 300113 00032 800
117 000
57 000100 00048 900
122 000
74 10093 20070 20080 600
21 70089 10050 400
112 000
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 6 110 4 360
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
32 9003 02090 30045 90033 40024 90039 50033 500
270 00040 3002 0806 960
77 1005 510
389 0003 8505 03095 10029 700
218 00052 20042 9001 7102 620
95 9005 7408 62013 90014 800
217 00031 70065 10029 1001 34091.0
7 570
2 59020 600
102 0004 51029 9007 92048 0007 1001 41012 900
79.276 200
14 4007 62056 100
1 2205 74033 400
814 3205 4607 23010 730
153 0005 8101 1004 2601 8203 1308 8101 046
11 10016 5005 030
16 65010 500
1 0105 1502 9405 330932386
17 8006 1803 860
1275 660
14 9007 9606 310
95
16482.5639
Table 31 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION244
Country / reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
4 48017 00022 00054 00022 100
106 00085.5
35 00038 400
114 40035 300
327 0004 48095 600
2973 0608.14258
17 100110 000
3 960225 00010 40042 70016 60024 6007 62047 40027 8006 960
212 000-
37 0004 2504 070
17 20013 20019 000
226 00031 90054 400
67.041 80033 20015 3008 300
128 0002 320
143 000740
2 0700
83.620 600
140 0001 08052 5004 89094 0001 3004 5006 140682
16 10013 20079 600
-111 000
7 97010 200
26 2005 59020 000
10350 300
195 00059.2
14 80030 00023 50045 400
122 0002 76091 2001 8709402.56281
34 900205 000
33.87 66033 70036 600
60021 2007 6604 58012 5004 20025 600
-11 400
012 400
8 140343
5 18077 00012 90063 7001 3601 67035 8001 6009 30024 3003 44038 400
3741 360
012 43054 10072 600
4.02 8501 56012 8001 50088 6001 98016 8008 9908 68033 800
19 2000
98 200
7 7801 9601 840
7 070
16.2720
38 3001 7401 600
129 500656
16 500359879
2 14027 50013 500
4 2002 0206 31010 20012 500
9141 0905 0002 90076 800
068 600
2 69020 0001 660
8 210
6.4618
9 3203 6501 30047 7306 18012 100
9103 120
99.27 13025 800
1 17013 9008 40022 600
415
10341 40064 380
049 100
2 530307 000
3 170
1 590
1.5456962667700
3 3702 1409 81027140.3
4700.39
15 800
1 3901 170
14 80055.9711
21.967 8002 9707 19053 600
01 710
5 210
1 380
01 530292
0900
2 340823
66.227.7
36.9360
8 320
7 210
18 400540325
9.48 30020 500
0132
BWRs
China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2
26 7003 550
33 0002 910
99 2001 280
26 500784
7 510995
11 9001 870
2 290227
1 210334
Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 22 000 43 000 29 000 9 500 41 000 52 000 18 000 1 100
Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen
4 8007 000
0.269014610
1 3001301.2450130
2 100
1 600110
6 1001 2001 400
02.8150540340
1 000
02193160
1 800960
6 6001.2400
17 000880
0
7 2000
15014 000
52021
3 900310810
11 000860
0
India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 5 940 000 7 629 000 6 348 000 9 410 000 6 560 000
Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1
00000-00
0.55
00000-00
3.9
000000000
000000000
00
190000000
000000000
000000000
000000000
Table 31 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 245
Country / reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 3 400 2 240 567 134 25 1 570 374 345
Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 33 000 6 410 11 800 13 500 12 800 3 190 3 880 23 300
Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona
26 70053 500
119 00073 700
136 00058 100
46 10073 100
21 40017 100
9 3207 470
5 150648
8 000294
Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1
59 100450 000
1 970 00056 670
407 000654 000
1 260 00071 800
24 600501 000546 000
1 440 000
16 000394 000279 000
12 700 000
20 50068 300
266 00024 300 000
22 10019 800
112 00015 700 000
17 90087 000
138 0006 690 000
7 32025 600
794 0001 310 000
Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg
48 000110 000
38 00016 000
19 0003 600
29 0003 800
74 0002 700
17 0002 000
8 7002 000
8 5002 000
United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2
205 0000
41 400356
6 920755
1 6905 96050 0005 03040 80030 70025 4001 2704 330
110 0006 03027 200
414 0003 10033 6002 95038 1002 670
188 00032 900
167 00077 70025 000
26.2958466
1 2202 30075 9001 17010 4007 1003 9202 630870
73 6005 57017 000
888 0004 11082 3001 56041 4002 130
112 00026 800
66 200618 00018 100
273519488
1 7507 7006 3307 84038 7005 1404 37031 700
16548 10013 80015 200
312 00012 10043 4001 82017 2002 120
219 0005 590
190 000148 00012 600
309238
1 7902 1105 74015 4003 490
141 0002 71038 6005 96012 20022 20020 0008 100
411 00025 30034 9001 41025 800
625140 000
5 220
246 00023 80017 660
431 470276
1 97018.1
14 5001 24063 800
16.31 5402 910400
20 1008 58012 500
646 0008 69068 6001 11025 000
439117 000
259
181 300
159 6005.62662
3 2601 820888
3 9502 17053 7005 550145
16 90013 20016 700
2 900656 00019 70086 6002 0506 150566329888
129 000
26 4004.80
71 7002 4401 4902 45023 8003 460
157 000960
014 400
2 36035 3004 15017 8001 0307 510629228666
81 800
35 0000
536 0008 9701 79030 1002 5101 440
183 500852
012 600
810
7 160998
8 460667127
HWRs
Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse
89 000660 000
11 0001 200 000
3 000150 000
110 00042 000
240 00017 000
360 00044 000
320 000180 000
960 00030 000
Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau
518 00037 00021 00060 000
407 000237 000
0
903 00035 00067 00048 000
500 000212 00013 000
564 00041 00073 00033 000
326 000207 00011 000
435 000101 000146 00069 000
370 000215 000
4 900
248 00070 300
141 00059 000
344 000222 000
5 100
100 00067 000
110 00073 000
310 000220 000
2 200
88 00070 000
380 00054 000
310 000200 000
5 600
54 00074 000
295 00021 000
290 000210 000
5 900
India [B4]Kakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2
-18 110 000
22 24011 620 000
-12 790 000
34 73010 380 000
-13 910 000635 000
4 760 000
5 539 000226 100
12 430 000
11 440 0002 579 0004 443 000
Table 31 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION246
Country / reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0 22 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pakistan [P2]Karachi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 112 000 114 000 65 900 219 000 120 000 750 000 3 200 000 60 300
RomaniaCernavoda 1 - - - - - - 60 300 61 700
United Kingdom [N5]Wilfrith 0 3.27 7.85 2.1 0.42
GCRs
France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2
77 00032 00078 000
53 0009 10043 000
11 0006 70016 000
15 000110200
9 200110140
3 800210
-
-250
-
0220
-
Japan [J1, J4]Tokai 1 270 000 250 000 300 000 0 280 000 250 000 310 000 360 000
Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 891 432 959 334 0 0 0
U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa
0595 000
2 500 0002 900 0001 123 000
16 8006 60015 300
2 148 00082 00086 00060 000
108 0001 872 000
5 6001 489 000
70 500
0650 000
2 500 0003 000 0001 170 000
30 00012 90015 600
2 511 00089 000
029 00081 000
1 8010 005 300
219 00030 000
0410 000
2 560 0003 000 0001 310 000
22 00012 50055 200
2 118 00095 000
021 000
143 0001 676 000
3 8000
56 000
0693 000
2 700 0003 200 0001 192 000
30 00020 20024 000
3 171 00039 000
030 000
207 0002 0230 00
5 0000
55 500
773 0002 800 0003 200 0001 244 000
23 00044 00023 000
3 060 00039 000
030 000
170 0002 347 000
8 1000
36 000
662 0002 700 0003 200 0001 195 000
7 00013 00050 000
3 200 00042 000
055 000
250 0001 952 000
7 0000
19 000
647 000
3 210 0001 190 000
27 90023 90023 60033 20033 200
049 500
112 000295 000
6 9900
43 900
510 0002 600 0002 730 000977 00019 30037 80028 900
3 030 00016 700
066 100
111 0001 230 000
12 2000
51 400
LWGRs
Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 2 370 000 1 800 000 700 000 480 000 290 000 283 000 158 000 99 700
Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3
297 3008 700 0001 606 0007 170 000
276 9006 030 0001 539 0004 473 000
345 4006 075 0001 392 0003 815 000
326 0006 285 0001 614 0002 257 000
418 7003 009 0001 789 0001 121 000
293 1001 113 0001 073 0001 022 000
395 7001 152 0001 036 000675 300
270 100611 700958 900686 600
Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 3 730 000 3 770 000 3 200 000 3 800 000 1 700 000 900 000 610 000 91 900
FBRs
France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix
46 000 43 000 43 000 44 000 45 000 45 000 44 000 43 000
Kazakhstan [A6]Bn-350 140 000 165 000 139 000 117 000 108 000 48 300 48 400 102 000
Table 31 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 247
Country / reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 12 900 11 000 8 100 8 100 13 500 4 070 4 070 8 100
United Kingdom [N5]Dounreay PFR 12 100 18 900 0 6 050 11 100 0 0 0
Summaryparameter
ReactorRelease (TBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
All reactors
Total release(TBq)
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
5 90010 09031 89013 54023 870
211
85 500
4 88811 99026 31012 50017 890
238
73 810
3 71410 73020 78011 82015 530
190
62 760
3 04124 28019 91013 41014 760
175
75 570
2 24232 68019 93014 0908 328178
77 440
2 39317 2202 03613 6104 682
97
40 040
2 3217 4994 8686 0064 027
96
24 820
1 4363 1122 06211 7802 719153
21 260
Annualnormalizedrelease[TBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
43210
3 2501 8802 240428
399
34231
2 3101 6301 740500
327
25218
1 9501 4101 750365
275
20474
1 6001 4401 550292
321
15619
1 4501 5101 100343
329
16300167
1 560588244
166
14141413803456117
102
9.559178
1 280349348
93
Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[TBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
27354
2 0501 5601 720380
330
13171252
1 240465209
120
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION248
Table 32Tritium released from reactors in airborne effluents
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PWRs
ArmeniaArmenia 2
Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3
752-
548-
774-
2 02012 800
1 9904 950
6135 970
2874 420
2275 050
Brazil [C7]Angra 1 5.85 27.8 2 930 611 2.26 17.4 110 3 480
Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6
N o t r e p o r t e d
China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2
--
847
--
2 270
-
5 33026.6
6 290
330193
5 110
232264
6 590
411405
5 580 8 430
Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 447 432 416 325 466 410 412 308
Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 740 480 230 210 210 190 220 250
France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4
A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)
Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser
590110480460
0760890270
1 090230
1 6001 1001 100
55022067044068730950180
1 230100
1 400430
1 200
