Anatomy and Physiology
Part 2
Skeletal System• Made up of organs that are called bones
– Adults have 206 bones• Functions of bones
– Framework: support body’s muscle, fat and skin– Protection: surround vital organs to protect
them• Levers
– Attach to muscles to help provide movement• Produce Blood Cells
– Produce red and white blood cells and platelets• Storage
– Store most of bodies calcium supply
Joints• Area where 2 or more bones join together• Ligaments: connective tissue bands that hold
long bones together• Synovial
– Freely moving – Ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip– Hinge joints of the elbow and knee
• Amphiarthrosis– Slightly moveable– Ribs to the thoracic vertebrae
• Synarthrosis– Immovable
» Suture joints of the cranium
Diseases and Abnormal Conditions
• Arthritis– Group of diseases involving an inflammation of the joints
• Osteoarthritis – Chronic disease that occurs with aging– Symptoms: Joint pain, stiffness, aching, limited ROM– Treatment: Rest, heat/cold, aspirin, anti-inflammatory meds, steroids
• Rheumatoid Arthritis– Chronic inflammatory disease of connective tissues and joints– 3x more common in women and usually begins around 35-45– Progressive attacks cause scar tissue formation and atrophy of bone and
muscle tissue– Treatment: Rest and prescribed exercise– Anti-inflammatory medications: aspirin, steroids– Surgery, or arthroplasty (replace damaged joints)
Fractures• Crack in the bone
– Greenstick: bone is bent and splits cuasing a crack or incomplete break
– Simple: complete break with no damage to the skin
– Compound: break in bone that ruptures through skin; increased chance of infection
– Impacted: broken bone ends jam into each other
Fractures
• Comminuted: bone fragments or splinters into more than 2 pieces
• Spiral: severe twisting of a bone causes one or more breaks
• Stress: Hairline fracture of a bone that has been under repeated stress
Dislocation and Sprains• Dislocation– Bone is forcibly displaced from a joint– Frequently occurs in shoulders, fingers and hips– Treatment: reduced and immobilized with splint,
traction, or cast• Sprain– Twisting action tears ligaments at a joint – Common sites are wrist and ankle – Symptoms: pain, swelling, discoloration, limited
movement– Treatment: rest and elevation; immobilization or
splinting, cold applications
Osteomyelitis• Inflammation of bone
usually caused by pathogenic organism
• Pathogen causes formation of abscess with bone and accumulation of pus
• Symptoms: pain at site, swelling, chills, fever
• Treatment: Antibiotics for infection
Osteoporosis• Metabolic disorder that causes
softening of the bones– Deficiency of hormones (estrogen)– Prolonged lack of calcium in diet– Sedentary lifestyle
• Loss of calcium and phosphate causes bones to become porous, brittle, and prone to fractures, and spinal compression fractures
• Bone density tests can lead to early detection
• Treatment– Increase calcium and Vit D– Exercise– Medications – Estrogen replacement
Muscular System• Over 600 muscles make up the muscular
system• Muscles are made of bundles of muscle
fibers that are held together by connective tissue
• Characteristics of Muscles:– Excitability or irritability—ability to respond to stimulus such
as a nerve impulse– Contractibility—when muscle fibers are stimulated by nerves,
they contract or become short and thick causing movement– Extensibility—ability to be stretched– Elasticity—allows muscle to return to its original shape after it
has contracted or stretched3
Types of muscle• Cardiac– Forms the walls of the heart,
contract to circulate blood– Involuntary—functions without
thought or control• Viseral or Smooth– Found in internal organs of the body:
digestive system, respiratory system, blood vessels or eyes
– Contract to cause movement in these systems
– Involuntary• Skeletal– Attach to bones and cause body movements– Voluntary
Functions
• Attach to bones to provide voluntary movement
• Produce heat or energy
• Help maintain posture by holding the body erect
• Protects internal organs
Diseases and Conditions• Muscular Dystrophy– Chronic progressive muscle atrophy– Appears in early childhood– Many types result in total disability and early death– Physical therapy is used to slow progress of the disease
• Fibromyalgia– Chronic widespread pain in specific muscle sites– Symptoms: muscle stiffness, numbness/tingling, fatigue,
headaches, depression– Stress, weather and poor physical fitness affect the
condition– Treatment includes physical therapy, massage, exercise,
stress reduction, pain medication and muscle relaxors
Strains, Spasms, Cramps• Strain– Overstretching or injury to a muscle or tendon– Frequent sites include back, arms, and legs causing
swelling, pain and limited movement– Usually caused by prolonged or sudden muscle exertion – Treatment RICE
• Spasms or Cramps– Sudden, painful, involuntary contractions of muscles– May result in overexertion, low electrolyte levels, or
poor circulation– Gentle pressure and stretching can help relieve pain
Central Nervous System• Consists of:– Brain– Cerebrum– Cerebellum– Midbrain– Pons– Medulla oblongata– Spinal cord– Meninges– Pia Matter
Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic System Autonomic System
Cranial and Spinal nerves Two divisions: Sympathetic and parasympathetic
Responsible for special senses (sight, hearing, taste, and smell as well as touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. Sends out the impulses for voluntary and involuntary muscle control
