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FIRST PUBLISHED IN INDIA IN TH E SAME YEAR BY V1SVA BHARATI, 6 /3 DWAR-

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t*rr i

n*T*TT facoi; gp^HTTW i

" I b ow m y h ead to S a ra sv a ti , G oddess o f L earn in g , who is th e flow o f Speech , a n d to G an esh a , th e G u id e , L o rd of N um ber. M ed ita tin g upon th e A ll-p e rvad in g , V ish n u . I b eg in n iv w o rk ."

F O R E W O R D

IN a ttem p t in g to s o lv e th e p rob lem s th a t a r ise in in te r p re tin g S an sk r it w o rk s on m usic , I h a v e been le d to fo llow th e tra d it io n a l H indu vers ion o f an c ien t In d ian h isto ry , fo r th is a lon e m akes p o ss ib le a s a t is fa c to ry c la ss ifica tion o f th e num erou s S an sk r it trea tises ; a ls o it e x p la in s p a rt icu la r it ie s w h ich can n o t b e a ccou n ted fo r i f w e fo llow th e u su a l m odern th e o ry an d d a te s . S om e o f th e v iew s p resen ted here m ay , th ere fo re , a p p ea r to c o n tra d ic t w h a t is g en e ra lly h e ld n ow a d a y s a s h is to r ica l fa c t . B u t i t shou ld b e rem em bered th a t these v iew s a r c no t s im p ly m y own . W h ile d ea lin g w ith th e trad itio n a l H in du m u s ica l s y s tem , w e sh a ll a lso con s id er its h is to ry a s i t is tra d it io n a lly understood .

T h e sm a ll num era ls a fte r q u o ta tio n s re fer to th e S an sk r it sou rces g iv en in A p p en d ix Tw o .

A . D

C O N T E N T S

Page

F o r e w o r d ...................................................................................................7

P A R T O N E : T H E O R Y

CHAPTER I

The Theory

O r i g i n s ....................................................................................................T h e A n t iq u ity o f Ind ian M u s i c ...........................................................19T h e S an sk r it W r ite r s on M u s i c .......................................................... 22N o rth ern an d S ou th ern M usic 33

c h a p t e r 11

The N ature o f Sound

T h e N a tu re o f S o u n d .......................................................................3^In te llig ib le S ound ( N a d a ) .......................................................................36T h e D iffe ren t K in d s o f M usica l S ound . . . . 37Sacred and S e cu la r M usic . . . . . . 38

CHAPTER I I I

The Scale

Th e T on ic o r D ron e . . . . . . 40

T h e S even S v a ra s (Notes) . . . . . 41T h e In te rc a la ry N o tes . K a k a l i N i a n d A n ta r a G a 44T h e S h ru t is (In te rva ls ) . 45T h e M easu re o f th e Sh ru tis . . . . 46

Th e N o ta tio n o f th e S h ru t is . . . . 49T h e S ix ty - s ix S h ru tis . . . . . 50Th e E xp re ss ion o f th e S h ru tis . . . . 56T h e S ca le o f th e S h ru tis . . . , . 58The T h e o ry o f th e C lasses o f In te rv a ls (Sh ru ti- j atis) 61

T h e S c a l e ........................................................................... 69T h e T h re e B a s ic S ca le s (G ram as) 72F la t s an d S h a r p s .............................................................. 74T h e T h re e M ain O c ta v e s (Sap takas) . 75

9

CONTENTS

P A R T T W O : T E C H N IQ U E

CHAPTER IV

NotationT h e E lem en ts o f M usic . . . . . . 79N o ta t io n o f th e In te rv a ls (th e Sh ru tis):

I. In S ta ff N o t a t i o n .......................................................................80I I . In th e In d ian S y lla b ic N o ta tio n . . . 80

G en era l N o ta t io n I (S ta ff N o ta tion ) . . . . 80G en era l N o ta tio n I I (Ind ian S y llab ic So l-fa N o ta tion ) 82D iv is io n o f M a tra s . . . . . . . 84T em po s ( L a y a ) ................................................................................... 86

CHAPTER V

RhythmR h y thm (Tala) . 88Th e M ain R h y thm s (Ta las) . . . . . 89S yn cop a tio n . . . . . . . . 97

CHAPTER VI

M elod ic Development V arnS (M elod ic M ovem en t) . . . . 99T a n 3s (M elod ic F igu res) . . . . . . 99M u rch 'h an a s (M odal Scales) . . . . . 10 1A la r iik3r (O rn am en ta l V oca liza tion ) . . . . 102G ra ce ( G a m a k S ) ................................................................................. 104G r a h i , Am shS , N y & s i ...............................................................1 1 1

P A R T T H R E E : T H E D E F IN IT IO N O F T H ErAgas

CHAPTER VII

The RdgasRag& s o r M odes . . . . . . U 5M oods, C o lou rs an d N o t e s ........................................................ 1 16T h e D escrip tion o f R S g a s in V erses an d P ic tu re s . . 1 1 7T h e F o u r P h ase s in th e D eve lo pm en t o f a R a g a . . 1 1 7S ty le s o f S in g in g o r P l a y i n g ........................................................ 118

A . S ty le s o f S i n g i n g .....................................................................118B . S ty le s o f P la y in g (on s tr in ged in strum en ts) . . 1 1 9

10

CONTENTS

CH APTER V I I I

Defin ition o f the Rgs The F ifte en E lem ents in the D efin ition o f a Rag . . 1 2 1T h e T u n in g o f th e In s trum en ts (1) . . . 121Class (JtiJ ( 3 ) .............................................................................122G roup (2) . _ ......................................................................... 124A scen t an d D escen t (A roh , A v a ro h ) (4) . . . 1 2 4T h e S on an t (Vd i) ( 5 ) ..................................................................... 125T h e C on son an t (Sam vd i) (6) . . . . 1 2 5A sson an t (A n u v d i ) ................................................................................. 126D isson an t ( V i v d i ) ................................................................................. 126T h e R e la t io n b e tw een T u n in g an d S ca le . . . 1 2 7T e tra ch o rd s an d M ode-typ es (Th s) (8 an d 12) . . 127T h e N um ber o f R g s .....................................................................130T im e o f p la y ( 7 ) ................................................................................. 13 1S ca ie -typ e s (G reek Genus) ( 9 ) .........................................................132C h a rac te r is tic s a n d E xp ress ion (10 an d 11 ) . . . 133R ep resen ta tion o f In te rv a ls b y R a t io s . . . 134S h ru tis (A n a ly s is o f E xp ress ion ) (13) . . . . 134T h em e (R up) ( 1 4 ) .................................................................................135O u tlin e ( 1 5 ) ............................................................................................. 135

A P P E N D IX O N E

BibliographyI S an sk r it W o rk s , pub lish ed . . . 139

I I S an sk r it M anuscr ip ts , u npub lish ed . . . 142I I I P e rs ian an d U rdu M anu scr ip ts . . . 149IV H in d i M anuscrip ts . . . . . 149V H in d i a n d M a r h W o rk s , p ub lish ed . 149

V I B e n g a li W o rk s , p ub lish ed . . . . 15 1V I I U rd u W o rk s , p u b l i s h e d ........................................................1 5 1

V I I I T e lu g u W ork s , p ub lish ed . . . . 1 5 1I X G u ja ra t i W o rk s , p ub lish ed . . . - 1 5 1X E n g lish an d F ren ch W o rk s . . . . 1 5 2

A P P EN D IX TWO

Sanskrit References

LI

PART I

THEORY

I

" E x t r a c t in g th e essence o f th e S c r ip tu re s , I sh a ll te ll th e o r ig in o f In te llig ib le S ound w h ich is th e o n ly m ean s o f a ch ie v in g th e fo u r a im s o f h um an l ife righ teou sn ess, p ro sp er ity , p lea su re and l ib e ra tio n . (Sang . D a rp . 1 -29 .)

tDTTTT -IdW^T: I

r r r a n j* ^ n r e n ^ r h (1 . it s )

" H e wrho kn ow s th e in n e r m ean in g o f th e sound o f th e lu te , w ho is e x p e r t in in te rv a ls a n d in m od a l sca les a n d kn ow s th e rh y thm s, tr a v e ls w ith o u t e ffo rt u pon th e w a y o f l ib e ra tion . ( Y a jn a v a lk y a Sm riti I I I , 115 .)

C H A P T E R I

T H E T H E O R Y

'jg: foSR'ir *tfl ifnyifa Im l q i ? i q m i t R T X E P < n 1 1

Animals ta>ned or m id , even children, are charmed by sound.Who can describe its marvels? [Sang. Darp. 1 -3 1 .)

Origins

UN D E R th e n am e o f Gandharva V e d a * a genera l th eo ry o f sound w ith i t s m e tap h y s ic s a n d p h y s ic s a p p ea rs to h a v e been kn ow n to th e an c ien t H indu s. F rom such

summ aries a s h a v e su rv iv e d t i ll m odern tim es, i t seem s th a tth e G a n d h a r v i V e d a s tud ied e v e r y p o ss ib le w a y o f u sin g th e p ropertie s o f sound , n o t o n ly in d iffe ren t m usica l fo rm s an d sy s tem s b u t a lso in p h y s ic s , m ed ic in e a n d m ag ic . T h e rise o f B uddh ism w ith its h o s t i l i ty tow a rd s trad it io n b rough t a b ou t a sh arp d ev ia tion in th e an c ien t ap p ro a ch to th e arts a n d sciences, a n d th e ir th e o ry h ad o ften to g o underg round in o rd e r to a vo id d es tru c tion . I t w as a t th is t im e th a t th e G an d h a rv a V eda , w ith a ll th e o th e r sacred sciences, d isappeared ; th ou gh th e fu ll tra d it io n is sa id to s u rv iv e am ong th e m ys te r io u s sages w h o dw e ll in H im a la y a n caves , f

B ud dh ism re a c ted a ga in s t th e s tiffn ess o f th e o ld order, w h ich i t tr ied to h um an ize . T h e B u d d h is t re fo rm ers th ou gh t th a t b y d e s tro y in g th e r ig id fram e o f an c ien t so c ie ty th e y w ou ld b e ab le n o t o n ly to p rese rve i t s cu ltu re b u t to

* Transliteration The Sanskrit a lphabet represents a complete phonetic system This characteristic is not preserved in the generally accepted methods o f transliteration. Rut changing the usual system as little as possible, we transliterate:

^ as ch; ^ as chh; ^ as ch h; the so ft den ta l n as Sh; th e hard palatal q as sh; ^ a s r i; ^ as lri.