61018051054010500
1 300150900130
1 500340410
69021078061012720
1 400100980130
1 200400480
580330
1 30052020530
1 30011063072
1 100670
1 100
530350
1 6005207.6360
1 3009060099960790
1 300
220370
2 0005502.6680
1 30080450150970330560
490320
1 9002901.719097040390130
1 1002 100350
Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 480 2 100 3 400 4 000 4 500 4 630 4 330 4 780
Table 32 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 249
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2
700450
6 0001 900360
2 600370900
540410
6 5003 900320
2 900270
1 200
580490
7 1003 800530
4 600500720
560710
8 1004 700420
5 200360
1 400
1 100620
6 9008 000550
5 400280
2 300
690730
6 8006 300640
5 900350
2 300
850810
6 7008 300750
8 200430
2 200
880730
6 2007 500650
8 400510
3 400
Netherlands [N7]Borssele 446 210 353 565 386 343 371 177
Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4
10 000346592
7 580825
3 050
12 5001 2501 930
8 7601 1201 820
9 1001 9003 400
14 0001 9008 100
15 2001 9008 800
14 0003 5908 660
Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5
R e p o r t e d t o b e � 0
Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 963 1 045 1 066 924 890 1 090 922 581
Slovenia [S1]Krsko 2 460 2 050 1 510 1 960 1 720 1 310 1 160 1 050
South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 3 640 7 070 5 610 5 270 3 130 2 840 4 610 10 200
Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2
1 3001 322517
0170
4 1801 144266
085.8
6 9701 10366135534.7
10 1001 18519323925.3
5 4502 12134.990442.6
5 66019 410
25.390284.2
5 2603 55026.687756.7
6 3702 29088.9743180
Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4
N o t m e a s u r e d
Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen
N o t m e a s u r e d
Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6
R e p o r t e d t o b e � 0
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 579 565
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
4783 2403 18039.6
1 37016.7
3 370225980
1 0702 070366
8694 9603 61033.3
1 360428
4 61086.2500
2 3903 4701 070
1 1208 03010 000
1141 950362
6 150112555799
5 110725
64412 8001 440
343 370909
4 230222488829
5 770955
85212 4001 280
3 31046.3
3 450316
1 550831
16 9001 370
1 13012 800
525158
3 69093.0
5 270857
7795 4403 490
95913 100
1 3803 24098.9
6 8501 625576
1 3504 6603 300
8259 070
2 980213
6 2802 160
1 3105 11010 900
Table 32 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION250
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
3 240273
4 5902 89057.7116221
1 3801 8504 0601 1503 740206
27 9004 7404 6601 080164
5 7104 5909.32433
1 5303 910800
1 2203 4102 94084.4
7 9607 590
-690138666
5 14012.6
3 09011 500
30.0281289338
2 3903 5701 8104 030181
49 3004 1802 600703166
4 1101 650507
1 070847
4 160900
18 1007 33010.8308
7 23016 200
-555231
2 630
3 490225
2 1306 96016.2225451147
2 2203 6901 8302 390231
36 4003 6601 570681158
5 2502 87058.1
1 8503 9702 240900
3 5201 0901.479.14
7 89011 500
-640108
2 090
2 68044
1 9102 3801 88018260270
3 0604 0601 7201 640314
47 1005 2902 330279294
6 2502 29023.4
1 470541924900
6 7801 60030682.9
8 2603 770
-95148
9 880
3 9709.9
1 630
0.5
161770
2 1201 3904 1001 590233
55 2003 0302 480
2062 5301 970
5485 9901 070600601
1 61053.1
1 1204 3805 590
314 810
1 41030.5
1 940
25.5
2 4301 1702 18043.6
7 5001 600381
43 8003 1401 460
5421 2501 580
6 3002 750600694
2 090
34510 6004 510
18.65 000
1 830144
1 520
924
819378
2 5701 8101 3002 650390
70 0002 7101 600
4456 9201 080
2 3505 450
800388401
5146 3903 330317
1 49014.3
10 500
3 360
340
581 1103 010618
2 9002 420420
5 5101 200
50511 7002 460
1 390
1 5004 800526
2073 9007 290
9.7887.0
BWRs
China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2
8331 290
1 2302 500
6621 760
8211 540
1 3401 250
1 2501 080
1 930765
1 590535
Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 100 130 350 430 310 130 210 300
Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen
89200430795295
623805609961390
994707451130290
32300823166200
22470881375150
191 300
44458123
402 200
5646719.3
351 200
6042546
India [B4]Tarapur 1-2
Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1
2 5001 100820510190
-310580270
2 1001 100730560210
-410560250
1 9001 200720660190
0750570220
1 5001 20078079020013880550160
1 6001 200570
1 10021066990570140
1 6001 400640
1 40021090820390170
1 5001 600810
1 70031079870460160
1 9001 500860
2 000370100770420160
Table 32 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 251
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 0 105 73 540 657 1 520 651 1 180
Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 10.8 119 71.8 39.6 15.2 25.9 9.5 11.2
Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona
35.6497
33.1882
178312
496347
497273
290543
459370
1 180264
Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1
N o t m e a s u r e d
Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg
220 330 590
United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2
17922984700
485603
0448123
1 4803 0306.29
-1 4303 1602 060424
1 1500
5884 2901 6703 4203 5801 370
175102718193
0236514
0188206
1 26090325-
1 2102 3801 140283
1 4800
8055 550507
1 7103 130448
122703400176
0191278
1 07053328
1 850836
1 360-
1 4503 8502 060404
1 4702.11850
1 67086.2
1 940948
1 780
84.7346740422
0261
1 37087293847
2 4506 1404 810
31944
2 0603 570136844
0670
1 690200
1 610877
5 550
1001 290836
1 1600
213436
0295
1 9702 660160
4 8700
2182 6804 3201 310388
01 3301 050344
1 990813370
77
1 350570
0177547
0271
1 6801 61011.6
4 3300
10.81 570
4406 17024.3
1 7701 150
902 300824211
96.6
999440
097.4423
0701
3 250793702
0807
55811 400
02 6901 920106
3 100902285
85.5
860126
0221
2 6900
3 7705 770630237
0556
5 500
1 5702 720250
2 050596
HWRs
Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse
620 00075 000
230 00055 000
410 00069 000
2 600 000140 000
1 400 000130 000
53 00083 000
1 100 00069 000
1 300 00077 000
Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau
1 628 000777 000118 000227 000629 000277 000250 000
1 193 000385 000231 000270 000635 000183 000170 000
1 100 000340 000110 000322 000592 000192 000400 000
1 650 000391 000130 000200 000518 000244 000640 000
999 000366 000330 000258 000481 000226 000520 000
610 000230 000270 000310 000590 000190 000310 000
700 000310 000200 000220 000370 000190 000240 000
350 000270 000190 000160 000440 000170 000200 000
India [B4]Kakrapar 1Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2
830 00066 000
2 561 000
854 000182 500
1 768 000
1 119 000244 600820 000
2 100 000118 400703 300
1 620 000264 700765 900
Table 32 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION252
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 1 200 1 300 1 600 1 200 1 800 1 300 1 000 1 200
Pakistan [P2]Karachi 89 400 77 300 56 800 281 000 220 000 309 000 184 700 130 900
Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 231 000 257 000 389 000 368 000 480 000 440 000 310 000 625 000
RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 1 370 25 500
United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 8 390 3 990 4 620 4 250 10 930 366
GCRs
France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2
A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)
Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 480 570 420 170 260 540 480 290
Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.002
U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell A-BTorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa
2 760
670
4605 800
1 300
12 810
2 640
1 170
1302 900
1 900
10 190
14-
3 210
---
2 5301 57089769
2 6001 680
-1 300
-9 030
22814
3 000
---
2 0001 5501 620
354 6001 960
-1 700
797 790
51676
5 100
1452 540
-2 0502 6101 830
312 9001 860990
1 700134
14 980
111 2705 600
6202 4401 1203 2602 6202 500
165 0001 8901 4701 300155
10 300
9.6786
1 0301 5201 5603 0602 1002 100
0.62 1801 730871
1 26063
6 700
111 1004 400
5704 7801 6102 7202 9801 960
4.92 8101 480639
1 810277
5 290
LWGRs
LithuaniaIgnalina 1-2
O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d
Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3
O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d
Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3
FBRs
FranceCreys-MalvillePhenix
KazakhstanBn-350
Table 32 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 253
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Russian FederationBeloyarsky 3
United Kingdom [N5]Dounreay PFR 3 200 3 100 2 300 3 700 2 000 1 700 790 570
Summaryparameter
ReactorRelease (TBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
All reactors
Total release(TBq)
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
16840.6
8 38824.3
3.2
8 624
23635.7
6 49619.5
3.1
6 791
21734.6
6 17123.3
2.3
6 448
23947.0
10 09025.3
3.7
10 400
23040.4
6 61537.9
2.0
6 925
24338.7
3 87340.1
1.7
4 196
26043.9
3 89625.5
0.79
4 226
19642.8
39 40032.7
0.57
4 212
Annualnormalizedrelease[TBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
1.91.08507.6
52
62
2.60.865695.3
35
46
2.30.855783.9
-
42
2.51.18133.8
36
65
2.40.904814.7
53
42
2.50.753174.7
-
25
2.60.943313.5
-
25
2.20.913403.5
-
27
Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[TBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
2.30.946504.72649
51
2.40.863293.926-
26
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION254
Table 33Iodine-131 released from reactors in airborne effluents
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PWRs
Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 0.331 0.365
Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3
0.4850.295
0.6570.086
0.1920.039
0.0970.027
0.010.016
0.0320.0055
0.0080.052
0.00570.016
Brazil [C7]Angra 1 0.00047 0.356 0.481 0.00036 0.299 0.936
Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 5.6 4.5 10.6 8.0 2.2 1.50 1.98 2.68
China[C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2
--0
--0
-
0 0
0.424
0
0.720
0
0.229
0
0.116
0
Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 0.01 0.014 0.06 0.097 0.024 0.013 0.122 0.011
Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 0.017 0.16 0.025 0.033 0.00017 0.77 0.00087 0.000072
France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4
A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h p a r t i c u l a t e s (Table 34)
Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser
0.00320.0007
00.0022
5.2000
0.02620.00004
00.0028
0.00029
0.00150.00084
00.0011
0000
0.0000820.0001
0.000180.061