Helps maintain balance in the involuntary functions of the body, but allows the body to react in times of an emergency
Spinal nerves carry messages to and from the spinal cord
Systems work together to maintain balance
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Acts in times of emergency “fight or flight”
Counteracts actions of the sympathetic system after an emergency
Prepares the body to act
Slows heart rate and respirations
Increases heart rate and respirations
Lowers blood pressure
Slows activity in the digestive system
Increases activity in the digestive tract
Raises blood pressure
Conditions of the NS• Cerebral Palsy– Disturbance in voluntary muscle action
• Caused by brain damage—usually lack of oxygen at birth
– Symptoms: Exaggerated reflexes, tense muscles, spasms, speech impairment, in some cases mental retardation
– Treatment: No cure. PT, OT, speech therapy, muscle relaxants, braces, surgery for contractures
• Epilepsy • Brain disorder associated with abnormal impulses in neurons of the
brain• Causes: brain injury, birth trauma, tumors, infections• Absent or petit mal seizures• Tonic-Clonic or grand mal• Anticonvulsant medicaiton
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)/Stroke
• Blood flow to the brain is impaired resulting in lack of oxygen and destruction of the brain
• Causes: cerebral hemorrhage (hypertension, aneurysm); occlusion or blockage (thrombous, atherosclerosis)
• Risk Factors: – Smoking, high fat diet, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle
• Symptoms vary depending on area and amount of brain tissue damaged
• Care during the first 3 hours is important and can prevent brain damage
• Treatment after is directed at adapting to symptoms present
Circulatory System• AKA Cardiovascular system• Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood• Heart: – Transports oxygen and nutrients to body cells and
transports CO2 away from cells– Muscular organ, weights less than 1 pound, size of
fist– 3 layers of tissue form the heart• Endocardium• Myocardium • Pericardium
Circulatory System• AKA Cardiovascular system• Consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood• Heart: – Transports oxygen and nutrients to body cells and
transports CO2 away from cells– Muscular organ, weights less than 1 pound, size of
fist– 3 layers of tissue form the heart• Endocardium• Myocardium • Pericardium
Heart
• Septum: Separates right and left sides, prevents blood moving between sides
• Chambers: 4 chambers– Upper 2 Atrias, Lower 2 Ventricles
• Valves:– One way chambers to keep blood flowing in the
proper direction• Tricuspid—between RA and RV• Bicuspid/Mitral valve—between LA and LV• Pulmonary Valve—between RV and Pulmonary Artery• Aortic Valve—between LV and Aorta
Heart• Aorta:– Largest artery in the body
• Vena Cava– Superior– Inferior
• Pulmonary Arteries– Left and Right
• Pulmonary Veins– Left and right
• Apex: Lowest part of the heart
Blood Vessels• Arteries
– Carry blood away from the heart• Arterioles: Smallest branches of
arteries
– Muscular and elastic to receive blood pumped from the heart
• Capillaries– Thin walls that contain only 1 layer
of cells– Located close to almost every cell in
the body– Allow oxygen to pass through to cells
and wastes to enter• Veins
– Carries blood back to the heart– Thin with less muscle tissue
Blood• Contains cells, often called tissue• About 4-6 quarts in average adult• Circulates continually
transporting:– oxygen to lungs and body cells – CO2 from body cells to lungs– Nutrients from digestive tract to
cells– Metabolic wastes from cells to
organs of excretion– Heat produced by various body
parts– Hormones produced by endocrine
glands
Parts of Blood• Plasma
– Liquid portion of blood– Made up of about 90%
water• RBC—4.5-5.5 million per cc
– Produced in bone marrow– Carry oxygen and CO2
• WBC—5,000-9,000 per cc– Formed in bone marrow– Fight infection
• Thrombocytes/Platelets– Formed in bone marrow– Important in clotting
process
Diseases/Conditions• Anemia– Inadequate number of RBC– Symptoms: pale, fatigue, dyspnea, rapid HR– Causes: blood loss, iron deficiency– Treatment: Iron supplements and increasing foods rich in iron
(leafy greens)• Aneurysm– Ballooning out or saclike formation on wall of artery– Caused by disease, congenital defects– Symptoms: pain and pressure or none– If aneurysm ruptures (stroke) can cause death– Treatment: surgical removal of damaged areas, graft or new
vessel
Hypertension• High Blood Pressure
– Systolic 140/150 – Diastolic < 90
• Risk Factors:– Family history– Race– Obesity– Stress– Smoking– Aging– Diet
• Treatment– Antihypertensive medication– Getting rid of risk factors
Myocardial Infarction/Heart attack
• Blockage cuts off blood supply to the heart• Affected tissues die (Infarct) • Symptoms:
– Angina—crushing pain that radiates to arm and jaw– Pressure in chest– Perspiration and cold, clammy skin– Dyspnea– Change in blood pressure
• Treatment:– CPR if heart stops– Thrombolytic drug, vasodilators, Digoxin ( S and S)
• LTC:– Control BP, Avoid tobacco and stress, exercise, weight control, diet
Lymphatic System• Consists of lymph, lymph
vessels, lymph nodes and lymph tissue
• Works with circulatory system to remove wastes and excessive fluid from tissue
• Lymph tissue—tonsils, spleen, thymus
• Tonsillitis– Inflammation or infection of
tonsils– Removal of tonsils in chronic
cases– ATB, fluids, and rest
Respiratory System• Consists of lungs and air
passages• Responsible for taking
in oxygen and removing carbon dioxide.