The final dropping short ' 'a , wh ich in classical Sanskrit exactly Z l r n the French mute e , bears a short accent. E .g . Shivashould be pronounced alm ost like the English word shiver.

r J w , 'Sh. f aCC0UI!1 o f the contents of the Gandharva Veda, said to have been r S T sources, has been published in Motilul G aud s Hindutvd (in H indi), Benares, 1938.

15

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

g iv e i t a n ew im pu lse . T h e y im ag in ed th a t a cho ice cou ld be m ad e be tw een v a lu e s w ho se im po rtan ce th e y re co gn ized and ce r ta in socia l ru le s a n d con cep tion s w h ich th e y w ere no t r e a d y to a ccep t. C ircum stan ces, h ow ever , d id n o t a lw a y s ju s t i f y th is d is t in c tio n an d under B uddh ism th e o ld cu ltu re v e r y q u ic k ly declin ed . W hen th e rep re sen ta tiv e s o f th e old o rd er , w h o h ad b een a b le to m a in ta in th e ir tra d itio n u nderg round th rou gh th e cen tu r ie s o f p ersecu tion , a rose aga in , th e ir in te lle c tu a l a n d cu ltu ra l su p e r io r ity w a s in m an y fields s o g re a t th a t B uddh ism w as d e fea ted . In h a rd ly m ore th an a few decades , B ud dh ism , b y th e m ere s tren g th o f in te lle c tu a l a rgum en t, w as w ip ed o u t from th e w ho le In d ian con tin en t o v e r w h ich i t h ad ru led fo r a th ou san d y ea rs . I t w as then (du ring th e s ix th an d s e v en th cen tu ries) th a t an a t tem p t w as m ade, u nder th e lead ersh ip o f S h an k a ra c lia ry a , to restore H in du cu ltu re to i t s an c ien t basis.

A n um ber o f em in en t B rahm an& s w ere en tru s ted w ith th e ta sk o f reco ver in g o r re -w ritin g th e fund am en ta l trea tise s on th e trad ition a l sc iences. F o r th is th e y fo llow ed th e anc ien t s y s tem w h ich s ta r ts from a m e tap h y s ica l th eo ry w ho se p rin c ip les a re comm on to a ll a sp ec ts o f th e u n iverse , a n d w o rk s o u t th e ir ap p lica tio n in a p a r t icu la r dom ain . In th is w a y th e th e o ry o f m u sic w as recon structed .

In c e r ta in cases th e n um ber o f t e x t s th a t h ad b een p rese rv ed w as su ffic ien t a n d th e ta sk o f re con stru c tion w as com p a ra t iv e ly ea sy ; in o th e r ca se s i t p ro v ed a lm o st im possib le . M usica l th eo ry an d th e th e o ry o f lan gu ag e h ad l>een considered from th e ea r lie s t t im es a s tw o p a ra lle l b ran ch es o f o n e genera l sc ien ce o f sound . B o th h ad o ften been cod ified b y th e sam e w riters . T h e nam es o f V a^h ish tha , Y a jn a v a lk y a , N a r a d i, K a^ h yapa , P an in i a re m en tioned am ong th ese e a r ly m usic- o log ist-g ram m arian s. N an d ik csh va rS w a s c e leb ra ted a t th e sam e t im e a s th e a u th o r o f a w o rk on th e p h ilo sop h y of lan gu ag e an d o f a p a ra lle l w o rk on m usic. H is w o rk on la n gu ag e is b e lie v ed to b e fa r an te r io r to th e Mahabhashya o f P a ta n ja li (a ttr ib u ted to th e second c e n tu ry B .C .)* in to w h ich

The date o f P atan ja li m ay however be much earlier. The main modem argument used to fix h is date as la te as th e second cen tu ry B.C. is based on an example in his grammar (3,2 ,111) which reads:

'T h e Y avan a (Ionian) was besieging SakctS (Ayodhya), the Y a van S was besieging M adkyam ika ."1 The Hindu liistorians. however, consider th a t the term "Y a v an a (Prakrits "Y o n a s" ) , la ter used for "G reeks , w as a common nam e for a ll th e people liv ing beyond the North W est frontier.

16

it is u su a lly in co rpora ted , th o u gh i t is th ou gh t to be p robab ly posterio r to P an in i, w ho h im se lf , a cco rd in g to m odern g ram m arian s , l iv ed n o t la te r th an th e s ix th c e n tu ry B.C. Th e ch ron o lo g y o f w o rk s on m usic w ou ld seem , h ow ever , to p lace b o th P an in i a n d N an d ik e sh v a ra a t a m uch ea rlie r da te . T h e w o rk o f K and ik e^hvarS on th e p h ilo sop h y o f m usic is now b e lie v ed to b e lo s t ,* b u t fra gm en ts o f i t a rc u n dou b ted ly in co rpo ra ted in la te r w ork s . A t th e t im e o f th e B uddh is t a scen d an cy , w hen so m uch o f th e an c ien t lo re h ad to be

* A sm all surviv ing part o f an anonymous manuscript in the B ikaner L ibrary, called Rtuird-damarudbhavd-sutrd-vivuranam (published by Madhava KpshnA Sarm a in the New Antiquary, June, 1943), exp lains the formation o f musical sounds 011 the basis of the MaheShvarS Sfitrfls, which N andi- keshvarS also takes as the basis o f the philosophy o f the Sanskrit language. This must c ither l>e a fragment o f the w ork o f N andikeshvara or a study d irectly based upon it. The first part o f the manuscript is a fragm ent of another work in 110 w ay connected w ith the second part. It deals w ith the qualities and defects o f singers in verses also found in the Sangltd Ra/ruikard o f Sharhgadevi.

A pa rt 'o f N andikcShvaras w ork on dancing, the A lh inayd Darpund, has been printed (Calcutta 1934, w ith English translation b y Manomohan Ghosh). A n earlier translation b y Ananda K . Coomaraswamy appeared under the title The Mirror o f Gesture (H arvard University Press. 1917).

Further fragments o f NandikcShvaras technical work on dancing and m usic, the Bharatd-aniavd in particu lar, lie , unpublished, in the Tanjore and Madras libraries.

THE THEORY

On the Eastern border o f this land (India) live th e K iru ti-s (aborigines) and on the W estern the Yavana-s. {Markandeyi Pur And, 57 , 8.)J

O rig inally the term seems to have been used fo r |>eoples like the Cretans and Myccueans who occupied Asia M inor and the Greek mainland and islands long before the Achcan and Dorian invasions. T h e fact that Western h istory has kept practica lly 110 record o f their advanced sta te o f civilization and o f their contacts w ith the E a s t is no proof th a t these d id not. ex ist. A carefu l study o f the Puranic texts referring to the Mediterranean civilizations anterior to A thens and Rom e would y ield very' interesting documents.

B y m any ancient peoples the word Y avanS w as used for inhabitants of Ionia, a country celebrated from ve ry remote tim es for its tw elve (later thirteen) cities, and which apparently included the Greek coast and islands and the Northern coast o f A sia Minor. Genesis g ives the name as Yovon

t ^ * which is thought to refer m ain ly to the island o f C yprus, which

the Babylonians v isited a t a v e ry early period (circa. B.C. 3750). The namelo v o n " . in the B ib le, often refers, also, to the lands la ter inhabited b y the

Greeks.

rh e word YavanS or Ionian also occurs in the Tel-el-Amarna Tablets m ttcem h cen tu ry u.c.) a s Yivana, and in the cuneiform inscription of ja rgo n (h.c. 709) as Javanu. In the la tter case it refers to the island of v-ypnis, where it ch iefly w as that the Assyrians came in contact w ith the Ionian power.

abandoned , g ram m a tic a l w o rk s w ere con sid ered m ore im p o r ta n t th an m u s ica l ones b ecau se th e g ram m a tic a l th eo ry w as essen tia l fo r th e u nd ers tan d in g o f th e V ed ic t e x t s a n d o f a ll th e sub sequen t ph ilo soph ica l sy s tem s . F rom th e ea rlie st tim es, th is th e o r y o f g ram m ar h ad b een conden sed in to aphorism s th a t cou ld e a s ily b e m em orized an d , w h en th e need arose , tran sm itted o ra lly . T h e y cou ld th u s b e k e p t in ta c t for cen tu rie s , in se c re t, e scap in g a ll p o ss ib le in ve s tig a tion .

E v e r y science cou ld n o t , h ow ever , b e e a s ily conden sed in to aphorism s, a n d th e p rese rva tion o f th e th e o ry o f m usic, am ong o th ers , h ad a p p a re n t ly t o d epend on le n g th y te x ts d ifficu lt to m em orize en tire ly ; th ou gh , from th e k in d o f d iffe ren ces th a t appear be tw een th e v a r io u s ve rs ion s o f som e o f th em , it seem s th a t th ese to o w ere tra n sm itted o ra lly o v e r a long period .