0.000056
0.0240
0.0000740.0028
00.0013
0.000540
0.000960
0.000420.034
0.00076
0.0120
0.0003400
0.000700
0.00670.031
00.0031
0
0.0420.000350.0026
0.0000410
0.00500
0.01930.000052
0.0180.000210.0001
0.0170.0260.0013
00
0.03100
0.020.0087
0.000740.000260.0019
0.0300.0006
00.00015
00.0082
00
0.000710.0000060.00043
0.0020.000097
0.00690.0032
00.0013
0000
0.00420.000070.00450.004
0.00047
Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 0.45 0.63 0.14 0.28 0.14 0.18 0.34 0.36
Table 33 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 255
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2
00
0.00150.0009
00.0003
00
00
0.00610.0011
00.22
00
00.00950.0190.0034
00.043
00
00
0.0100.0003
00.0004
00
00
0.00030.0002
00.0003
00
00
0.000200
0.000200
00000000
00
0.00180.0009
00.0038
00
Netherlands [N7]Borssele 0 0.046 0 0.017 0.029 0.0095 0 0.03
Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4
0.140.19
0.00033
0.190.0860.0077
16.00.000220.0015
13.20.00430.0062
0.0660.00052
0.018
0.01700.00019
0.156
0.00460.0300.017
0.00780.86
0.011
Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5
1.551.022.070.71
0.160.113.782.70
0.320.19
11.610.27
1.620.415.540.14
0.120.543.110.27
0.140.683.650.41
0.680.141.891.08
0.130.073.301.10
Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 1.72 1.79 1.43 1.59 1.38 2.05 1.88 0.87
Slovenia [S1]Krsko 0.012 0.007 0.096 0.41 0.30 0.75 2.74 1.45
South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 0.55 1.28 0.56 0.32 0.26 0.31 0.13 0.16
Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2
0.00060.0250.9030.0210.255
0.1240.0125
1.490
0.009
0.0260.0084.84
00.12
0.0110.0130.7020.0070.083
0.0140.0070.025
00.034
0.0140.0480.003
00.029
0.0890.00020.008
00.026
0.0950.00033
0.180.31
0.052
Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 1.26 0.506 0.882 0.354 0.163 0.093 0.078 0.020
Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen
0.240.041
0.015-
0.0160.004
0.0150.004
0.0270.007
0.0180.040
0.0250.010
0.0560.073
Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6
0.443.92
0.0120.1
0.450.95
0.0210.27
1.371.47
0.0122.44
0.571.10
0.00143.33
0.130.51
0.0072.4
0.301.39
0.0091.2
0.571.61
0.0281.89
0.320.84
0.0114.8
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 0.049 0.034
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
0.00740.00510.0770.15
0.00530.0540.051
-0.0280.0870.0016
0.12
0.0810.260.40
0.00630.0006
0.490.0670.00070.0094
0.320.0220.031
0.0360.0280.00140.0160.0170.62
0.0210.0310.0200.011
-0.27
0.00020.250.12
0.0160.0230.52
0.0270.00370.0007
0.270.00020.0028
-0.0140.14
0.000560.16
0.0160
0.000180.0690.150.35
0.0400.0910.0310.0240.00160.0670.014
0
0.0210.230.33
0.0070.47
0.0170.00300.020
00.000050.000009
0.0940.0740.23
0.000080.041
0.00070.037
00
0.0010
0.076
Table 33 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION256
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts Bar 1Wolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
0.00010.0650.19
0.094-
0.170.00004
0.160.0491.250.230.28
0.0690.20
0.0120.053
-0.000004
0.0500.51
-0.00730.0190.52
0.0490.0570.0560.23
0.0160.00100.022
-0.00310.00500.048
0.0600.00750.0590.62
-0.014
0.000010.24
0.0440.93
0.0941.50
0.00381.22
0.0130.0044
--
0.0850.47
0.00070.00020.0068
0.270.0190.0370.0160.0470.00870.0740.085
-0.0890.0008
0.28
0.00720.0110.0520.00020.0230.48
-0.14
0.0790.310.500.51
0.0270.46
0.0670.0070
-0.00004
0.0141.42
0.00010.00020.0820.21
0.0180.18
0.00840.00800.00790.0500.0007
-0.0006
0.000081.77
00.00080.0270.0980.0003
0.18-
0.150.0620.0520.0900.0920.0340.42
0.00450.025
0.0540.231.79
-0.000070.00020.0910.0230.27
00.0840.16
0.0170.00004
-0.026
00.41
0.160.00150.0060
0.013
00.0280.0210.0300.0151.18
0.0810.22
0.00030.001
0.0240.07
0.00030.000001
0.0270.15
0.0490
0.180.00780.0300.0040
00.0099
0.00460.11
0.0027
0.0016
-0.0110.0023
0.670.0090.300.230.36
0.00410.019
0.0191.76
0.00080.11
0.0810.20
0
0.000010.0300.029
00.34
0.00021.02
0.0061
0.00004
0.140.0044
0.000040.00360.0040.130.310.23
0.00130
00.10
0.000170.0014
0.0100.00011
0
0.000060.22
0.000020
0.00330
0.012
0.0049
0.0020
00.0004
00
0.0070.0040.044
00
00.30
0.064
0.140.00008
0
0.000030.0760.020
00
BWRs
China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2
11.90.102
5.000.0053
3.660.0011
0.990.0024
0.690.0034
0.130.052
0.0910.0022
0.1370.0030
Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 0.056 0.25 0.15 0.081 1.1 0.038 0.026 0.017
Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen
0.020.015
0.000550.06
0.00140.019
0.0310.000920.00017
0.0770.0024
0.16
0.0290.00210.0016
0.320.00330.098
00.00025
0.0230.150.12
0.036
00.00036
0.0350.0360.59
0.045
0.000940.00029
0.0130.380.05
0
0.0170.00014
0.0230.22
0.0470
0.00110.00016
0.0570.14
0.0750
India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 5.0 4.7 5.0 4.9 3.6
Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1
0.00830
0.03700-00
0.0005
0.00910000-00
0.00006
0.007200000000
0.006700000000
0.002800000000
0.003700000000
0.003200000000
00.00002
0000000
Table 33 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 257
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 0.012 0.12 0.073 0.11 0.057 0.063 0.23 0.18
Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 0.038 0.0035 0.0017 0.0014 0.0016 0.028 0.0024 0.0016
Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona
0.0320.015
3.050.031
1.480.012
0.6040.105
0.380.083
0.1280.091
0.0520.031
0.240.011
Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1
0.0390.661.900.14
0.603.500.60
0.097
0.0571.100.64
0.063
0.00621.040.8420.0
0.00650.680.7335.0
0.0210.580.3412.3
0.00270.450.457.46
0.00790.230.464.20
Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg
1.400.15
1.000.018
0.680.021
1.20.012
2.40.013
0.870.0054
0.710.0053
0.430.02
United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2
0.077-
0.440.00570.013
-0.0096
0.130.0730.0190.22
0.0440.0800.00120.0271.38
0.0530.850.480.360.340.171.79
-2.043.21
0.0490.360.36
0.00110.00370.0680.00470.0900.0960.0750.17
-0.065
-0.0161.120.190.941.300.511.42
0.0581.45
0.00052.310.79
0.160.510.18
0.00200.00340.0380.0034
0.150.0038
0.281.37
-0.0520.0400.0083
1.230.0901.471.045.621.19
0.0430.30
0.00061.570.29
0.0950.19
0.0120.00470.00100.0370.0034
0.230.0180.0179.25
-1.100.42
0.0520.350.170.371.781.471.14
0.0470.81
-0.420.48
0.120.500.08
0.00220.00140.0110.00340.00470.056
-3.33
00.120.14
0.0120.32
0.0150.382.010.480.50
0.0261.78
0.00040.110.16
0.04
0.200.00360.00160.0230.00360.0440.0540.0041.51
0.0240.173.54
0.0560.14
0.111.871.010.23
0.0701.40
00.070.11
0.17
0.780.0160.71
0.0480.0029
0.180.0720.0241.82
0.015
00.21
0.0810.560.300.26
0.0330.51
00.0350.0023
0.02
1.360
0.650.22
0.00460.46
0.0070.0003
2.240.020
00.18
0.10
0.210.0500.90
00.015
HWRs
Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse
0.0781.4
1.31.6
0.00890.07
0.490
0.440.26
0.351.7
0.0410.27
0.530
Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau
0.0630.12
0.0120
0.320.089
0
0.0550.13
0.0160.0190.12
0.0630.016
0.0400.0640.0180.00370.0890.0520.0030
0.0330.0570.0310.0037
0.130.0480.0002
0.0300.0590.036
00.10
0.0850.0051
0.0270.12
0.0340
0.0740.10
0
0.0190.0440.022
00.0730.0980.0015
0.0140.0350.020
00.0740.0990.021
India [B4]Kakrapar 1Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2
0.160
1.43
0.240.021.00
0.261.550.46
0.512.300.78
0.052.970.31
Table 33 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION258
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pakistan [P2]Karachi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 0 0.0012 0.00037 0 0 0.052 0.14 0
RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 0 0.0071
United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 0.22 0.38
GCRs
France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2
A m o u n t s i n c l u d e d w i t h n o b l e g a s e s (Table 31)
Japan [J1, J5]Tokai1 0.0020 0.0014 0.0006 0.00005 0 0.0016 0.0005 0
Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 0.0002 0.0001 0 0 0 0 0
U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa
--
0.58--
1.90.31.5-
0.4-------
--
0.57--
2.00.21.5-
0.41-------
--
1.05--
3.00.31.5-
0.14-------
0.61
6.00.31.4
0.1
0.40.31.4
0.1
0.30.31.5
0.1
0.0040.31.4
0.02
0.0040.191.40
0.02
LWGRs
Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 4.25 10.0 1.2 0.5 2.9 6.2 11.5 6.3
Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3
07.4720.73.41
01.0836.33.92
03.5188.89.99
07.2919.616.5
03.6530.312.2
06.7519.66.21
09.9929.25.67
010.717.523.8
Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 10.8 6.77 2.85 7.96 4.66 5.40 7.84 1.96
FBRs
France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix
N o t r e p o r t e d
KazakhstanBn-350
Table 33 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 259
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
United Kingdom [N5]Dounreay PFR
Summaryparameter
ReactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
All reactors
Total release(GBq)
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
32.333.43.904.6846.6
-
121
28.230.74.964.6858.1
-
127
60.729.12.625.99106
-
205
44.149.14.398.4151.9
-
158
15.355.64.352.2053.7
-
131
19.725.82.412.2044.2
-
94.2
19.415.60.711.7264.2
-
102
20.112.60.801.6260.3
-
95.4
Annualnormalizedrelease[GBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
0.310.740.391.84.4
0.70
0.260.620.441.45.6
0.69
0.540.600.251.512
1.1
0.400.980.351.85.5
0.84
0.141.10.320.497.1
0.69
0.180.450.200.565.5
0.48
0.160.300.060.377.3
0.52
0.190.260.070.357.7
0.53
Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[GBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
0.330.810.351.46.8
0.81
0.170.330.110.426.9
0.51
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION260
Table 34Particulates released from reactors in airborne effluents
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PWRs
Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 2.34 2.77
Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3
0.1620.136
0.10.077
0.0750.017
0.0080.020
0.00060.032
0.00360.051
0.00280.033
0.00150.015
Brazil [C7]Angra 1 0.000009 0.000007 0.0000001 0 0.01 0.044
Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 2.4 1.7 3.8 2.3 2.0 1.50 1.92 1.86
China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2
--0
--0
-
0.016 0.0044 0.0037 0.011 0.0019 0.011
Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 0.099 0.10 0.21 0.21 0.15 0.13 0.080 0.24
Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 0.2 0.17 0.28 0.081 0.23 0.34 0.22 0.25