• Body has a 4-6 minute oxygen supply
• Parts include: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, alveoli and lungs
• Works with circulatory system
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qHv9mNbNj2s
Asthma– Respiratory disorder usually caused by
sensitivity to an allergen (dust, pollen, animals, food, meds)
– Symptoms: Bronchospasms narrow openings of bronchioles, mucus production
increases, and edema develops in the mucosal lining
– Dyspnea, wheezing, coughing, tightness in chest– Treatment: bronchodilators to enlarge the bronchioles,
oxygen, epinephrine and anti inflammatory medication– Elimination of or desensitization to allergens causing the
problem
Emphysema• Noninfectious chronic respiratory condition• Occurs when the walls of the alveoli deteriorate and
lose their elasticity– CO2 remains trapped in the alveoli, poor exchange of
gases• Most common causes are heavy smoking and
prolonged exposure to air pollutants • Symptoms: Dyspnea, feeling of suffocation, barrel
chest, chronic cough, cyanosis, rapid respirations• Treatment: Avoid smoking, bronchodilators,
breathing exercises, treatment of infections, O2• No cure—eventually leads to death
COPD
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease– Chronic lung disease that results in obstruction of the
airways– Smoking is the primary cause but allergens and
chronic respiratory infections are also factors– Chronic asthma, Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and
tuberculosis can lead to COPD– Treatment: bronchodilators, mucolytics, cough meds– Prognosis is poor because damage to the lungs
causes deterioration of pulmonary function leading to respiratory failure and death
Influenza/Flu
• Highly contagious viral infection of the upper respiratory system with sudden onset
• Symptoms: Chills and fever, cough, sore throat, runny nose, muscle pain and fatigue
• Treatment: Bed rest and fluids, analgesics for pain and antipyretics for fever
• Immunization with vaccine– Vaccine is developed each year to immunize
against the most common viruses identified
Digestive System
• Responsible for the physical and chemical breakdown of food so it can be taken into the bloodstream and used by body cells and tissues
• Includes that alimentary canal and accessory organs– Alimentary canal
• Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus
– Accessory organs• Salivary glands, tongue, teeth, liver and pancreas
Oral Cavity
• Mouth• Teeth• Tongue• Hard Palate• Soft Palate• Salivary Glands
Oral Passageway• Pharynx--Throat– Tube that carries air and food– Air is carried to the trachea– Food is carried to the esophagus• When food is swallowed a muscle action causes the
epiglottis to cover the larynx preventing the food from entering the respiratory tract
• Esophagus– Muscular tube that receives food from the pharynx
and carries it to the stomach– Uses peristalsis to move the food forward
Oral Passageway
• Stomach– Receives food from the esophagus– Mucous membrane lining contains folds (rugae)– Food remains in stomach for about 2-4 hours
• Gastric Juices– Produced by glands in the stomach and converts food
into semifluid material (chyme)• Juices contain hydrochloric acid• Kills bacteria• Facilitates in absorption • Activates enzymes
Small Intestine• 20 ft long• Receives chyme from stomach• Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum• Functions: complete digestion, absorb products of
digestion into the blood stream for use by body cells• Intestinal Juices and accessory parts– Bile: Liquid that enters the small intestine from the liver
and gallbladder and emulsifies fats– Pancreatic juice: enters small intestine from pancreas;
contains different enzymes that break down sugars, proteins and fats
Large Intestine
• Functions:– Absorption of water and any remaining nutrients – Storage of indigestible materials before they are
eliminated from the body– Transportation of waste
products • Sections:– Cecum– Colon– Rectum