T h e m a te r ia l a v a ila b le fo r th e re co n s tru c tiv e w o rk o f th e m ed ie v a l au th o rs con s isted in a ce rta in n um b er o f these o lder b o ok s on m usic w h ich th e y u sed a s a b a se ; b u t i t a p p ea rs th a t th ese m ed ieva l sch o la rs h ad b u t l i t t le kn ow led ge o f th e p h y s ica l p ropertie s o f sound o r o f th e law s o f a cou stics . T h is resu lted in th e ir a t tem p t to exp la in , w ith th e m ost u n exp e c ted m iscon cep tion s an d m is tak e s , b a s ic p r in c ip le s la id dow n in th e an c ien t trea tise s w ith a ra re kn ow led ge o f p h y s ic a l a s w e ll as m e tap h y s ic a l r e a li ty a kn ow led ge th a t m odern m ean s fo r th e s tu d y o f sound n ow a llow us to a p p rec ia te m ore fu lly .

V e r y l ik e th e C h inese ph ilo sopher w ho , kn ow in g th a t th ere m u s t be f iv e e lem ents, e xp la in s th a t t h e y a r c w a te r , air, e a rth , s ilk an d bam boo , so m ed ieva l S an sk r it w rite rs m ake d o u b tfu l assertion s a b ou t m ic ro ton a l in te rv a ls (sh ru tis), b asic sca les (gram as), th e co rrespondences o f th e no tes , a n d so on. Y e t s in ce th e ir a t t i tu d e w as one o f re sp ec t and fa i th tow a rd s th e an c ien t a u th o rs , th e e x p la n a tio n s a lon e a re m istaken . T h e y d id n o t u su a lly a ttem p t to resh ap e th e th eo ry , w h ich th e re fo re rem a in ed in essen tia ls a s i t w as , a n d th e y rep roduce le n g th y p a ssage s from th e an c ien t b o ok s w ith o u t a lte ra tion . T h is i s o f course fo r tu n a te fo r u s. W he rev e r w e h ap p en to possess m ore l ig h t on th e a co u s tic b a s is o f these de fin ition s , we can re con stru c t th e r ig h t in te rp re ta tion an d see h ow accu r- f ite ly th ese p r in c ip le s w ere enun c ia ted from th e first.

A s h app en s a t e v e r y ep och , m ed ie v a l w rite rs tr ied to a n d in th e an c ien t b o ok s th e con firm ation o f w h a t th e y b e lie v ed th e y k n ew in s tead o f a d escr ip tion o f w h a t th e y did

1 8

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

THE THEORY

n o t know . T h is a t t i tu d e o b v io u s ly l im ited th e ir m usica l th e o ry an d con fu sed a ll th e p o in ts th a t d e a lt w ith m usica l fo rm s unknow n to th em . I t redu ced th e th e o r y to l it t le m ore th an a d escr ip tion o f th e m usica l s y s tem in u se in th e In d ia o f th e ir d a y , w hereas i t s p u rpo se w as to p ro v id e a general th eo ry o f sound . T h is m a y a lso e xp la in th e d ifficu ltie s m et w ith b y m od em m usico log is ts w h en th e y w ish to b r in g b a ck w ith in th e fram e o f th e m ed ie v a l th e o ry th e m usica l s y s tem in u se in In d ia a t th e p resen t tim e , a s y s tem w h ich in som e o f i t s fea tu res is q u ite d is t in c t from the m ed ie v a l one.

T h e m u s ica l s y s tem upon w h ich th e In d ian c la s s ica l m u sic o f to -d a y is b a sed appears to b e e v en m o re lim ited th an th e m ed ieva l o n e and h as a lso to som e s lig h t e x te n t m od ified its fo rm u n d e r in flu ences from ou tsid e . A n d thu s , th ough i t is n ecessar ily in c lu d ed in th e d e fin ition s o f th e G an dh arva V e d a becau se th ese defin ition s re fe r to a cou s tic fa c ts and n o t to a n y p a r t icu la r sy s tem it is no t a lw a y s in a cco rdance w ith th e e xp lan a tion s o f m ed ieva l scholars.

In th is b o o k , s in ce w e a re d ea lin g e x c lu s iv e ly w ith th e liv in g m usic o f N o rth ern Ind ia o n ly su ch q u o ta tio n s w ill b e g iv en from the c la ss ica l b o ok s b o th p re - a n d p o s t-B u d d h is t ic as re fe r to m usica l fo rm s s t i ll in use. T h e a u th o r hopes to m ake th e g en era l th e o ry o f m u sic o f th e H in du s an d th e ph ilo sophy o f sound , a s th e y a re e xp la in ed in th e G an d h a rv a V ed a , th e su b je c t o f an o th er s tu d y .

The A ntiqu ity o f In d ian M u s ic *

I t h as b een sa id th a t th e re is a g a p b e tw een th e In du s c iv iliz a t io n (a t p re sen t b e lieved to d a te from th e th ird o r second m illen n ium b .c .) an d th e b eg in n in g o f B ud d h is t times, a b ou t th e f if th c en tu ry b .c .

W e a re som etim es le d to b e lie v e th a t , e x c e p t fo r th e V ed ic te x ts , th e lan gu ag e o f w h ich is q u ite d is t in c t from c lassica l b an sk r it , no te x t s rem a in from th a t enorm ous p eriod o f tim e. I t shou ld h ow eve r n o t be fo rg o tten th a t , a cco rd in g to H indu ra ltion th e V ed ic te x ts , a t firs t tra n sm itte d o ra lly , h ad c rea i y b een w r it te n dow n a t a m u ch ea r lie r d a t e : B uddh ism ja s ire e c en tu r ie s ea rlie r J a in ism h ad done) r e a c ted aga in st

e u se o f S an sk r it a s an a lre ad y too an c ien t p r ie s t ly lan guage * See Foreword.

*9

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

no lon ger understood b y th e comm on peop le , a lan gu age th e y w an ted to rep lace b y m ore comm on d ia le c ts su ch a s P a li o r M agadh i, d e r ived from c la ss ica l S an sk r it th rou gh cen tu ries o f p opu la r m isuse . T h e re is th ere fo re so lid l in gu is tic ev id en ce to suggest th a t a g re a t n um ber o f S an sk r it w o rk s m ay b e b y m a n y cen tu r ie s an te r io r to th e re fo rm ation o f Ja in ism b y P a r sh v an a th a a t th e b eg inn in g o f th e e igh th c en tu ry B.C.* F u rth e rm ore , th e d a te g iv en b y H indu trad it io n fo r th e M a h a b h a ra t i w a r is a b ou t 3,000 B.C., a d a te w h ich seem s to be co rrobo ra ted b y th e a s tron om ica l o b se rv a tion s fo un d in m an y S an sk r it w ork s . T h is corresponds w ith th e p e r io d of M ohen jodaro .

In fa c t th e p e r iod e x ten d in g from th e M ahabh ara ta w a r to th e b eg in n in g s o f B uddh ism m a y w e ll h a v e b een one o f th e g re a te s t th e cu ltu re o f In d ia h a s know n , and its in fluence e x ten d ed then (as indeed i t s t ill d id m u ch la te r) from the M ed ite rran ean to C h in a .f T ra ce s o f i t s M ed ite rran ean a sp ec t h a v e b een fo un d in th e C re tan an d M ycenean rem ain s a s w e ll a s in E g y p t an d th e M idd le E ast.

T h e V ed a s , w h ich u n t i l th e beg inn ing o f th is p eriod h ad been tran sm itted o ra lly , w ere th en w r itten dowai, an d , la te r on , th e E p ic s a n d P u ran as . M ost o f th e trea tise s on th e an c ien t sc ien ces a lso b e lon g to th a t a ge , th o u gh m an y m ay h a v e been to a c e r ta in e x te n t re -shaped la te r on. A n an d a K . Coom ara- sw am y sp eak s o f th is " e a r ly A s ia t ic cu ltu re w h ich once ex ten d ed from th e M ed ite rran ean to C h ina and a s fa r sou th a s C ey lon . . . in th e second m illenn ium B .c . .+

* Jainism is considered to have begun from R ikhab Deva, an extrem ely ancient figure whose life-story is told in the lih agava ta Purana. T h e dates o f the tw o la s t reformers on ly o f Jainism , Parshvanatha (bom in 8 17 B.C.) and Mahavir (bom in 599 n .c.), are h istorically known and it is through them th a t Jainism is said to h ave been fina lly fixed in its present dual form.

f The ancient K innari V ina o r K in , for example, became known in China as the K h in , a stringed instrument said to have been p layed b y the first E inperor, Fu-HI (circa 3000 B.C.). The Khin is further mentioned in ancient Chinese chronicles sucli a s the Ch i K i (second cen tu ry B .C .) in reference to even ts o f th e s ix th or seventh cen tury. According to the L i K i, Confucius (55I ~47^ b .c.) a lw ays had h is K liin w ith him a t home, and carried i t when he went for a w alk or on a journey.