France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-BTricastin 1-4
0.590.520.540.251.0
0.099
0.210.55
0.0290.12
0.0491.40.180.26
0.0190.0890.0890.40
0.390.330.930.191.40.88
0.140.37
0.0390.19
0.0291.1
0.0990.39
0.0190.29
0.0290.44
0.570.530.440.350.90
0.019
0.110.37
0.0290.48
0.0190.750.280.24
0.0490.11
0.0390.35
2.20.310.440.230.30
0.012
0.250.84
0.0290.12
0.0281.10.650.18
0.0870.12
0.0390.33
0.180.440.380.220.86
0.012
0.520.69
0.0190.25
0.0192.10.171.30.31
0.0890.0390.13
0.210.800.320.170.41
0.006
0.171.1
0.0190.10
0.0394.30.150.54
0.0390.59
0.0790.13
0.250.330.330.18
0.0990.00040.0390.14
0.0990.0390.120.190.550.250.33
0.0960.13
0.0740.11
0.0890.110.380.17
0.0690.0002
0.870.0590.10
0.0290.120.800.350.150.130.120.11
0.0990.19
Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser
0.0110.000370.00060.0083
0.620.0001
0.0000370
0.00630.004
0.000450.0460.0019
0.0240.0012
0.000390.0033
0.120
0.0000130
0.00340.0086
0.000370.0210.0021
0.0140
0.000370.00190.063
0.000590.00034
00.00260.00490.0010.00490.001
0.010.0014
0.0000710.00150.038
0.000290.000036
00.00160.0120.00180.005
0.00099
0.030.000450.000680.00160.0210.0011
00
0.00710.0120.00180.00420.0014
0.00250
0.0000070.0027
0.280.00025
00
0.00120.018
0.000990.0790.0012
0.00200
0.000660.0026
0.160.000960.0018
00.00290.0092
0.000150.00100.0015
0.00840
0.000170.0020.0870.0012
0.000070
0.000270.0074
0.000530.000240.00079
Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 1.14 1.30 0.45 1.30 1.28 0.49 0.74 1.30
Table 34 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 261
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2
00000000
00000000
00000000
00000000
00000000
00000000
00000000
00000000
Netherlands [N7]Borssele 0 0 0 0 0.0011 0 0 0
Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4
0.120.024
0.00078
0.0150.000040.0011
0.00140.0016
0.00015
0.950.00002
0
0.000070.0077
2.7
0.000070.0150.013
0.00270.00200.023
00.021
0.00062
Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5
1.490.038.511.88
0.140.037.162.43
0.270.032.570.95
0.410.203.241.07
0.240.142.970.68
0.140.052.032.43
0.180.110.922.30
0.120.090.201.54
Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 0.38 0.54 1.46 1.1 0.37 0.53 0.30 0.54
Slovenia [S1]Krsko 0 0 0 0.0034 0.0004 0.020 0.00017 0.0036
South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 1.04 4.50 2.18 3.79 4.97 6.22 3.31 4.19
Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2
0.0710.0320.0630.01
0.019
0.0330.020.25
0.0170.017
0.0060.0250.6680.0060.027
0.040.0280.3440.0060.021
0.0370.0240.0070.0050.037
0.0110.2190.0040.0060.004
0.0430.0160.0170.0020.008
0.00790.0360.00880.00220.025
Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 0.017 0.014 0.0038 0.016 0.014 0.0051 0.00088 0.050
Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen
0.00150.0024
0.00180.0013
0.00410.00067
0.000870.006
0.0020.006
0.0060.010
0.0060.010
0.0060.010
Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6
0.0350.33
0.0120.13
0.160.30
0.0210.15
0.100.48
0.0120.28
0.120.18
0.00140.28
0.0760.17
0.0070.17
0.0800.39
0.0090.17
0.100.13
0.0280.12
0.0760.16
0.0110.08
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 0.0087 0.0051
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
0.0330.0190.00140.00150.00010.00910.0130.00140.00020.00110.0006
2.60
1.590.11
0.0120.0004
0.000040.00010.036
00.00750.0022
0.000260.058
1.840.029
00
0.00580.00200.036
00.00030.0240.0950.074
0.000220.56
00.00022
0.0390.28
0.00730.000140.00025
0.0160.00170.016
0.00040.045
0
0.000510.0440.0034
00.000350.00200.0130.078
0.150.73
00.00086
0.0570.0019
0.140
0.000090.0038
0.22
0.00040.048
0.00390.0002
0.000090.000560.000080.000230.00520.0057
1.10
0.00020.029
0.00010.00021
0.0360
0.0010.0010.46
Table 34 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION262
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
00.00150.00110.0800.00290.0360.120.51
0.0270.00300.0220.0520.0100.0590.00830.0026
00.00500.00210.024
00.00250.0450.00300.059
0.000140.00480.00590.00430.0020
0-
0.00320.00100.0026
00.00440.0019
0.340.00170.0640.0710.0280.0280.0190.00590.0410.0073
0.100.12
0.0140
0.00640.00310.0280.0390.0210.0840.00700.0220.00290.00540.00130.00180.00330.0026
-0
0.000350.0070
0.00860.01
00.20
0.00700.0081
0.000060.0520.00670.0210.00370.0110.00840.0600.41
0.00240
0.00510.00250.0190.0410.00320.0130.00850.0110.00120.00070.0008
00.17
0.00037-
0.000050.00029
0.12
0.00110.000060.00056
0.360.00640.0410.00070.0600.00210.0260.0170.0310.0077
0.290.54
0.00260
0.00330.00074
0.0690.000020.00045
0.0200.00460.0065
0.0002500
0.00480.0021
0-0
0.000030.87
0.500.000110.00023
0.0041
0.00170.037
0.000240.00540.0026
0.110.00290.0950.08
0.0028
0.00010.00073
0.021
00.00130.0200.012
0.000460
0.00160.0140.00400.0028
0.000270.035
0.000890.000840.00014
0.34
0.000540.0370.00720.00520.0030.0150.00350.0560.16
0.005
0.00030.00077
0.018
0.0170.00790.006
0.000150
0.000020.00910.0027
0.000910.14
0.00040.00026
0.020
0.0015
0.00130.030
0.000060.00028
0.0120.01
0.00410.00950.00840.006
0.00130.00098
0.029
0.00160.0057
0.0070.000001
0
0.000250.012
0.000190
0.000040.00076
0.060
0.00024
0.0089
0.000210.000950.00170.00050.0010.0140.0032
0.000080.033
0.00060.00012
0.018
0.0052
0.0020.0012
0
0.00190.000900.00080
0.000030.032
BWRs
China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2
0.710.0039
0.220.075
0.0800.015
0.0390.0003
0.110.0003
0.0380.0024
0.0200
0.0120.000007
Finland [F1]Olkilouto 1-2 0.22 0.74 0.3 0.11 0.13 0.033 0.014 0.045
Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen
0.0540
0.00630.00510.0730.045
0.0230
0.00190.0390.0230.17
0.0750
0.00870.0250.0220.058
0.0410
0.0110.0280.08
0.077
0.0340
0.0180.0190.0540.053
0.0340
0.0100.0340.0320.013
0.0340.000074
0.0160.0860.0210.012
0.0260.000062
0.0130.15
0.0250.041
India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 8.6 21.6 4.8 8.7 5.8
Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1
0.00810000-
0.000200
0.00170000-
0.00040
0.00005
0.00100000000
0.0003
0.001900000
0.00100
0.00004
0.003400000
0.00030
0.00008
0.000200000000
0.00060000000
0.0001
0.002000000
0.000400
Table 34 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 263
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 0.12 1.11 0.31 0.55 0.21 16.7 2.01 0.63
Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 0.028 0.0086 0.0043 0.0045 0.0052 0.0049 0.0046 0.005
Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona
0.1530.071
0.5450.032
0.4150.046
0.0770.139
0.0660.216
0.0490.077
0.0050.127
0.460.015
Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1
0.1982.727520.2
0.3713917865.0
0.7319958.8
0.022
0.4837.853.2323
0.4819.540.5
43 500
1.0084.414.0
44 700
3.061.8440.8
10 600
1.602.7730.5
1 740
Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg
0.0360.049
0.00710.078
0.00190.013
0.0030.01
0.0110.007
0.0200.020
0.0200.020
0.0200.020
United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2
0.130.0070
1.350.32
0.0285.450.160.440.63
0.0180.0940.16
0.0470.0270.0700.220.230.310.19
0.0520.0361.060.13
0.0320.642.34
0.0650.690.350.34
0.0171.45
0.0930.120.83
0.0830.0440.0160.19
0.00420.0760.220.590.210.28
0.0110.320.380.19
0.00850.681.53
0.0261.21
0.0970.0910.0150.840.110.10
0.0120.0460.20
0.0990.0480.0150.0470.250.320.640.14
00.521.09
0.0440.170.791.31
0.0460.760.280.68
0.0131.38
0.0770.11
0.0670.0031
3.880.0724.940.630.140.740.37
0.0860.29
0.0850.470.91
0.0520.0480.320.86
0.120.650.781.70
0.0160.58
0.0300.0052
0.770.0034
11.40.0017
0.1417.80.230.100.130.190.522.620.250.100.130.070.070.10
0.09
0.830.16
0.0120.520.11
0.0520.45
0.00320.45
0.0710.220.170.42
0.067
0.10.510.210.870.770.140.06
0.0250.25
0.13
0.240.0361.58
0.0790.0640.0560.0470.0014
2.430.14
0.0210.063
0.0930.150.75
0.0890.770.13
0.0290.0070.081
0.14
0.360.0025
2.420.30
0.0140.120.01
0.00591.85
0.095
0.0160.048
0.068
0.0870.660.24
0.0540.032
HWRs
Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse
0.00110
0.0150.12
0.0150.025
0.180
0.0490.0036
0.0130.077
0.0380
0.0060
Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau
0.0810.14
0.0120.00037
0.290.018
0
0.0630.14
0.0460.0130.0870.019
0
0.0720.12
0.0460.0740.0890.0200.0040
0.0790.120.11
0.0520.0850.0210.0013
0.110.100.10
0.0700.0700.0410.0005
0.120.12
0.0850.0450.0700.026
0
0.0720.0750.0580.0300.0510.027
0
0.0700.0880.0650.1140.3550.039
0.00005
India [B4]Kakrapar 1Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2
00
0.014
00
0.004
00
0.004
00
0.006
00
0.002
Table 34 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION264
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Pakistan [P2]Karachi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 0 0
United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 0.19 0.021 0.00002 0.00002
GCRs
France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2
0.430.0250.21
0.380.0180.13
0.290.0110.14
0.170.0060.011
0.300.0080.005
0.380.0190.002
0.0090.0050.001
0.0050.0090.0007
Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 0.0021 0.011 0.0002 0.0002 0.0013 0.0001 0.0002 0
Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 0.02 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.0008 0 0.002
U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell A-BTorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa
0.010.07
--
0.170.070.040.050.300.57
0.0080.130.050.33
0.0450.280.11
0.010.07
--
0.110.060.040.050.230.46
0.00160.0490.070.37
0.0270.040.10
0.010.03
--
0.130.070.04
0.0120.150.32
0.00110.120.100.41
0.0130.020.16
0.010.05
0.210.070.040.070.230.40
0.00360.180.100.55
0.0260.010.13
0.010.26
0.260.040.040.070.230.31
0.00250.130.080.53
0.0710.010.11
0.010.16
0.40.010.040.080.160.08
0.00130.0740.100.36
0.0140.010.10
0.0040.21
0.330.0490.0350.0690.0770.0770.00020.0360.0910.0220.0150.00160.0087
0.0040.20
0.300.0350.0250.0990.17
0.0750.00020.0340.10
0.0730.0150.00230.074
LWGRs
Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 9.8 1.06 2.2 1.5 8.2 4.2 7.8 1.3
Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3
025.962.29.55
011.696.212.4
011.298.724.0
09.1828.18.64
08.5176.42.70
013.142.61.76
013.564.62.97
019.222.93.78
Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 51.2 43.2 13.7 13.5 6.85 3.66 4.00 1.89
FBRs
France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix
0.008 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.013 0.013 0.013
Kazakhstan [A6]Bn-350 0.84 0.97 1.25 23.4 0.69 0.67 0.53 0.46
Table 34 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 265
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