In Genesis (iv, 21 and xxx i, 27) a stringed instrument o f the same k ind is

called Kinnor ( 1 3 ) . D av id used to p lav the Kinnor a s w ell as thenebel (lute). ^

{ A . K . Coomaraswamy: Arts and Crafts o f India and Ceylon, Foulis, 1913.20

THE THEORY

So fa r a s m usic is con cerned , th e re is e v e r y p ro b a b ility th a t som e o f th e t e x t s q u o ted in la te r w o rk s w ere in e x is ten ce m an y cen tu r ie s b e fo re B uddh ism . T h e p ra c tic e o f n am ing a s w e ll a s q u o tin g o ld e r a u th o r it ie s can a llow u s to e s tab lish a ch ro n o lo g y , th e a u th o r q u o ted b e in g n ece ssa r ily m o re an c ien t. W h en eve r w e h appen to k n ow th e d a te o f one a u th o r w e can th u s gen era l ly kn ow w h ich a u th o rs cam e be fo re h im an d w h ich a fte r . A c a re fu l s tu d y o f a num ber o f w o rk s w h ich s t i ll s u r v iv e bu t h a v e n o t b een pub lish ed an d a r c d ifficu lt o f a ccess w ou ld h ow eve r be n eeded to m ak e th is ch ron o lo g y com p lete .

T h e a n t iq u ity o f Ind ian th e a tr ic a l a r t a n d m u s ica l th eo ry w as w e ll kn ow n to th e an c ien t w o rld . A cco rd in g to S trab o (

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

The San skr it W riters on M u s ic

T h e m a in S an sk r it trea tise s on m usic a p p ea r , a t first s igh t, to p resen t a m ass o f co n flic tin g de fin ition s . C a re fu l s tu d y o f th e d ive rgen ces an d s im ila r it ie s b e tw een c e r ta in g rou p s o f te x ts , h ow ever, show s th a t th ese b e lon g to d iffe ren t c la sses an d schools: som e a rco r ig in a l w o rk s b ased upon coh eren t th eo ry and a ccu ra te exp erien ce , th e rest m ore o r less a d ap ted com p ila tion s . F rom th e p o in t o f v ie w o f H in du trad itio n one w h ich im p a rtia l m odern s c ru tin y seem s to support it is th e ea rlie r w o rk s w h ich h ave th e g re a te r a u th o r ity a n d rep resen t th e o rig in a l th eo ry . A lth o u gh fra gm en ts o f s e v e ra l su ch w o rk s a rc a v a i l a b le , m ost o f th em n ow ap p ea r to b e lo s t o r inaccessib le .

Am on g im po rtan t lan dm ark s o f th e l ite ra tu re on m usic m ust a ls o b e coun ted po rtion s o f c e r ta in Pu ranas, p a r t ic u la r ly th e V ish n u D h a rm o tta ra , M a rk an d cyS P u ranS an d V a y u PurLn5 . T h e H in du s c la im a g re a t a n t iq u ity fo r th ese P u ran a s an d th is seem s to b e co rrob o ra ted b y th e te ch n ica l te rm s u sed in re ference to m usic. T h ese P u ran ic t e x t s a re h ow eve r o ften d ifficu lt to r e ad b ecau se o f th e abundan ce o f c o p y is ts m is tak e s in te chn ica l passages.

T h e S an sk r it a u th o rs on m usic c an be d iv id ed in to fou r m a in periods. T h e first p eriod is th a t o f th o se w ho se nam es a re m en tioned in th e Puran& s an d in th e E p ic s (M ahSbhSrata. a n d R a rn ayan a ) , th e second th a t o f th e a u th o rs m en tion ed in th e e a r ly m ed ie v a l w o rk s a lon e , a n d n o t in th e w o rk s o f th e first period . T h ese m ust n ece ssa r ily b e lon g to th e in te rm ed ia ry age . T h e th ird p eriod is th a t o f th e au th o rs w ho w ro te b e tw een th e e a r ly m ed ie v a l H in du r e v iv a l a n d th e M uslim in va s ion , a n d th e la s t o r m odern p eriod th a t o f S an sk r it w rite rs u nder M uslim an d E u rop ean ru le . E x a c t d a te s can u su a lly b e a sce r ta in ed o n ly fo r th e a u th o rs o f these tw o la s t periods.

The F ir s t P eriod (T h e V ed ic -P u rdn ic-E p ic P eriod )

T h e nam es o f a u th o rs b e lon g in g to th is e a r ly p eriod a re num erous. T h e few w o rk s th a t s u rv iv e a llow u s to f ix th e ch ron o lo g y o f th e m ost im p o rtan t o f th em w ith a c e r ta in am oun t o f a c cu ra c y , b u t a n y a t tem p t a t f ix in g de fin ite d a te s o r p eriod s cou ld o n ly b e con jectu ra l. W e can s a fe ly con sider

' * 2 2

THE THEORY

th a t th e low er l im it g iv en b y th e b u lk o f P u rn ic an d E p ic l ite ra tu re p laces th is first p eriod o f l ite ra tu re on m usic in w h a t w e m a y c a l l th e P re -B u dd h is tic age.

A ch ron o log ica l c h a r t c an be b u ilt u p sh ow in g th e re la t iv e an te r io r ity o f au th o rs m en tion ed o r q u o te d in th e w o rk s a v a ila b le in fu ll o r in fra gm en ts (see opp . p. 32}. A lth ou gh i t is fa r from exh au s tiv e , th is c h a r t show s th e a ffilia tion s b e tw een th e m ost im po rtan t S an sk r it w r ite r s on m usic o f th e e a r ly period , w h ich m u st h a v e e x ten d ed o v e r m an y cen tu ries. M ost o f th ese c a r l) ' w o rk s a re a rch a ic in th e ir language.

T h e few d ifficu ltie s w e m ee t in e s ta b lish in g th e ir ch rono logy , c an in th e m a in b e so lved .

The D ifferen t Ndradd-s

T h e re w ere p ro b a b ly th re e au th o rs kn ow n b y th e n am e o f N arad a . One, th e a u th o r o f th e Ndrad iya Sh ikshd , is p ro b ab ly th e e a r lie s t w r ite r on p ro fan e m usic a n y o f w ho se w ritin gs h a v e s u rv iv e d in fu ll. H e is q u o te d b y a ll sub sequen t w rite rs o f th e e a r ly period , w h o in tu rn a re q uo ted b y la te r N a rad5-s, th e a u th o rs o f th e Sahg itd M akar a nd z a n d th e Chatvdrim shach hatd Rdgdnirupanam .

A cco rd in g to trad it io n , th e Ndradiya Sh ik shd fo rm s p a r t o f th e la te r V e d ic l ite ra tu re an d a lth o u gh som e a ttem p ts h ave b een m ad e to d a te th is w o rk ra th e r la te , th e re is n o so lid e v id en ce to m ake u s d isb e lieve th e trad itio n . T h e f a c t th a t th e Ndradiya Sh ik shd m en tion s th e nam es o f o n ly a few o f th e ea rlie st a u th o r it ie s on m usic w ho a re a lso m en tioned in th e Va th ish lhd a n d Ya jhava lkya Sh ikshds , seem s to con firm i t a s a v e r y e a r ly w ork . I f w e w ere to con s id er th e Ndradiya Sh ikshd a la t e w o rk w e shou ld h a v e to m ak e room fo r som e o th er v e r y e a r ly w o rk o f th e sam e d e scr ip tion fo rm ing th e lin k b e tw een V ed ic c h an t an d p ro fan e m usic an d m en tioned b y Y a .sh tik a , N a rad a I I , K o lia la , M ata iigS an d p ra c t ic a l ly all sub sequen t au tho rs . T h ere seem s, h ow ever , to b e n o su fficien t

d u b t th e a u th e n t ic ity o f th e a v a ila b le Ndradiya.

The Panchama Sam h itd a n d Narada Sam h itd a re p ro b ab ly th e w o rk o f th e la te r N a rad a (N arada I I ) , th e a u th o r o f th e Sangita Makarandd.

23

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

The Bharat Problem

T h e a v a ila b le w o rk o f B h a ra t , th e Ny Shstr , is a com p ila tion w h ich h as b een v a r io u s ly d a te d b e tw een th e second c en tu ry B.C. a n d th e fo u r th c e n tu ry A .n . I t m en tion s K o h a l an d D a t t i l b u t n o t M a tah g a an d p ro b a b ly con ta in s fra gm en ts o f th e w o rk o f N an d ik e sh v a r , K o h a l , e tc ., and th e ea rlie r Bharat Shslr-s . I n fa c t i t m a y be d ou b ted w h e th e r a sag e B h a r a t e v e r e x is ted . I f h e d id e x is t h e m u s t h a v e been th e B h a r a t V r id d h (B h a ra t th e E ld e r) m en tion ed b y h ra d ta n a y , a s d is t in c t from th e a u th o r o f th e Ny Shstr. T h e w o rd b h a ra t m ean s a d an ce -a c to r an d w as u sed a s a comm on n am e in th e t i t le o f a ll th e trea tise s on s tage techn iqu e . T h u s w e h ea r o f d i B h a ra t , N an d ik e sh va r B h a ra t , A r ju n B h a ra t , M a tah g B h a ra t , K o h a l B h a ra t , e tc . B h a ra t n y sh s tr w ou ld th en s im p ly m ean th e te x t-b o o k o f th e d an ce -a c to r a n d th is is v e r y m u ch w h a t i t is a p ra c t ic a l com p ila tion o f a u th o r ita t iv e w o rk s on th e su b je c t p e r io d ica lly b rough t u p to da te .

T h e Ny hslr c an n o t, th ere fo re , b e ta k en a s a sure b a s is fo r d e te rm in in g ch ron o lo g y an d w e sh ou ld n o t b e su rp r ised to fin d B h a ra t h im se lf m en tion in g a s h is sons severa l a u th o rs la te r th a n th e o rig in a l Ny Shstr, th o u gh a ll of th em b e lon g to a n e a r ly p er iod * o r m ust a t le a s t b e an terio r to th e la te s t recen sion o f th e Ny Shstr.