United KingdomDounreay PFR
Summaryparameter
ReactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
All reactors
Total release(GBq)
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
29.24020.752.921590.85
595
29.64160.512.331640.98
614
22.92730.492.141501.26
450
26.34420.652.2760.923.4
555
25.243 610
0.552.471030.70
43 740
26.544 820
0.562.0065.30.68
44 920
17.710 660
0.351.0492.90.54
10 770
18.21 7830.741.2249.00.47
1 852
Annualnormalizedrelease[GBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
0.218.4
0.0760.43152.0
2.8
0.208.0
0.0440.32162.5
2.7
0.155.5
0.0460.27172.4
2.0
0.178.6
0.0530.256.447
2.4
0.17826
0.0400.27141.5
187
0.17781
0.0460.248.21.7
188
0.11204
0.0300.14110.7
45
0.1236
0.0700.136.31.1
8.2
Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[GBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
0.18178
0.0510.301412
40
0.13351
0.0480.178.41.0
81
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION266
Table 35Tritium released from reactors in liquid effluents
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PWRs
ArmeniaArmenia 2
Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3
63 00056 400
38 10034 500
43 90034 900
32 80035 200
32 80033 100
47 00041 200
31 30044 700
38 40047 300
Brazil [C7]Angra 1 12 200 11 400 49 300 6 560 587 5 130 4 640 19 500
Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6
N o t r e p o r t e d11 690
China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2
--
4 630
--
6 030
-1 6909 140
1 45016 900
22 2006 320
20 500
10 1004 82011 700
22 1003 58015 300
38 5002 9506 790
Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 20 100 18 300 19 300 18 600 15 600 14 500 17 200 14 600
Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 12 000 14 000 10 000 12 000 11 000 12 000 9 400 12 000
France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4
31 00058 00042 00035 00062 000
108 000
51 00052 00020 00048 000
50087 00023 000
100 0004 00030 00034 00049 000
39 00054 00030 00047 00049 00095 000
37 00052 00026 00037 0008 00080 00018 00082 00016 00024 00036 00033 000
37 00039 00015 00086 00052 00026 000
34 00073 00016 00034 0009 00070 00018 00073 00020 0009 00041 00032 000
38 00036 00046 00066 00033 000
800
46 00050 00017 00035 0008 40043 00026 00077 00033 00013 00033 00034 000
22 00032 00035 00069 00033 0001 000
55 00043 00020 00030 00030 00060 00022 00067 00023 00016 00024 00038 000
30 00046 00033 00080 00044 000
600
43 00044 00021 00031 00027 00039 00025 00075 00024 00022 00016 00025 000
36 00053 00033 00072 00044 0001600200
50 00044 00020 00035 00022 00051 00032 00070 00029 00043 00020 00046 000
33 00040 00038 00074 00059 000
10013 00037 00038 00022 00025 00033 00058 00022 00081 00024 00023 00017 00032 000
Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser
23 0009 4008 70012 0006 40014 0007 2002 00027 0003 50019 0003 40011 000
18 30015 0008 30014 000
20016 0008 600490
32 000890
17 0002 90011 000
25 00019 00013 00014 000
8314 00016 000
42024 0003 30015 0004 8009 000
30 00014 0009 50013 000
3115 00019 000
46030 0005 40013 0004 8008 500
26 00014 00013 00013 000
6918 00022 000
32038 0004 40013 0003 6007 700
21 00012 00010 00013 000
4512 00019 000
25035 0004 60017 0002 7006 000
15 00014 00012 00016 000
2610 00020 000
4934 0005 70015 0002 90012 000
25 00017 00015 00016 000
247 40017 000
18033 0005 10016 0002 70015 000
Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 14 000 16 000 16 000 18 000 18 000 20 000 20 000 15 600
Table 35 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 267
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2
34 00033 00020 00016 00037 00035 00016 00023 000
26 00029 00013 00020 00036 00030 00011 00030 000
24 00025 00012 00029 00048 00055 00021 0007 500
36 00033 00018 00042 00039 00069 00024 00016 000
50 00038 00011 00063 00031 00033 00021 00012 000
58 00053 00017 00061 00042 00037 00019 00018 000
46 00040 00017 00059 00050 00057 00026 00014 000
61 00045 00016 00046 00036 00064 00030 00021 000
Netherlands [N7]Borssele 5 540 2 900 4 370 5 980 5 870 6 161 6 020 4 330
Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4
76 10013 10042 600
85 90014 30029 600
48 70035 30028 600
66 10029 90046 600
58 00028 00026 000
31 80021 30027 900
32 90020 80042 200
36 70021 90055 800
Russian FederationBalakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5
A v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e e s t i m a t e d t o b e 30,000 GBq (GW a) -1
Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 13 000 15 600 12 800 14 000 12 600 12 400 12 700 9 580
Slovenia [S1]Krsko 13 500 13 500 14 600 10 900 10 500 8 500 9 300 7 800
South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 60 700 91 000 83 700 13 500 17 900 11 300 31 800 17 200
Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2
47 20042 3001 74010 90014 600
48 60053 4001 34020 00017 200
53 70059 3002 94011 90010 400
70 60055 500
94319 80015 700
51 30035 800
51119 00014 700
42 80085 8001 02014 00013 400
49 30050 7002 59019 40016 600
54 10058 0002 16028 80020 700
Sweden [N3]Ringhals 48 800 45 400 53 100 43 400 34 300 21 000 24 600 22 500
Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen
9 30011 000
8 90012 000
7 20012 000
12 00013 000
11 00011 000
12 00014 000
12 00013 000
12 00014 000
Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-5
15 13 12
1 600
25
2 050
28
1 810
28
663
39
1 380
23
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 37 600 44 200
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
29 60018 20048 10036 90037 7002 70022 0006 92018 9004 70035 80057 700
53 90017 90025 40052 90045 40037 60023 90017 00016 60012 10038 90057 400
29 70017 20070 90058 50021 90065 60028 60022 60013 50014 10045 10016 000
28 10020 50059 60076 20052 00023 50030 60018 60021 8006 70038 10022 200
35 40013 60045 700
38 10024 20021 70032 90012 20016 400
102 000212
34 10019 20069 60050 00029 30028 20018 10031 100
6 20058 090
300
42 40072 900
52 10043 30028 00023 70036 5009 70019 40035 50075 200
26 50020 100
25 30033 60023 90053 800
25 10049 600
111 000
Table 35 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION268
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
52 1006 44011 90036 60026 90036 10014 0008 99033 90048 10061 90036 7005 510
032 30014 700
50713 10024 30087 0004 18031 60030 20021 00041 0007 8108 10023 80015 60043 40026 300
-21 8007 11025 200
30 5006 50013 900
171 00010 80040 10016 10014 40032 50021 10042 90041 8002 040
029 10020 600
36.46 96038 80086 30014 28061 10040 30030 00033 80013 3006 2507 55030 10040 50012 700
-26 5007 51034 400
59 5003 9207 88031 90033 40042 40010 7008 03032 00026 00034 40036 90029 90
015 40017 500
89514 60017 400
144 00018 50053 30050 40029 60036 00020 7007 25016 40022 50054 80018 300
-16 7002 33019 300
67 3008 8406 550
148 00020 50021 6008 73010 10028 70031 30025 60040 7007 770
017 20017 800
27531 30033 30052 70020 80020 7008 36018 80048 70013 90045 10019 00017 70028 20018 100
-37 000
18.545 900
50 1008 8205 100
37 400
6 07014 60017 80037 70045 80033 600
674
17 20013 800
7 99040 60033 000
18 20027 90019 20036 20013 200
33627 80027 80038 90024 700
22.625 100
46 7009 5003 610
11 800
8 7301 65023 90031 60036 10030 9004 660
19 60028 900
36 70014 30036 200
137 00027 80030 80019 500
10611 70011 30035 80043 700
7.0346 300
56 40018 1004 400
16 900
11 60011 00023 80014 80041 50032 5007 590
15 50023 200
36 6001 72053 700
46 70059 800
36 7006 180138
21 40060 50019 2008 26020 000
5.4246 800
35 800
11 000
154 71021 80010 70037 30022 9005 100
6 36020 900
33 3002 32011 400
60 600
41 10027 600
150
34 10054 40012 500
2.968 550
BWRs
China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2
1 8901 020
1 3902 670
1 5303 960
1 0902 800
9734 850
1 260729
1 480367
350160
Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 1 300 1 900 1 800 3 600 2 800 1 500 2 400 1 300
Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen
1702 200460960460330
2903 000400950630460
2402 800
460650620410
744 800640610760440
234 5001 100130470330
1206 4001 30058057035
35011 0001 00068054038
24013 0001 20047049014
IndiaTarapur 1-2
Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1
2 7001 1002 10015068-
430980160
2 400870
1 3004258-
5101 600470
2 100460
1 000390383
4301 400380
1 900580
1 4001609016570
1 300210
1 400580
1 3001601557
1 00083097
1 100490
1 0001308.5140730
1 500110
1 10057068017021170
1 2001 700170
1 4001 0006008044200720
1 200190
Table 35 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 269
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 498 82 158 0.00005 1 970 1 960 531 781
Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 147 152 245 163 90 26 19 18
Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona
64.7157
23573.7
310427
516177
385371
99.4121
160165
511231
Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1
1 1001 9002 600711
1 0003 5002 500882
1 5002 6001 7001 270
5802 920740500
5302 3701 130860
5542 3401 190832
1 1001 9901 380790
7602 0001 360490
Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg
930330
810380
950200
620300
570200
470340
710290
1 100320
United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2
21.87.66
1 83096.2188755
-27.611469983643713.8
1 120749
0229
-870325136966
3 0902 150
027.9
9.29221
2 960165335474
-74.7282799
1 080907
0507311
028822.3540392377164
1 1301 710
067.0
40.01 0501 57087.3541158
-13.0105851
1 6504 6300.0011
389272
0331
-6553430.54463866
2 8500.0015
400
5.85459
1 7500
400862
013.853.3
2 3301 8802 280
0951907
0.0007877
0267346139
1 3601 1202 510
01 260
1.551 6302 580
0129551
090.023.9
5 9801 7006 0705.37
2 100747
0654
095.234334.7
1 7402 4003 760
0307
3.99
2 0400
2 78096.1
00
13.54 8501 7001 710
01 650485
0707
-1 480
650834758
2 9400
192
8.79
1 7500
198425
00
1687 9901 180418
2710
2263 420
542818202
1 2400
152
5.03
9620
218462
000
6 360890457
300
0.37
8751 040296
1 2800
HWRs
Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse
530 000220 000
550 000520 000
770 000160 000
920 000200 000
2 200 000140 000
500 000230 000
550 000320 000
1 200 000160 000
Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau
1 221 000481 00012 600
163 000407 00030 000
160 000
3 241 000488 00071 000
248 000395 00032 000
110 000
1 700 000410 00046 000
263 0003 034 000
44 000320 000
1 480 000658 00057 700
241 000518 00012 600
470 000
1 440 000555 000130 000134 000555 000118 000260 000
1 900 000380 000140 000200 000440 000110 000170 000
1 200 000230 000120 000120 000430 000160 000480 000
310 000680 000112 000140 000350 00050 000
500 000
India [B4]Kakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2
-142 800
9 95023 690
-211 50015 38031 170
-366 00034 20030 190
428 60058 68065 450
266 40049 02019 010
Table 35 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION270
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 3 100 1 600 3 400 3 200 4 200 3 800 5 500 5 100
Pakistan [P2]Karachi 127 000 94 300 46 300 56 200 118 000 168 000 105 000 39 100
Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 51 800 93 200 42 000 46 300 180 000 170 000 50 000 94 700
RomaniaCernavoda - - - - - - 8 210 11 600
United Kingdom [M7, N5]Winfrith 39 330 13 280 13 790 74 010 59 980 1 610 3 900
GCRs
France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2
02 000
-
00-
00-
00-
9 6000-
1000-
2 8000-
8 2000-
Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 0.037 1.4 0.83 24 5.1 9.2 16 20
Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 141 74.3 18 300 105 114 45.6 206
U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell ATorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa
1 3501 380
-280713
7 200166 100202 100
913295 600
520353 000
1 7505 01082 0002 5205 380
2721 370
-1 870492
76 100140 900416 000
780277 000
250257 000
2715 610
132 000360
5 680
1573 920
-690451
93 300276 900525 000
706317 000
170245 000
2155 080
250 000222
2 750
2653 030
5004 430
268 900349 800854 700
779390 000
360362 000
2292 790
235 00074.7
5 920
29.12 170
490547
236 200289 400732 600
713336 000
200423 000
2633 570
220 000122
6 980
39.52 080
500296
15 080239 000584 800
757431 000
41.0449 000
23317 400
270 000232
7 560
37.21 360
3681 380
252 000353 000710 000
670319 000
22.9399 000
1861 130
298 000103
9 880
55.21 460
198135
247 000367 000816 000
810385 000
9.9413 000
1785 060
324 000298
7 020
LWGRs
LithuaniaIgnalina 1-2
Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3
O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d
Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3
O n l y a v e r a g e n o r m a l i z e d r e l e a s e r e p o r t e d
FBRs
France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix
70 20 10 1 22 28 630 1
KazakhstanBn-350
Table 35 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 271
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Russian FederationBeloyarsky 3
United KingdomDounreay PFR
Summaryparameter
ReactorRelease (TBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
All reactors
Total release(TBq)
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
2 93539.6
3 6221 128
00.070
7 725
3 08441.4
6 1151 316
00.020
10 560
2 99545.3
7 2831 740
00.010
12 060
2 95447.3
5 2902 479
00.001
10 770
2 56060.0
6 2252 262
00.022
11 110
2 67748.5
4 4122 018
00.028
9 155
2 81449.8
3 7802 349
00.63
8 994
2 55143.1
3 6562 575
00.001
8 814
Annualnormalizedrelease[TBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
230.85367163
-1.0
41
240.81536183
--
53
220.95682215
--
60
210.93426271
--
51
181.14452247
-26
52
190.85361236
--
42
190.95321314
-1.6
41
180.82316284
--
41
Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[TBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
220.94490220
-1.8
51
190.87330280
-1.7
41
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION272
Table 36Other radionuclides released from reactors in liquid effluents
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
PWRs
Armenia [A5]Armenia 2 22.9 15.4
Belgium [M1]Doel 1-4Tihange 1-3
15.541.5
22.343.7
4.453.6
23.640.9
8.623.8
37.822.5
18.952.3
26.424.3
Brazil [C7]Angra 1 0.430 0.197 0.167 0.548 0.182 0.214 0.19 1.08
Bulgaria [C6]Kozloduy 1-6 2.07 2.46 2.03 2.07 1.63 3.61 2.53 2.38
China [C8, T2]Guangdong 1-2QinshanMaanshan 1-2
--
0.313
--
0.736
-0.7322.75
0.6504.11
89.20.45
0.433
28.90.4120.336
9.320.5000.168
11.30.3360.522
Czech Republic [N2]Dukovany 1-4 0.19 0.34 0.094 0.41 0.31 0.17 0.095 0.077
Finland [F1]Loviisa 1-2 18 5.2 3.5 1.9 0.41 0.073 0.056 0.012
France [E1]Belleville 1-2Blayais 1-4Bugey 2-5Cattenom 1-4Chinon B1-B4Chooz-A (Ardennes)Chooz B1-B2Cruas 1-4Dampierre 1-4Fessenheim 1-2Flamanville 1-2Golfech 1-2Gravelines 1-6Nogent 1-2Paluel 1-4Penly 1-2St. Alban 1-2St. Laurent B1-B2Tricastin 1-4
25732551210718
17463432
0.281732818026612383
1040104139613
13201840
0.07736.0622.0302040
112551152010
9.01013110.7233.0244.06.06.024
1611269.09.55.5
5.97.66.86.91.1123.09.93.83.48.68.9
7.91018167.37.5
6.19.65.97.92.39.51.78.53.32.85.46.7
4.0149.67.01020
3.99.02.23.44.8183.09.21.83.02.36.4
6.14.9123.8104.40.24.47.02.72.01.7143.04.61.63.02.05.2
3.32.29.62.33.21.81.92.87.86.12.82.85.83.26.51.75.43.08.6
Germany [B3]Biblis A-BBrokdorfEmslandGrafenrheinfeldGreifswaldGrohndeIsar 2Mülheim-KärlichNeckarwestheim 1-2ObrigheimPhilippsburg 2StadeUnterweser
0.520
0.00870.044
3.70.030.060.32
0.0910.230.390.520.15
0.560
0.00330.0470.62
0.0930.00390.0660.0980.150.180.490.36
0.460
0.000650.0120.32
0.0130.0095
0.240.0450.210.490.450.21
0.480
0.00060.0320.170.04
0.00830.14
0.0210.110.610.320.23
0.830
0.00070.0170.16
0.0490.0004
0.150.0160.240.92
0.0490.11
0.730.11
0.000210.0170.0380.13
-0.0360.0280.520.440.370.16
0.520.026
0.000010.0110.160.11
0.000290.00890.1040.360.290.180.20
0.340.022
00.030.16
0.0460.0120.00840.0260.230.430.130.12
Hungary [F2]Paks 1-4 2.03 3.51 2.24 1.82 2.40 1.20 0.81 0.67
Table 36 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 273
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Genkai 1-4Ikata 1-3Mihama 1-3Ohi 1-4Sendai 1-2Takahama 1-4Tomari 1-2Tsuruga 2
00
0.0160.0007
000
0.0043
00
0.00050000
0.00004
00
0.00300.00008
0000
00
0.00030.0001
000
0.0002
00
0.000100000
00
0.00050000
0.00009
00000000
00000000
Netherlands [N7]Borssele 1.9 1.3 0.83 0.58 0.73 0.62 0.38 1.3
Republic of Korea [K1]Kori 1-4Ulchin 1-2Yonggwang 1-4
48.71.481.18
0.611.670.41
4.940.540.24
1.030.930.13
1.801.400.23
0.860.570.21
0.430.260.22
0.110
0.016
Russian Federation [M6]Balakovo 1-4Kalinin 1-2Kola 1-4Novovoronezh 2-5
0.170.250.150.16
0.210.460.090.19
0.251.600.170.37
0.131.680.160.34
0.741.640.070.34
0.331.530.010.16
0.191.460.120.10
0.651.180.150.70
Slovakia [N2, S4]Bohunice 1-4 0.15 0.97 0.29 0.2 0.14 0.15 0.085 0.078
Slovenia [S1]Krsko 1.54 1.53 2.50 2.90 1.60 0.70 7.90 1.20
South Africa [C11]Koeberg 1-2 1.56 1.16 2.49 21.3 59.8 59.7 57.5 47.4
Spain [C2]Almaraz 1-2Asco 1-2José Cabrera 1Trillo 1Vandellos 2
28.733.212.60.7415.6
17.633.37.530.258.95
12.424.684.660.4314.6
7.8728.41.691.0510
17.431.93.840.9730.9
24.452.1
0.2310.68517.3
14.412.4
0.1940.76111.2
12.719.8
0.2021.3419.3
Sweden [N3]Ringhals 2-4 235 75.9 102 91.4 98.1 81.1 48.2 47.3
Switzerland [F3]Beznau 1-2Gösgen
6.20.011
4.30.0014
120.0034
8.50.13
30.005
2.10.20
3.00.20
1.80.20
Ukraine [G3]Khmelnitski 1Rovno 1-3South Ukraine 1-3Zaporozhe 1-6
0.00960.48
0.023
0.00930.55
0.024
0.00780.48
0.0180.13
0.00710.99
0.0140.42
0.00673.05
0.00670.17
0.00338.10
0.00830.81
0.00622.610.010.20
0.00161.94
0.00860.47
United Kingdom [M7]Sizewell B - - - - - - 19.9 21.3
United States [T3]Arkansas One 1-2Beaver Valley 1-2Braidwood 1-2Byron 1-2Callaway 1Calvert Cliffs 1-2Catawba 1-2Comanche Peak 1-2Crystal River 3Davis-Besse 1Diablo Canyon 1-2Donald Cook 1-2
96.694.115843.71.4352.372.40.4422.95.2210459.6
14211.674724.80.5958.828.21.806.666.8131.338.1
20112.638.71520.1753.134.414.860.34.0727.541.4
82.414.735.346.61.4857.033.115.519.61.9336.419.9
52.47.6238.2
0.3638.922.29.243.359.984.72.46
82.914.829.766.80.3820.623.24.6
2.9040.510.9
49.141.4
29.512.711.45.523.091.214.379.4
24.613.7
7.1917.84.94.2
9.948.649.3
Table 36 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION274
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States (continued)Farley 1-2Fort Calhoun 1R. E. GinnaHaddam NeckHarris 1Indian Point 1-3KewauneeMaine YankeeMcGuire 1-2Millstone 2-3North Anna 1-2Oconee 1-2-3PalisadesPalo Verde 1-3Point Beach 1-2Prairie Island 1-2Rancho Seco 1H. B. Robinson 2Salem 1-2San Onofre 1-3Seabrook 1Sequoyah 1-2South Texas 1-2St. Lucie 1-2Surry 1-2Three Mile Island 1TrojanTurkey Point 3-4Virgil C. Summer 1Vogtle 1-2Waterford 3Watts BarWolf CreekYankee NPSZion 1-2
6.1829.85.5599.527.050.77.626.9214841625.01150.29
00.434.81
0.007713.322722.4
0.08245.148559.01700.885.3310.413.247.327.0
-11.72.20132
17.477.05.6227.524.558.78.7015.377.018711.851.80.42
02.186.85
0.00758.7320919.64.5154.837026.21051.302.1527.222.511.333.7
-78.40.4962.2
13.921.812.76.4011.664.52.389.2924.216818.495.50.14
015.924.6
0.0188.1425517.34.4053.714337.914.60.963.3122.18.257.1248.5
-10.80.2367.0
13.319.25.0730.92.8830.74.445.9921.112717.917.40.52
08.587.22
0.0152.0225453.03.4056.232.153.10.773.283.9217.67.1456.322.3
-26.1
0.02738.2
11.313.33.38
5.9
3.326.2732.247.919.813.50.52
5.5619.5
1.9718510.5
74.118.01202.41.920.4822.517.328.3389
0.01141.6
11.052.11.46
6.0
3.049.122.9861.613.014.40.55
5.5916.5
3.2512612.1
32.776.32.12.554.082.764.2315.0140
0.01440.1
5.031144.79
2.7
2.155.913.5226.524.412.70.10
1.7820.7
2.9518.46.9
88.138.9
7.20.161.82
5.8337.630.21.81406
0.01633.1
7.37
2.4
0.583.292.8510.84.612.60.40
8.9532.3
0.9921.512.2
23.5
15.00.260.73
2.3421.350.0
0.0086.22
BWRs
China [T2]Chin Shan 1-2Kuosheng 1-2
20.39.06
6.1542.2
3.3917.3
2.138.70
2.9725.8
2.295.39
2.082.34
2.253.52
Finland [F1]Olkiluoto 1-2 31 22 17 9.5 11 24 16 9.5
Germany [B3]BrunsbüttelGundremmingen B,CIsar 1KrümmelPhilippsburg 1Würgassen
0.170.490.28
0.0160.650.4
0.460.5
0.0690.0150.250.52
0.170.510.16
0.0120.180.61
0.0880.550.25
0.0120.520.42
0.0230.990.25
0.0090.42
1
0.0580.480.15
0.0160.250.12
0.110.640.16
0.0140.840.11
0.0371.10.14
0.00280.92
0.098
India [B4]Tarapur 1-2 1 430 1 420 1 120 1 210 762
Japan [J1, J5]Fukushima Daiichi 1-6Fukushima Daini 1-4Hamaoka 1-4Kashiwazaki Kariwa 1-7Onagawa 1-2Shika 1Shimane 1-2Tokai 2Tsuruga 1
00
0.009100-
0.00060
0.0013
00
0.005200-
0.00150
0.0065
00
0.0024000
0.00240
0.0025
00
0.0006000
0.002200
000000
0.000500
000000
0.0000700
000000000
000000000
Table 36 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 275
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico [C5]Laguna Verde 1-2 18.8 9.5 11.2 5.66 23.5 20.1 1.14 0.88
Netherlands [N7]Dodewaard 9.12 9.24 8.35 6.68 8.89 12.9 13.3 5.5
Spain [C2]ConfrentesS. Maria de Garona
0.10.57
0.180.24
0.153.58
0.130.58
0.111.64
0.0630.591
0.1190.765
0.3920.650
Sweden [N3]Barsebeck 1-2Forsmark 1-3Oskarshamn 1-3Ringhals 1
45.423014070.0
10424516754.0
105118129111
26.1156102118
26.611868.3247
57.860.597.669.5
19472.413047.9
58.311551.1155
Switzerland [F3]LeibstadtMühleberg