M atangd

I t seem s a t firs t d ifficu lt to kn ow in w h ich p eriod to p lace M a tan ga , th e a u th o r o f th e B rih addesh i. T h e t e x t m en tion s a num ber o f e a r ly au th o rs , in c lu d in g Y a s h t ik a an d B lia ra tS . I t h as a lso an e x te n s iv e com m en ta ry w h ich m en tion s s t i ll fu rth er w rite rs , in c lu d in g N and ik esh varS , K o h a la an d D a tt ila . Som e

* The tradition is that BharatS had four sons Shandilya, Vatsya, KohalS and Dattila.

I taught the perfect practice (of music) to my sons, handilya, VatsyS, Kohala and Dattila. (Nat. Sh. 1-26.)a

The family of Bharata-s will be made famous in the future by the Bharata-s KohalS, and, after him, Vatsya, Shandilya, Dattila." (Nat. Sh. 36, 7 - 7*04

These obviously later additions only mean that these four authors are considered the direct recipients of the tradition of Bharata, and their work has therefore great authority.

0 24

m ed ieva l a n d m odem au th o rs h a v e con sid ered th is comm en ta r y th e w o rk o f M a tan ga h im se lf. B u t th is is u n lik e ly sin ce i t m en tion s K o h a la , w h o h im se lf, in a p a ssage rep rodu ced b y K a llin a th a , q u o te s M atangiL T h e n am e an d th e s to r y o f th e sage M a tah g a a re m en tioned in th e Ramdyand a n d th e Mahdbhdrata a n d in s eve ra l P u ran a s . T h is p la ce s h im d e f in ite ly in th e e a r ly period.

The Three Chatura-s

A q u o ta tio n from T um bu ru is fo u n d in K a ll in a th a 's com m en ta ry on th e Sahgitd R a lnakard ( i , 3 , 10 -16 ) . T h e sam e q uo ta tio n in th e com m en ta ry on th e 2 7 th sh lo k a o f M atang& 's Brihaddesh i is , h ow ever, a t t r ib u te d to C h a tu ra . B u t C h a tu ra is a n am e g iv en to K a ll in a th a h im se lf a n d th is com m en ta ry m igh t b e th o u gh t to b e la te enough to q u o te h im . B u t S im ha- b h up a la m ore th an a c en tu ry b e fo re K a ll in a th a rep ea ted ly q u o te s from th is com m en ta ry on th e B rihaddesh i w h ich he seem s to consider th e w o rk o f M a tah g a h im self. I t w ou ld th ere fo re ap p ea r th a t th e t it le o f C h a tu ra (clever) w as a lso g iv en to th e e a r ly w r ite r T um bu ru , th e sam e n am e h av in g b een u sed la te r fo r K a ll in a th a an d a lso fo r D am od a ra M ishra, th e a u th o r o f th e Sangild Darpand.

M dtriguptd and Rudratd

T h e M atrigup tei m en tioned b y N aradS. (in th e Chatvarim- shachhatd Rdgdnirupanarn, a n d a s M a tra gu p la , in th e Sangild Makarandd) h as som etim es been id en t if ied w ith th e ce leb ra ted p o e t M a tr ig u p ta o f th e seven th c e n tu ry . T h is is n o t a b so lu te ly im possib le , th o u gh i t is u n lik e ly .

S im ila r ly , th e R u d ra ta m en tion ed b y th e a u th o r o f th e com m en ta ry on th e Brihaddesh i a n d a lso b y A b h in a v a G u p ta has b een sa id to b e th e n in th c en tu ry a u th o r o f Kdvydlankard , or R u d ra B h a t ta , th e a u th o r o f Shringdratilaka.

Such id en tif ica tio n s sh ou ld n o t b e a t tem p ted w ith o u t solid ground . T h e S an sk r it l ite ra tu re on m usic e x ten d s o v e r so v a s t a p eriod th a t s im ila r it ie s o f n am e a rc bound to occur. T h e d if f icu lty is ra th e r to d is tin gu ish b e tw een num erou s au thors o f th e sam e nam e. W e kn ow o f a t le a s t ten B h a tta -s , au th o rs

25

THE THEORY

NORTHEKN IND IAN MUSIC

o f d iffe ren t w o rk s , s ix Som a-s o r S om esh v a r i-s , f iv e N a ra - y an a -s , fo u r D am oda ra -s , e tc . A m on g th e w o rk s s t ill a v a ila b le , w c h a v e tw o Sangitd Ratnakara-s, th ree Sang ita Narayand-s, fo u r Bharatd Shastrd-s, fou r Ragd M a ld -s , a n d so on. H a s ty id en tifica tion s a re su re to lead to m is ta k e s su ch a s h a v e a lr e a d y b een m ad e in th e ca se o f th e d ifferen t D am oda r i-s .

M any o f th e a v a ila b le w o rk s o f th e e a r ly p eriod h a v e been re-shaped o v e r an d o v e r aga in . T h is is o n ly n a tu ra l, fo r th e y w ere teach ers ' te x t-b o o k s and no t l ib r a r y reco rd s. B u t to ta k e a s an ea rlie st lim it fo r th e ir w r it in g th e d a te o f th e ir la te s t re -sh ap ing , a s som e o v e r-cau t io u s s tu d en ts h a v e a ten d en cy to d o , g iv e s a w h o lly erroneous p ic tu re o f m usica l h is to ry .

A ll th a t is a v a ila b le o f th e e a r ly w o rk s is e v id e n t ly d ir e c t ly b a sed on th e Gdndharvd V eda and th e S h iv a trad itio n . In th ese w e find a th eo ry o f sound co -o rd ina ted w ith e x jx r ie n c ed fa c ts w h ich w e can ea s ily g ra sp . T a k in g in to a cco u n t th e ch an ges th a t h a v e o ccu rred in th e sca le , in th e to n ic a n d so on, th e in te rp re ta t ion o f th e e a r ly w o rk s p resen ts n o v e r y a rduou s p rob lem e x c ep t th a t o f re s to rin g th e t e x t w h ere i t h as been co rrup ted .

I f th e c om m en ta ry on th e Brihaddeih t r e a lly is th e w o rk o f M atangcl th e low er lim it o f th e E p ic -P u ran ic p e r iod in th e ch a r t (opposite p . 32) m ust be p la ced b e fo re G an d h a rv a R a ja , o th e rw ise th e ch ron o lo gy i t show s w ill no t b e m uch a ffec ted .

The F ir s t Period

S eve ra l nam es m en tioned in la te r w o rk s m a y re fe r t o som e o f th e ea rlie st au thors. F o r e x am p le P arvatT -pa ti and S h a r v3 are n am es o f Sh ivS : th e y m a y s tand fo r S h iv a , th e f irs t, d iv in e e xp ound er o f m usic, o r fo r som e o f h is la te r fo llow ers; M agheshS m ay b e I n d r i , K am a la s y a k S m a y b e B rahm a . Y e t i t w ou ld be in cau tio u s to m ak e su ch a n a sse rtion w ith o u t e v id en ce sin ce th e se a r c n am es th a t fre q u en tly occur.

T h e K sh em a ra ja m en tion ed b y K o h a la can n o t b e th e ce le b ra ted d isc ip le o f A b h in a v a G u p ta , s in ce K oh a l& 's low est p o ss ib le l im it is th e fo u r th c en tu ry a . d . , s ix cen tu r ie s b e fo re A b h in a vS G up ta .

THE THEORY

The Second P er iod (Buddh istic )

Th is p e r iod (w h ich w e m a y g en e ra lly term B u d d h is t ic since, a cco rd in g to th e H in du trad itio n . B u d dh ism a ro se an d dec lin ed in In d ia w ith in it s lim its) e x ten d s from the E p ic - p u ran ic p e r iod to th e e a r ly m ed ie v a l H in d u rev iva l.

A few im p o rtan t w o rk s th a t p ro b a b ly be long to th e b eg in n ing o f th is p e r iod a re a v a ila b le (see p rev io u s ch art) . Th ese in c lu d e e x te n s iv e fragm en ts o f K oh a l .

T h e low er lim it o f th e e a r ly w o rk s o f th e first p e r iod is se t b y th e fa c t th a t K o h a l an d D a t t i l a re m en tion ed in th e Ny Shstr, th e la s t re -sh ap in g o f w h ich , a s w e h a v e a lr e a d y seen , is v a r io u s ly d a te d b e tw een th e second c en tu ry n .c . a n d th e fo u r th c e n tu ry A.D ., th e firs t o f th e se d a te s b e in g th e m ore like ly .

V e r y few o f th e num erou s m u s ica l w o rk s o f th is second p eriod h a v e so fa r b een fo un d o r in a n y w a y ed ited o r stud ied . In m ost ca se s w e h a v e to c o n ten t ou rse lves w ith a u th o rs n am es w ith o u t a ttem p t in g to e s tab lish th e ir ch rono log ica l re la tion sh ip . T h e au th o rs w ho can s a fe ly be a t tr ib u te d to th is p eriod a re th o se n o t m en tion ed b y a n y w rite r o f th e pre- P u ra n ic -E p ic p eriod b u t m en tion ed a s a u th o r it ie s b y au thors o f th e ten th , e le v en th an d tw e lf th cen tu ries (ch ie fly A b h in a v G up t , S li rad tan a y , N n y B h u p i , P r sh v a d e v and h rn gad ev ) .

T h is g iv e s u s a lis t o f nam es, som e o f w h ich m a y h ow ever be long to th e f irs t p e r io d o r to th e earlie r p a r t o f th e th ird period.