0.494.7
0.242
0.171.8
0.183.7
0.51.9
0.41.7
0.42.0
0.43.7
United States [T3]Big Rock PointBrowns Ferry 1-3Brunswick 1-2Clinton 1CooperDresden 2-3Duane Arnold 1Enrico Fermi 2FitzpatrickGrand Gulf 1Hatch 1-2Hope Creek 1Lasalle 1-2Limerick 1-2Millstone 1MonticelloNine Mile Point 1-2Oyster CreekPeach Bottom 2-3Perry 1Pilgrim 1Quad Cities 1-2River Bend 1Susquehanna 1-2Vermont YankeeWPPSS 2
1.3511.216.90.9275.426.3
08.071.0123.912.655.10.9112.75.22
02.42
0.00250.5022.60.594.1827.36.29
00.57
4.5131.016.11.2684.828.2
07.961.1432.428.229.2
01.2450.3
06.220.891.384.371.4827.113.42.30
01.28
5.5589.21.830.671470.82
00.0056
0.434.4434.211.3
0.0111.0917.1
09.62
-0.972.210.121.4561.41.79
0.0013.51
3.591783.85
085.75.99
00.0550.0706.1431.313.4
05.374.74
04.33
02.095.740.852.2736.01.82
07.62
5.3041.51.67
0.0000412.51.48
00.40
0.0288.8736.83.320.1618.32.20
03.96
05.954250.102.221684.44
01.05
3.83
15.40
49.32.30
00
0.00213.114.352.0
016.50.95
0
-1.801.782.832.3210921.5
00.96
8.98
1.480.00003
41.80.98
00
0.3314.214.528.9
1.060
0.101.251.450.340.9316.92.07
00.41
0.90
0.540
48.10.53
000
4.8110.810.1
0.880
0
4.891.0819.60.36
0
HWRs
Argentina [C3]Atucha 1Embalse
1303.5
9320
932
602
6601.6
3304.3
6804.6
2302.0
Canada [A2]Bruce 1-4Bruce 5-8Darlington 1-4Gentilly 2Pickering 1-4Pickering 5-8Point Lepreau
204.03304.252102.0
203.07103.044104.0
305.02714482.22.0
26.55.15119.034.85.555.24
44.45.9166.9376.77.3
299.61242176.75.9
204.5206.5130
3.2
2114.89.85.07.35.22.7
India [B4]Kakrapar 1-2Kalpakkam 1-2Narora 1-2Rajasthan 1-2
-26.40.043.63
-23.60.942.93
-26.314.52.09
35.311.32.40
25.53.141.77
Table 36 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION276
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Japan [J1, J5]Fugen 0.014 0.0047 0.011 0.0016 0 0 0 0
Pakistan [P2]Karachi 8.5 13.3 13.0 22.2 8.9 5.2 4.8 5.3
Republic of Korea [K1]Wolsong 1-2 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.55 0.43 0.17 0 0
RomaniaCernavoda 1 - - - - - - 0.04 7.15
United Kingdom [N5]Winfrith 3 994 665 115 55 63 29
GCRs
France [E1]Bugey 1Chinon A2-3St. Laurent A1-2
0.20.9-
21-
12-
0.91.4-
3.73.3-
0.64.0-
2.50.6-
6.90.4-
Japan [J1, J5]Tokai 1 0.034 0.016 0.016 0.0067 0.0015 0.0089 0.0064 0.0029
Spain [C2]Vandellos 1 8.77 9.29 30.7 17.9 30.4 19.8 58.3
U. K. [M7, N4, N5]BerkeleyBradwellCalder HallChapelcrossDungeness ADungeness B1-B2Hartlepool A1-A2Heysham 1A-B, 2A-BHinkley Point AHinkley Point B, A-BHunterston A1Hunterston B1-B2Oldbury ASizewell A-BTorness A-BTrawsfynyddWylfa
329324
-1103958.9207375138320504294281.833472
496453
-11037410.3363472927280403724677.025988
1561 380
-705078.0495561016210203973831516744
378603
2701 720
19524868615290345052749.84168
144725
31099651115372421210313942921.52454
134809
160802278.11898117150233634112.32553
49756
1118361820
6 9105709.01415.91865891.82161
72849
407922711
19.7707151654.12732333.81046
LWGRs
Lithuania [E2]Ignalina 1-2 25.8 3.1 22.6 4.2 7.7 16.6 5.9 6.1
Russian Federation [M6]Bilibino 1-4Kursk 1-4Leningrad 1-4Smolensk 1-3
0.100.03
0.0030.09
0.100.00040.0004
0.08
0.110.0020.0030.04
0.060.0010.0030.02
0.070.0070.0080.03
0.060.03
0.0010.02
0.080.0070.0030.03
0.040.0040.0030.03
Ukraine [G3]Chernobyl 1-3 61.8 36.3 24.8 17.0 18.9 28.1 45.1 40.0
FBRs
France [E1]Creys-MalvillePhenix
0.10 0.11 0.083 0.013 0.017 0.010 0.021 0.017
Kazakhstan [A6]Bn-350 22.6 21.5 17.4 15.2 14.1 7.8 7.4 7.4
Table 36 (continued)
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 277
Country/reactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Russian Federation [M6]Beloyarsky 3 3.47 5.46 8.79 3.51 1.89 1.59 1.23 2.67
United KingdomDounreay PFR
Summaryparameter
ReactorRelease (GBq)
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
All reactors
Total release(GBq)
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
4 6092 3294 5883 69387.826.2
15 330
3 5462 4611 6133 79439.627.1
11 480
2 3562 040394
4 12547.626.3
8 989
1 7182 055286
5 03021.318.7
9 130
1 9802 044888
4 07926.716.0
9 034
1 454662462
4 00844.89.4
6 640
1 605620786
10 35051.18.7
13 420
685511310
3 27546.210.1
4 837
Annualnormalizedrelease[GBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
34484655338.261
72
25471415263.870
51
1641375115.450
39
1140235502.238
39
1339654453.533
39
1012384705.624
28
101267
1 3805.822
56
4.510273615.923
21
Averagenormalizedrelease1990-1994and 1995-1997[GBq (GW a)-1]
PWRsBWRsHWRsGCRs
LWGRsFBRs
All
19431305104.849
48
8.111447005.823
35
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION278
a Weighted by the fraction of energy generated by the reactor types.b Estimated value.c Data available for one year only.
Table 37Normalized releases of radionuclides from nuclear reactors
Release YearNormalized release [TBq (GW a)-1]
PWR BWR GCR HWR LWGR FBR Total a
Noble gases 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
530430220812713
44 0008 8002 200290350180
5803 2002 3002 1001 6001 200
4 800460210170
2 100250
5 000 b
5 000 b
5 5002 0001 700460
150 b
150 b
150 b
820380210
13 0003 3001 200330330130
Tritium 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
5.47.85.92.72.32.4
1.83.43.42.10.940.86
9.97.6 b
5.48.14.73.9
680540670690650330
26 b
26 b
26 b
26 b
26 b
26
96 b
96 b
96 b
4449
49 b
483844403616
Carbon-14 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-1994
0.22 b
0.220.350.120.22
0.52 b
0.52 c
0.330.450.51
0.22 b
0.22 b
0.35 b
0.541.4
6.3 b
6.3 b
6.34.81.6
1.3 b
1.3 b
1.3 b
1.31.3 b
0.12 b
0.12 b
0.12 b
0.12 b
0.12 b
0.710.700.740.530.44
Iodine-131 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
0.00330.00500.00180.00090.00030.0002
0.150.41
0.0930.00180.00080.0003
0.0014 b
0.0014 b
0.00140.00140.00140.0004
0.00140.00310.00020.00020.00040.0001
0.080 b
0.080 b
0.0800.0140.0070.007
0.0033 b
0.0050 b
0.0018 b
0.0009 b
0.0003 b
0.0002
0.0470.12
0.0300.0020.00070.0004
Particulates 1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
0.018 c
0.00220.00450.00200.00020.0001
0.040 c
0.0530.0430.0091
0.180.35
0.0010 b
0.00100.00140.00070.00030.0002
0.00004 b
0.000040.000040.0002
0.000050.00005
0.015 b
0.015 b
0.0160.0120.0140.008
0.0002 b
0.0002 b
0.0002 b
0.00020.0120.001
0.0190.0170.0140.0040.0400.085
Tritium(liquid)
1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
113827252219
3.91.42.10.780.940.87
9.92596120220280
180350290380490340
11 b
11 b
11 b
11 b
11 b
11 b
2.9 b
2.9 b
2.9 b
0.41.81.7
194238414838
Other(liquid)
1970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
0.20 b
0.180.13
0.0560.0190.008
2.0 c
0.290.12
0.0360.0430.011
5.5 c
4.84.51.20.510.70
0.600.47
0.0260.0300.13
0.044
0.20 b
0.18 b
0.13 b
0.045 b
0.0050.006
0.20 b
0.18 b
0.13 b
0.0040.0490.023
2.10.700.38
0.0950.0470.040
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 279
a Previously assessed values [U3] indicated in parentheses unless unchanged.b Also assumed for LWGRs and FBRs.c Also assumed for HWRs.d Local and regional.e Expressed in terms of 131I.
a Local and regional components only.
Table 38Collective effective dose per unit release of radionuclides from reactors
Type of release Radionuclide PathwayCollective dose per unit release a
(man Sv PBq-1)
Airborne Noble gasesPWRBWRGCR
ImmersionImmersionImmersion
0.11 b c (0.12)0.43 (0.26)0.90 (0.011)
Tritium Ingestion 2.1 (11)
Carbon-14 Ingestion 270 d (1 800)
Iodine e ExternalIngestionInhalation
All pathways
4.525049
300 (340-510)
Particulates ExternalIngestionInhalation
All pathways
1 08083033
2 000 (5 400)
Liquid Tritium Ingestion 0.65 (0.81)
Particulates Ingestion 330 (20-170)
Table 39Normalized collective effective doses from radionuclides released from reactors, 1990-1994
Reactortype
Electricalenergy
generated(%)
Collective effective dose per unit electrical energy generated [man Sv (GW a)-1]
Airborne effluents Liquid effluents
Noble gases 3H 14C a 131I Particulates 3H Other
PWRBWRGCRHWRLWGRFBR
65.0421.953.655.044.090.24
0.0030.151.440.230.19
0.042
0.0050.0020.010
1.40.050.10
0.0590.140.380.430.35
0.032
0.00010.00020.00040.00010.002
0.00009
0.00040.36
0.00060.00010.0280.024
0.0140.0006
0.140.32
0.0070.0012
0.0060.0140.17
0.0430.0020.016
Weighted average 0.11 0.075 0.12 0.0002 0.080 0.031 0.016
Total 0.43
Tab
le40
Rad
ion
ucl
ides
rele
ased
fro
mfu
elre
pro
cess
ing
pla
nts
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d(G
Wa)
Rel
ease
inai
rbor
neef
fluen
ts(T
Bq)
Rel
ease
inliq
uid
efflu
ents
(TB
q)
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
Fra
nce
(Cap
deLa
Hag
ue)
[C4]
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1.4
1.6
2.9
2.8
3.3
3.7
5.2
4.8
9.3
7.2
9.1
7.1
10.8
12.3
18.5
16.4
21.5
34.3
43.4
43.0
49.8
a
0.9
3.1
2.6
7.1
3.3
1.8
2.3
4.4
7.1
9.2
10 6.3
8.3
8.5
33 6.1
15 21 25 25 28 30 42 55 84 75 76
2.6
2.3 2 3.8
5.4
8.5
12 17
230
04
400
890
08
500
2700
024
000
1300
025
000
2900
024
000
3000
036
000
5100
050
000
2700
071
000
2900
035
000
2700
042
000
6300
010
000
095
000
120
000
180
000
230
000
260
000
300
000
0.00
021
0.00
220.
010.
0074
0.01
70.
0098
0.01
50.
021
0.02
70.
021
0.01
10.
014
0.02
10.
027
0.01
80.
023
0.01
10.
010
0.02
10.
032
0.03
80.
017
0.00
026
0.00
740.
10.
026
0.01
90.
067
0.01
10.
0000
70.
0001
0.02
80.
0003
30.
0003
10.
0001
80.
0005
0.00
051
0.00
057
0.00
041
0.00
054
0.00
059
0.00
077
0.00
053
0.00
074
0.00
038
0.00
058
0.00
049
0.00
078
0.00
150.
0012
0.00
081
<0.
0000
1
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
0.00
008
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
<0.
0000
1
61 78 84 110
281
411
264
331
729
539
539
710
810
117
01
460
260
02
310
296
02
540
372
03
260
471
03
770
515
08
090
961
010
500
1190
09.
949.
65
2 8.3
16 19 52 37.6
20 36.4
70 56 29.4
27.1
86.3
141.
810
9.6
47 68.5
57 39.5
28.5
15.8
29.8
17.5
24.6
15.6
29.6
10.6
3.7
100
143
140
132
269
415
278
270
401
374
387
331
469
337
351
437
403
525
259
275
150
18 11 8 14 15.2
16.9
19.6
0.1
0.1
0.13
0.13
0.20
0.26
0.33
0.46
0.48
0.65 1.1
1.5
1.7
1.6
89 243
33 69 56 34 35 51 39 23 27 39 51 23 30 29 10 7.6
8.5
13 13 5.6
3.0
4.4
11 4.6
2.4
2.5
Jap
an(T
okai
)[J
1,J5
]
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
0.04
0.11
0.18
0.61
0.60
0.54
0.01
0.12 1.2
0.25
0.93
0.85 3.5
3.6
4.1
1.5
0.67
2.8
810
180
01
800
740
07
800
780
018
01
300
1000
0
0.00
016
0.00
081
0.00
032
0.00
070.
0004
10.
0005
60.
0000
90.
0000
40.
001
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4.8
30 59 160
140
200
5.6
32 260
0.00
014
0.00
004
0.00
009
0.00
002
00.
0000
1<
0.00
001
0.00
006
<0.
0000
1
00.
0044
0.00
250.
0004
40.
0003
30.
0002
30 0 0
00.
0011
0.00
180.