Writers o f the Second (Buddhist) Period

s t ik , A p isa li (au th o r o f a Sh iksh ), U t ta r , U v a t , Um pa ti'- , K ty y a n +, K m ad e v , K um bh od b h a v , G han- a k , C h h a tra k , D a t t , D e v r j (m ay b e D cvcnd r ), D rauh in i, D h enuk , P r iy l i th i , B in d u R j , B r ih a t K a sh y a p , B h a , B h a Y a n t r , B h a S um anas , B h a a V r id dh i, B h a G op l+, B h a h ubh ka r+ (com m en ta to r on Nrady Sh iksh ), R ah u l , V en , V y s , V ch a sp a ti, S lir i Har.h (d ifferen t from th e p a tro n o f th e seven th c e n tu ry p o e t B an ) , S a k a li g a rb h , S u ry (m ay b e B h sk a r ) , Su resh va r ,* S on ie sh va r I + (d ifferen t from th e tw o la te r S om eshvara -s , a u th o rs r e sp e c tiv e ly o f Munaso lls a n d Sahgt Ratnval).

2 7

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

The T h ird (Medieval) Period

Th is p eriod corresponds w ith th e H indu r e v iv a l a fte r th e dec lin e o f B uddh ism . A ll th e ea rlie st b o ok s o f th is p eriod a re lo s t. T h e firs t a v a ila b le m ed ie v a l w o rk is th e Abh inav Bhra t, a ten th c e n tu ry com m en ta ry b y A b h in a v G u p t on th e Nty hslr.

Au thors o f the T h ird (Medieval) Period

I

U d b h a t ( la te e ig h th c en tu ry ) : Comm , on Nty ShstrL o lla t (betw een U d b h a t an d A b h in a v G u p t , c. 825):

Comm , on Nty Shstr. h an k u k (id ., c . 850): C omm . on Nty Shstr.U tp a l D e v ( ten th c en tu ry ; A b h in a v s g u ru 's guru).N r is im h G u p t (A b h in a v s tea ch er an d fa ther).A b h in a v G u p t (end o f ten th cen tu ry): Abh inav Bhrat,

comm . on Nty Shstr.B h o j (K in g) (10 10 1055).S im h an a (e leven th c e n tu ry o r e a r ly th ir te en th , b e fo re

H amm ira).A b h a y D e v (a Ja in ) (10 6 3 - ? ).M am m at (10 50 -1150 ): Sang t R a in a M l .R ud ra sen (before D even d r ) .S om ehvar I I ( 1 13 1 ) : Manaso lls o r Abhilshrth Ch in - tmani.

L o ch an K a v i* (1160): Rg Tarangin .

* There has been some speculation about the date o f Lochan K a v i. The Rg Tatangin i bears the date 10S2 o f the Shak era. T h is would be 1x60 a . d . Lochan K av i, however, mentions th e names o f Javadev and V idypati. T h e d a teo f J ayadev is about 1116 A .i> .,butthe known Maithili poet V idypati is thought to have lived about the fourteenth century. E ither Lochan lived after the fourteenth cen tury, or th is name refers to some other V idypa ti. I t appears th a t there is a local hak era in the E ast o f India according to which 1082 would be 1700 a .d . T h is would bring Lochan to a much later da te , but against it there is the fa c t th a t Lochan is quoted b y H riday N ryan (c. 1667) who himself is quoted b y lih av B hafta (c. 1700).

T h e work of Lochan has therefore been dated either 1160 a . d . , or fourteenth cen tury (after V idypati), o r 1 70 0 a . d .

Since the last date seems impossible, i t is like ly th a t the earlier o f the remaining dates is the true one and that as some Bengali scholars assert, there w as an earlier V idypati.

28

*1

p a ram a rd i (116 5 -120 3 ?).D e v e n d r i (a fte r B h o j l ) : Sang itd M uktdva li.S om e^h va r i I I I ( 1 1 7 4 n 77): Sang itd Ratnavali. S h a ra d a ta n a y a (c. 1200): Bhdvd Prakaihd .N an y a B h iip a la o r N 5n y a D e v i (e leven th o r tw e lfth

c en tu ry , b e tw een A b h in a v a G u p t i a n d S h ir f ig a d e v i) : Sarasva li Hridayalatnkdra.

J a itr a S im h i (c. 12 13? b e fo re H am m ira ): Bharatd Bhdshyd. S h a rn g ad cv a (12 10 -124 7 ): Sangttd Ratndkara.

THE THEORY

II

J a y a s im h i (before H amm ir).G an ap a ti (c. 1253? b e fo re H am m ir i) .J a ya sen (c. 1253): N rittd Ratnavali.H am m ir (1283 o r 1364): Sang itd Sh fingdrd Hard.G op l N y a k (129 5 -13 15 ).P ra t p (K in g ?): Sangitd Chiiddmani.P a lku r ik i S om an th ( th ir te en th - fo u r te en th cen tu ry):P a nd it rdhyacluirit , B s av P u r and.

V a san t R j (K in g K um rg ir i, b e fo re fou rte en th cen tu ry ): Vasant R jiy Ndyd Shdstrd.

D igam bar Su ri (before Pr^hvadev).P r sh v a d e v (before S im h B h u p l . a fte r B h o j and

P ara inard ): Sangitd Sam ay Sr.S h n ig a d h a r (1300-1350 ): Shdrngadhar Paddhati.H arip l (130 9 -13 12 ): Sangitd Sudhkard.h r V id y C h a k ra v a r t in (ea r ly fou rteen th ): Bharatd S a n - grahd.

Su d li k a la s (1323 -1349 ): Sang itd Upanihad.S im habhup l (c. 1330): Sudhkard, a comm , on Sangitd Ratndkara.

V ish v e sh v a r (c. 1330).V id y ra n y (1320-1380): Sang itd SardV cm B h u p l ( la te fou rte en th e a r ly fifteen th cen tu ry ): Sangitd Chin tdm ani.

G opend r T ip p B h u p l (1423 -1446 ): T ia D ip ik .K um bh ak a rn (1433-1468 ): Sang itd R j , Sangitd Kramd D ip ik .

K a llin th (m idd le fifteen th c en tu ry ) : K a l n id h i, a comm , on Sangitd Ratndkara.

*9

Karrial& L o ch an a (c. f ifte en th ?.): Sangitd Ch in idm an i, Sahgiidm rita .

K e sh a v a (be tw een 1240 an d 1664): comm , on Sang itd Ratndkard.

R am an an dS R a r ity a n a S h iv S Y o g in (a fte r th ir te en th cen tu ry ): Ndtyd Sarvasvd D ip ikd .

T h e longest w o rk o f th e m ed ie va l p e r io d is th e Sangitd Ratndkard o f S h a rh g ad cv a (12 10 1247 a .d .) . I t l ia s severa l v a lu ab le comm en tar ies , tw o o f w h ich b y S im h abhu p a la (c. 1330) an d b y K a l l in a tM (fifte en th c en tu ry ) h a v e b een p u b lish ed .* T h e Rdgd T a rang in i o f L o ch an a m a y a lso b e lon g to th is period .

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

T h e Fourth (Modern) Period

W ith th e a d v en t o f fo re ign in va s ion s m u s ica l c u ltu re q u ic k ly d ecays . A few au th o rs , h ow ever , e ith e r a t tem p t to r e s ta te th e old th e o ry o r to re-shape i t so th a t i t m a y ag ree w ith a ch an g in g p rac tice . M usic ian s h ad fo un d m an y p o in ts o f th e re co n s tru c te d m ed ie v a l th e o ry ir re le v an t w h en i t w a s con fron ted w ith th e m u s ica l p ra c tic e o f th e ir d a y . A series o f a ttem p ts w as th e re fo re m ad e to recon cile i t w ith th e fac ts . T h e ch ie f w o rk s o f th is k in d a re th e Svard-m eld -Ka ldn idh i o f R m - m ty (1549), lI ie Rdgd V ibodhd o f S om n th (Y610), th e Sang itd Darpund o f D m od a r M ish r (1625) an d e sp ec ia lly th e Chaturdandi P rakdh ikd o f V e n k a ta M akh in (1620) th e s y s tem a tiz c r o f K a m a t ic m usic . B u t th ese e ffo r ts o n ly a d d ed to th e con fu sion , fo r in th e ir a t tem p t to e x p la in a p p a ren t co n trad ic tio n s th e se la t e a u th o rs o ften fo rced v e r y far-fe tch ed in te rp re ta t io n s u p on th e an c ien t te ch n ica l te rm s an d th eories .

T h e re fo llow ed a series o f m o re re cen t w o rk s w h ich com p le te

* In the first chapter o f his Sangt Ralnkar, Shrngadcv g ives the follow ing list o f his chief predecessors:

SadShiv, S liiv, B rahm , Bharat, Ka.4hvapM uni, M atang, Ysh tika , Durg-shakti, Skrdl, K ohal , Vihkhiis', D antil (Dattil), K am bal, M hva tar , V yu , V ishvvasu , R ambh, ArjunS, N rad, Tuniburu, An janey, M tjigupt, R van , NandikeShvarS, S v ti, G u ii , B indurja, K shetr-rj.l, Rhal , Rudrat, N ny Bhiipl , and k ing Bhoj , Paraniardi and Somesh the world emperor; then the commentators o f Bharat: Lolla tS . U dbhal , Shankuk, B h a tt , A bh inava Gupta , the famous K irtidhar and m any more in th e past were experts in m usic ."5

30

THE THEORY

th e l in k be tw een an c ien t a n d m od em m usic . In N o rth ern In d ia th e Sang ita P a r ijd td o f A h o b a la (c. 1690) is con sid ered th e m ost im p o r tan t o f these.

C h ie f W riters o f the Fourth (Modern ) Period

H ar in y a k (c. 1500): SahgU Sr.M ehkarn (before 1509): Rag M l .M adan p l D e v (c. 1528) Anand Sah jvan .Lak .hm i N r y a n (first q u a r te r o f th e s ix te en th cen tu ry ): Sahg t Suryoday.

Lakh rn dh ar (s ix teen th c en tu ry ) : Bharat Shstr Granth.R m m ty (1550): Svar-m el-kal-nidhi.P u n d a r lk V i h a l ( la te s ix te en th cen tu ry ) : hadrg Chan- droday, Rg M l , Rg M a h ja n , N artan N irtm y.

T an ap p ch ry (Tn -sen ?) (gu ru o f V e n k a M akh in . c . 1600).

M dh av B h a (be fo re 1610 ): SahgU Chandrik.Som ri th (1610): Rg V ihodh.G ov in d a D ik h it (1614 ): Sahg il Sudh.G ov in d (?): Sangrah Chudmani.V en k a M akh in (c. 1620): Chaturdandi Praksh ik .D m od a r M ishr (1625): SahgU D a r pan.I l r id a y N r y a n D e v (c. 1667): Hriday K au tuk , H riday PrakSlui.

B sa v R j (16 98 -17 15 ): Sh iv Tattv Ratnkar.A lio b a l (before S h r i N iv s an d B h a v B h a a . F irs t h a lf

o f se v en te en th c en tu ry o r earlier): SahgU P r ij i . ( tran sla ted in to P e rs ian in 1724).

S h r i N iv s ( la te seven teen th cen tu ry): Rg Tattv Vihodh.A bh ila s (seven teen th c en tu ry ) : SahgU Chandr.J a g ad d h a r ( fou rteen th to seven teen th cen tu ry ): SahgU Srasv.

K am a l k a r ( la te r th a n 1600): SahgU Kamalkar.K ik a r j (seven teen th c en tu ry ) : SahgU Sroddhr.Jaga jjyo tirm aL la (seven teen th c en tu ry ) : SahgU Sr Sah- grah, SahgU Bhskar.

R agh u n th B h u p (seven teen th cen tu ry ) : SahgU Sudh.N an g R j (?): SahgU Gang D har an.V cd o r M ud aved (du ring th e re ign o f h h j 168 4 -17 12 ): SahgU M akarand, SahgU P u hph ja li.

3 i

V an g am an i (seven teen th c en tu ry ) : SahgUd Bhdskard .S h u k am bh ara (before e igh te en th c en tu ry ) : Sang ita Ddmo- dard.

S om an a r y i (a fte r 1609): N a lyd Chuddmani.B h a vS B h a t ta (a lia s A n u sh tu p a C h a k ra v a r t i a fte r A hoba lS .

c. 1700): A n up d Sang ita A hku shd , A n u p d Sangita Ratndkara, A nup d Sang ita V ilasd .

T u la jad h ip a (n iled 1729 -35 ): Sangita Sdrdmrita.N a ra y an a (K in g) ( la te e igh teen th cen tu ry ): Sang ita N drd - yand.

K av i-ra tn& N a ra y a n a (e igh teen th cen tu ry ) : Sangita Saran i.G ov in d a (e igh teen th cen tu ry ) : Sangita Shastrd Sahkshepd .G op in a th a K a v i B hu shanS ( la te e igh te en th cen tu ry): Kav ich i u lam a n i.

P ra ta p S in gh (1779 i& H ) : Sangita Sdgard,BaJaram a V a rm a (ru led 1798 -18 10 ): Bald-rdmd-Bharatd.Sh rik an th a ( la te e igh te en th cen tu ry ): Rasa K aum ud i.

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

R m v a rm M ahr j : Sangita K ritayah.A p p T u ls i: Abhinavd T d ld M a iija r i, Rdgd Chandrik , Rdgd Kalpadrum dnkurd , Sangita Sudhdkard.

K rih n n an d V y s : Rdgd Ka lpadrum d (1843). A p p a l ch ry : Sangttd Sangrahd Chintdmani.Sou rind r M ohan S h an n (R j T agore ): Sang ita Sard Sangrahd (1875).

V i lin u S h a rm (P a n d it B h tk h an d e ): Abhinavd Rdgd M a iija r i (19 2 1), Shrlm allakshydsangltam (1921).

M a in authors in North In d ia n Languages other thanSanskrit

R j M nsingh T om a r (1486 -15 18 ): M n K au tuha ld (H indi).

n Sen (c. 1549): Rdgd M a id (H indi).S h r R m M all: Rdgd V ichdrd (H ind i).H ar iva llabh : Sang ita Darpand (H ind i) (m ss. d a te d 1673). G an g R m : Setu (comm ent, on Sang . R a tn .) (H indi).D eo K a v i: Rdgd Ratndkard (1673) (H indi).

32

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THE

FIRST

PERIO

D

3w>

S

1aJ3-o.o

o

-GF

aE

Si_>v

g

i35>

S a iy it l " A b d -a l W a li U z la t: Rg M l (1759) (H indus- than i).

K a v i K r ih n : Rg K u tu ha l (178 1) (H ind i).M ahar j S aw a i P r a t p S imh D e v o f J a ip u r (1779 -1804): Sang t Sr (H ind i).

M uhamm ad K ezza : Ngtnat-e-A saphi (1813) (Persian).R d h M ohan Sen: Sang t Tarang (1818) (B enga li) .D iw n L acchh rm ; B ud d h i P rak ih D ar p an (1823)

(H indi).K r ih n n an d V y s D e v : Rg Ka lpadrum d (1842-1849)

(H ind i an d B enga li).C h h a tr N r ip a ti: P a d Ratnva l (1854) (H indi).C hunn i E l j G ossa in : N d V inod (1896) (H indi).B h n u K a v i (J ag ann th P rasd ): Kvy Prabhkar (1909)

(H indi).

THE THEORY

Northern and Southern M u s ic

"Because countries differ, things have different names.(R ag i i K a lp a d r u m d ) .

T h e la te r m ed ie v a l a u th o r R am am a ty a w ro te , in 1550 a .d . , "T h e sc ien ce o f m u sic h a s b o th in th e o r y and in p rac tice d eg en era ted in to con flic tin g v iew s . (Svar. K a l. 1 , 24.)*

T h ou gh th e m an y schoo ls o f m u sic in In d ia to -d a y e a ch la y c la im to th e sam e an c ien t trea tise s , th e re a re im p o rta n t d ifferences in th e m usic o f th e v a r io u s p a r ts o f Ind ia . H a rd ly a n y o f th e m odes o f S ou th In d ian m usic a re e x a c t ly id en tica l w ith those o f N o r th Ind ian . E v en in th e N o rth , ragS s an d s ty les g re a t ly d iffe r from one p rov in ce to ano th er . B esid es, there rem ain in m an y regions, in c e r ta in v a l le y s o f th e H im a laya s in p a rticu la r , a rch a ic fo rm s o f m u sic w ith a n u pp e r ton ic a n d a d escend in g s ca le th e s tu d y o f w h ich w ou ld b e o f g rea t in terest fo r th e u nderstand in g o f an c ien t m usic. Y e t w h a te v e r th ese d ifferen ces m ay b e , t h e y sh ou ld n o t b e o ve r-e stim ated . I t sh ou ld b e b o rn e in m ind th a t a ll th e se m usica l sy s tem s are b u t v a r ia t io n s in th e ap p lica tion o f one comm on m usica l th eo ry . T h e y a ll p e rta in to th e m od a l sy s tem o f m usic e x pounded in th e an c ien t trea tise s a n d th e ir d ifferences a re not s tru c tu ra l b u t m ere ly d ifferen ces in s ty le o r c la ss ifica tion .

I t is a comm on sa y in g in S ou th In d ia t h a t S ou th e rn m usic rep resen ts th e m ore an c ien t schoo l w h ile N o r th e rn m usic has e v o lv e d u n d e r ou ts id e in fluences. E x c e p t on v e r y m inor po in ts , th is op in ion does n o t , h ow ever, a g r e e w ith th e fac ts . S o u th In d ian m usic w as su b je c ted to s y s tem a tic re fo rm s, one o f th e m a in re fo rm ers b e in g V en k a t M akh in in th e seven teen th c en tu ry . N o r th In d ian c lassica l m u s ic , o n th e o th e r hand , th ough i t le n t its e lf e a s ily to tem p o ra ry fash ions, d id n o t a t tem p t to s y s tem a tiz e th em and seems t o h a v e rem ained v e r y m u ch wrh a t i t w as in sp ite o f changes. I t s t i ll con form s to -d a y w ith th e d e fin ition s o f th e m ost an c ien t books.

T h e m an y s to r ie s th a t te ll h ow th e v a r io u s s ty le s o f N o r th In d ian m usic w e re in v en ted b y m usicians o f t h e M uhamm adan p eriod h a v e p ro b a b ly n o b a s is in rea lity . U n d e r M uslim ru le , age-o ld s to r ie s w e re re to ld a s i f th e y h ad h ap p en ed a t th e cou rt o f A k b a r , s im p ly to m ak e th em m ore v iv id , a n d in co n fo rm ity w ith th e fash ion o f th e d a y . S u ch tran sferen ces o f legend are frequ en t e v e ryw h ere . In W este rn coun tries , m an y a p agan god in th is w*ay b ecam e a C h ris tian sain t a n d m an y an c ien t legend s w ere rea rran ged to fit in to a C h ris tian w orld . Som e ep isodes in th e life o f th e B ud dh a , for e x am p le , found th e ir w a y in to th e L iv e s o f the S a in ts w here th e B u d d h a appears u nder th e n am e o f S t. J o sapha t.