0001
70.
0000
40.
0000
1<
0.00
01<
0.00
001
0.00
009
0.00
093
0.00
100.
0002
80.
0002
20.
0001
70.
0001
40.
0000
20
0.00
008
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION280
Tab
le40
(con
tinue
d)
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d(G
Wa)
Rel
ease
inai
rbor
neef
fluen
ts(T
Bq)
Rel
ease
inliq
uid
efflu
ents
(TB
q)
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
aE
stim
ated
base
don
norm
aliz
ed85
Kr
rele
ase
of6,
020
TB
q(G
Wa)
-1.
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1.2
0.93
0.17 1.1
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.8
1.5
1.0
1.5 0
2.7
3.7
2.5
3.7
4.2
3.2
2.8
2.2
5.4
3.8
3.7
1.5
0.34
0.78
0.31
0.80
0.44
0.48
0.00
47
1300
012
000
270
09
800
1300
015
000
980
05
300
1800
08
600
1200
01.
6
0.00
230.
0001
40.
0000
90.
0002
40.
0000
240.
0003
00.
0003
00.
0002
40.
0003
30.
0001
60.
0001
60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
� � � � � �
0.00
1�
240
260
74 240
360
330
380
160
490
220
240
3.6
� � � � � � � �
0.00
003
<0.
0000
10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
<0.
0000
1<
0.00
001
00.
0000
10.
0000
40.
0000
30.
0000
70.
0000
50.
0000
70.
0000
80.
0000
50.
0000
1
0.00
017
0.00
015
0.00
009
0.00
004
00.
0000
30.
0000
70.
0000
50.
0000
70 0 0
Un
ited
Kin
gd
om
(Sel
lafie
ld)
[B5,
J2]
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
2.6
3.2
3.2
2.1
1.8
2.5
2.2
3.7
3.1
3.0
2.7
1.7
3.8
2.4
2.8
3.7
3.8
4.5
2.7
5.7
3.8
6.9
7.1
6.8
443
443
303
443
443
444
444
296
222
290
252
459
360
268
349
268
171
78.3
186
677
593
619
324
860
550
580
530
170
9.0
10.0
17.3
24.3
17.3
20.3
32.3
26.3
8.6
7.3
8.5
19.3
9.5
7.3
7.3
7.3
5.7
9.8
3.6
4.2
4.1
5.8
2.5
11.4
4.2
4.2
3.8
1.8
3700
0
4400
044
000
3300
026
000
3500
031
000
5200
044
000
4180
037
100
2380
053
300
3400
039
700
5170
037
600
4460
027
400
5700
038
000
9700
010
000
095
000
0.02
20.
022
0.02
20.
022
0.02
20.
022
0.02
40.
018
0.00
780.
017
0.04
50.
027
0.03
30.
027
0.03
00.
021
0.03
00.
019
0.02
40.
024
0.01
20.
012
0.01
90.
039
0.02
40.
020
0.02
50.
025
0.02
70.
069
2.4
0.13
0.00
130.
0011
0.00
90.
0078
0.04
50.
091
0.00
330.
900.
017
0.01
50.
006
0.00
60.
003
0.00
350.
0022
0.00
210.
0012
0.00
190.
0016
0.00
200.
0017
0.00
110.
0023
0.00
26
0.06
60.
130.
015
0.06
80.
038
0.09
60.
110.
490.
510.
510.
930.
190.
054
0.04
60.
040
0.03
60.
038
0.00
710.
0038
0.00
260.
0028
0.00
360.
0020
0.00
070.
0007
0.00
060.
0009
0.00
06
620
01
200
124
074
01
200
140
01
200
910
100
01
200
128
01
966
175
01
831
158
61
062
215
01
375
172
42
144
169
91
803
119
92
309
168
02
700
300
02
600
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.3
2.6
2.1 3 2 2.0
2.4
0.8
2.0
8.2
12 11 4.4
230
460
562
280
390
466
381
427
597
250
352
277
319
204
72 52 18.3
15 10.1
9.2
4.2
4.1
4.2
17.1
28.9
28 16 37
100
01
400
113
01
400
110
076
276
681
681
039
034
053
042
055
334
881 28 22
.123
.625 16
.518
.712
.617
.16.
77.
39.
09.
8
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.13
0.09
60.
074
0.12
0.14
0.19
0.10
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.12
0.10
0.13
0.17
0.11
0.16
0.07
0.16
0.16
0.25
0.41
0.52
120
01
300
128
977
04
100
523
04
289
448
04
090
260
02
970
236
02
000
120
043
432
517
.911
.813
.328
.623
.515
.615
.321
.913
.812 10 7.
9
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 281
aC
olle
ctiv
edo
ses
prio
rto
1970
and
in19
70-1
974
and
1975
-197
9ar
ees
timat
edus
ing
the
norm
aliz
edre
leas
ees
timat
esof
1970
-197
9.b
Est
imat
edto
be8%
ofel
ectr
ical
ener
gyge
nera
ted.
Tab
le41
No
rmal
ized
rele
ases
and
colle
ctiv
ed
ose
sin
fuel
rep
roce
ssin
g
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d
(GW
a)
Nor
mal
ized
rele
ase
[TB
q(G
Wa)
-1]
Air
born
eef
fluen
tsLi
quid
efflu
ents
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
1970
-197
919
80-1
984
1985
-198
919
90-1
994
1995
-199
7
29.2
36.3
62.5
131
160
93 48 24 24 9.6
7.3
3.5
2.1
0.4
0.3
1392
011
690
726
36
300
690
0
0.00
60.
007
0.00
30.
001
0.00
1
0.12
0.03
0.00
030.
0000
90.
0000
5
0.09
0.04
0.00
20.
0000
80.
0000
1
399
376
378
270
255
0.4
0.3
0.8
0.8
0.4
131
45 7.5
2.0
0.8
264
112
33 2.1
0.5
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.03
0.04
102
025
27.
41.
00.
2
Col
lect
ive
effe
ctiv
edo
sepe
run
itre
leas
e(m
anSv
TBq-1
)
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d
(GW
a)
Air
born
eef
fluen
tsLi
quid
efflu
ents
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
0.00
210.
270.
0000
074
440.
37.
40.
0000
014
1.0
0.00
470.
0033
0.09
90.
098
Col
lect
ive
effe
ctiv
edo
se(m
anSv
)a
Year
Fue
lre
proc
esse
d(G
Wa)
Air
born
eef
fluen
tsLi
quid
efflu
ents
3 H14
C85
Kr
129 I
131 I
137 C
s3 H
14C
90Sr
106 R
u12
9 I13
7 Cs
Pre-
1970
1970
-197
419
75-1
979
1980
-198
419
85-1
989
1990
-199
419
95-1
997
2.3
b
7.0
22.2
36.3
62.5
131
160
0.5
1.4
4.3
3.7
3.1
6.6
3.2
4.5
14 44 35 36 13 13
0.2
0.7
2.3
3.1
3.4
6.1
8.2
0.6
1.9
5.9
11 9.5
8.4
6.9
0.08
0.25
0.79
0.28
0.00
60.
003
0.00
2
1.6
4.9
15 11 0.80
0.08
0.02
0.00
10.
004
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.06
0.9
2.7
8.7
12 48 98 66
1.4
4.3
14 7.6
2.2
1.2
0.6
2.0
6.1
19 13 6.9
0.9
0.3
0.00
90.
030.
09 0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
230
704
222
089
546 12 3.
9
Tot
al42
023
158
2444
1.4
340.
1823
631
491.
44
110
280
443
0
471
0
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION282
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 283
a Estimated value.
a Collective dose per unit release (man Sv TBq-1): 3H, 0.002; 3H (to sea), 0.0002; 14C: 70; 85Kr, 0.002; 129I, 20.b Assumes world population at time of release: 5 109 (for 3H and 85Kr); 1010 (for 14C and 129I).
Table 42Normalized activity releases of globally dispersed radionuclides from reactors and reprocessing plants
Years
Normalized release [TBq (GW a)-1]
From reactors From reprocessing plants
3H 14C 3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I
Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
67678083828454
0.710.710.700.740.530.44
0.44 a
9393934824249.6
399399399376378272255
7.77.77.73.92.91.10.7
13 92013 92013 92011 6907 2606 3306 900
0.0460.0460.0460.0420.0290.0300.038
Table 43Activity releases of globally dispersed radionuclides from reactors and reprocessing plants
YearsElectrical energy
generated(GW a)
Fuelreprocessed
(GW a)
Release (TBq)
3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I
Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
28.887.7277514937
1 147767
2.307.0422.236.362.5130160
2 1466 54324 20044 33077 96098 90042 830
9192 8098 85813 64023 66035 39040 770
38116364523672650442
32 06097 970
308 900424 400454 000823 700
1 102 000
0.110.321.011.531.793.876.14
Total 3 757 420 296 900 126 000 2 805 3 243 000 14.8
Table 44Collective dose commitment (10,000 years) from globally dispersed radionuclides released from reactors andreprocessing plants
YearsCollective effective dose (man Sv) a b Normalized
collective effective dose[man Sv (GW a)-1]3H 3H (to sea) 14C 85Kr 129I Total
Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
4.313488915619886
0.20.61.82.74.77.18.1
2 6708 14025 51036 58047 07045 47030 930
64196618849908
1 6502 200
2.16.420313677123
2 7408 350
26 20037 55048 18047 40033 350
95959573514143
Total 594 25 196 400 6 490 295 203 800 54
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION284
a Analysis is based on reported releases per unit electrical energy generated and presently adopted dose coefficients. These results may, therefore, differsomewhat from earlier evaluations by the Committee.
Table 45Normalized collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclides released in effluents from thenuclear fuel cycle a
SourceNormalized collective effective dose [man Sv (GW a)-1]
1970-1979 1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1997
Local and regional component
Mining 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19
Milling 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.008
Mine and mill tailings (releases over five years) 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
Fuel fabrication 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
Reactor operationAtmosphericAquatic
2.80.4
0.70.2
0.40.06
0.40.05
0.40.04
ReprocessingAtmosphericAquatic
0.38.2
0.11.8
0.060.11
0.030.10
0.040.09
Transportation <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
Total (rounded) 12 3.1 0.97 0.92 0.91
Solid waste disposal and global component
Mine and mill tailings (releases of radon over 10,000 years) 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5
Reactor operationLow-level waste disposalIntermediate-level waste disposal
0.000050.5
0.000050.5
0.000050.5
0.000050.5
0.000050.5
Reprocessing solid waste disposal 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Globally dispersed radionuclides (truncated to 10,000 years) 95 70 50 40 40
Total (rounded) 100 80 60 50 50
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 285
a Assumes total world population of 6 109 and average amounts administered per treatment of 5 GBq (thyroid cancer) and 0.5 GBq (hyperthyroidism).
Table 46Local and regional component of the collective effective dose to members of the public from radionuclidesreleased in effluents from the nuclear fuel cycle
YearsElectrical
energygenerated
(GW a)
Normalized collective effective dose[man Sv (GW a)-1]
Collective effective dose(man Sv)
Mining, milling,fuel fabrication,transportation
Reactoroperation
Fuelreprocessing
Mining, milling,fuel fabrication,transportation
Reactoroperation
Fuelreprocessing
Pre-19701970-19741975-19791980-19841985-19891990-19941995-1997
28.887.7
276.6513.7936.01146.7767.2
0.240.240.240.240.240.240.24
3.96.72.00.90.40.40.4
8.48.48.41.90.20.10.1
72166120220280180
110590550460390490320
240740
2 330990150150100
Total 900 2 900 4 700
Table 47Estimated amount of 131I used in medical radiation therapy
Healthcarelevel
Fractionof world
population
Treatments per 1,000 population Total activityadministered a
(TBq)Thyroid cancer Hyperthyroidism
IIIIIIIV
0.260.530.110.10
0.0380.01
0.00270
0.150.02
0.0170.0004
41019015-
Total (rounded) 600
ANNEX C: EXPOSURES TO THE PUBLIC FROM MAN-MADE SOURCES OF RADIATION 287
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