* * *

T h e im p a r tia l ea r o f sound-m easu ring in s trum en ts m akes one m a rv e l a t th e w onderfu l a c cu ra cy o f t h e sca les u sed b y th e g re a t "U s ta d s o f N o rth ern In d ia s c a le s w h ich in e v e r y w a y con fo rm w ith th e requ irem en ts o f a n c ien t H in du th eo ry . T o s a y th a t th e y p e rta in to , o r h ave been in flu en ced b y , th e A ra b o r th e P e rs ian s y s tem show s a v e ry su p e r fic ia l kn ow ledge o f th e su b je c t . T h ese sys tem s, o r ig in a lly m o s t ly d e r iv ed from In d ian m usic , h a v e b e com e so reduced an d im poverish ed in com parison w ith i t th a t n o on e can se r iou s ly sp eak o f th e ir h a v in g h ad a n y in flu en ce on it s d eve lopm en t un less one is re fe rr in g o n ly to th e s e t t in g o f ce rta in t y p e s o f p o e try o r to c e r ta in m annerism s o r w a y s o f s it t in g or o f p la c in g th e vo ice . In fa c t th e w ho le o f th e th eo ry an d m ost o f th e p ra c t ic e o f A ra b a s w e ll a s P e rs ian m usic is th e d irect d e scen d an t o f th e an c ien t T u rk ish m usic. A t th e beginn ing o f th e M uslim era , th e A ra b s th em se lves h ad h a rd ly a n y m u s ica l s y s tem w orth

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

34

THE THEORY

m ention ing , a n d a ll th e A r a b ic th eo re tic ian s A v ic en n a ,* A l- F a rab i, S a fi u d 'd in , a n d o th e rs a re c la im ed b y th e T u rk s as T u rk ish in c u ltu r e i f n o t a lw a y s in race . I n f a c t , t h e y m ere ly e xpounded in A ra b ic th e o ld T u rk ish s y s tem in te rp re ted in th e lig h t o f G re ek th eo ry . T h is T u rk ish s y s tem w a s w e ll know n to m ed ieva l H in du scho la rs w ho o ften m en tion i t (under th e nam e o f T u ru sh ka ) a s a s y s tem c lo s e ly a llied to In d ian m usic. A s I h a v e e xp la in ed e lsew here , f th e seven teen in te rv a ls o f th e o c ta v e , a s u sed b y th e A ra b s , a r e id en t ic a l w ith se ven te en o f th e tw en ty - tw o In d ian *>hrutis, a n d th e re is n o m od a l form in A rab ic m usic w h ich is no t kn ow n to th e H indus.

Avicenna was bom about 980 a .d . in Balkh, in what is now known as Afghan Turkestan and, though his father is said to have been a Persian, the Turks claim him a s their own in language and culture, t See the author's Introduction to the Study o f M usical Scales, p. 126.

35

C H A P T E R I I

T H E N A T U R E O F S O U N D

qfafa Mrc:wifTOid ifwwhi^i:: v f# R g r g 'i * r i is :

s tru ck ; o f th ese tw o , th e u n s tru ck w il l b e first described . Sound p roduced from e th e r is kn ow n a s 'u n s tru ck '. I n th is

u n s tru ck sound th e G ods d e ligh t. T h e Y o g is , th e G rea t S p ir its , p ro je c t in g th e ir in ind s b y a n e ffo rt o f th e m ind in to th is u n stru ck sound , d ep a rt, a t ta in in g L ib e ra tio n . 7

S tru c k sound is sa id to g iv e p leasu re , u n s tru ck sound g iv e s L ib e ra t io n . (Nrad P u r and) *

B u t " th is (un stru ck sound) h a v in g n o re la tion w ith hum an en jo ym en t does no t in te re s t o rd in a ry m en . ($h. tat. R a in .

6, 7 . 12.)N o t a ll a u d ib le v ib ra t io n s a re m u s ica l sounds. T h e sounds

u sed in m usic a re those w ho se m u tu a l re la t io n s fo rm an im age o f th e b a s ic m a th em a tic a l law s o f th e u n iverse . T h u s m usica l sounds rep roduce th e firs t crea tion o f th e P r im ord ia l In te llect. T h is crea tion is a t th e sam e t im e a rh y thm an d a th ou gh t. In co rrespondence w ith th is, th e m a in ch a ra c te r is t ic o f m usica l sounds is th a t , a lth o u gh th e y fo rm s im p le p h y s ica l re la tion s , y e t a t th e sam e tim e th e y c o n v e y id eas, th e y a re expressions. T h is is w h y th e sound o f m usic is c a lled "N d , " in te llig ib le sound , and is sa id to resu lt from th e u n ion o f p h y s ica l b rea th w ith th e fire o f in te llec t.

T h e s y lla b le N a m eans b rea th , th e s y lla b le d a th e fire (o f in te lle c t) . B o rn o f th e un ion o f b r e a th an d fire, in te llig ib le sound is c a lled N a d . (Sang. M a k . 4 , 18 , rep roduced in Sang. Rain . 1 , 3, 6 , and Sang. D arp . 1 , 39.)10

THE NATURE OF SOUND

T h e D ifferen t K in d s o f M u s ica l Sound

In m usica l sound th ree m a in e lem en ts a rc u su a lly con s idered in ten s ity , p itch and tim bre.

In te n s ity is th e re la t iv e s tren g th o f th e sound , w hether s o ft o r v igorous.

P itch is defined b y th e in te r v a l o r th e num ber o f v ib ra t ion s (shrutis).

T im b re is th e resonance o f h arm on ics w h ich d iffe ren tia tes th e sound o f v a r io u s in s trum en ts o r vo ices .

T im bre s a rc c lassified in to f iv e m a in categories: S tru c k sounds a re k n ow n to b e o f f iv e k ind s produced b y

th e n a il (strings), b y w in d (flu tes), from lea th e r (d rum s), from m e ta l (percussion -in strum en ts) o r from th e b o d y (th e v o ic e ) . (Sang . M ak. 1 , 7.)*

37

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

Sacred and Secu lar M u s ic

M usic is o f s e v e ra l k in d s , e a ch o f w h ich , a cco rd in g to i t s a im , fo llow s d is t in c t iv e ru les. C e rta in com b in a tion s o f sound he lp m en ta l con cen tra tion an d sp ir itu a l d eve lopm en t. T h ese a re u sed in th e h igh e r fo rm o f sa c red m usic w h ich , in In d ia , is conn ec ted w ith th e s in g in g o f th e S am 5 V ed5 . T h e th e o ry of th is sacred a r t is k e p t v e r y se c re t fo r i t s p ow er is sa id to be g rea t.

Som e a sp ec ts o f th e h igh e r th eo ry o f sound a re , h ow ever, o ften b rou gh t in to p ra c tic e fo r m ag ica l ends, fo r th e tre a tm en t o f d iseases, o r in tam in g dangerous an im a ls . M ost v illa g e m ag ic ian s kn ow h ow to u t il iz e w ith g re a t e ffic a cy th e p sy ch ic an d h yp n o tic e ffec t o f c e r ta in sounds.

B u t th e re a re o th e r k in d s o f sound -re la tion s w h ich m ere ly g iv e p leasu re , e v o k in g ten d e r em o tion s an d p lea s in g ideas. O n ly su ch k in d s o f sound com e w ith in th e scope o f se cu la r o r DeShi m usic , w ith w h ich a lon e w e a re h ere concerned .

T h e fo llow ing a re th e ch ie f term s u sed in an c ien t b o ok s to de fin e th e d ifferen t k in d s o f music:

QTTA (Music):" A p a r t icu la r a rran gem en t o f sounds w h ich is p lea s in g [to

hear] is c a lled m usic (g it3). I t is o f tw o k in d s sacred o r ce le s t ia l (g Jn d h a rv i) a n d p ro fan e (gan fi) ." (Sang. R a in . I I . 4 , I rep rodu ced in Svar. K a l. 2 , 6 .)

GANDHARVA (Sacred or Celestia l M usic):" T h a t (music) w h ich , su n g b y th e c e le s t ia l m usic ian s o r b y

th o se w h o kn ow th e th e o ry o f sacred m usic , h a s com e to th em th rou gh th e b eg in n in g less trad itio n , a n d w h ich is th e sure m ean s o f a tta in in g L ib e ra tion , is kn ow n to th e sages as C e le s tia l (g an d h a rvS ) ." (Sang. Ratn. I I , 4, 2, a n d Svar. K a l. 2 , 7 .Y 1

T h is c e le s t ia l m u sic is a lso c a lled th e "m u s ic o f con tem p la t io n " (m5rg&),* an d i t is sa id to b e com posed in a cco rdance w ith th e co sm ic law s o f w h ich ph ys ica l h a rm on y is b u t a re flection , f

" T h a t m usic, source o f [all] d eve lopm en t, w h ich , in th e beg inn in g , w as seen b y th e C rea to r in H is con tem p la tion and

The derivation o f the word tndrgd is g iven b y Kallinatha: "M argS means to contem plate ' .14

t The correspondences between spoken and musical sounds according to M5rgS theory are g iven in the Rudrd-damarudbhavd-siitrd-Vivaranam.

38

a fte rw a rd s perfo rm ed b y B h a ra ta an d th e o th e r seers in th e resp lenden t p resen ce o f S h am bhu (Sh ivS ), th e G iv e r o f Peace, is c a lled th e m usic o f con tem p la tion (m arga ). (Chut. Ragd. i , 8 -9 ; a n d Sang . Ratn . 1 , 1 , 2 2 -2 3 .)

GANA (Profane M usic): T h a t (music) w h ich is com posed a cco rd in g to ru les b y

exp erts , w h ich is su n g in th e m odes o f se cu lar o r w o r ld ly m usic (desh i rag&s), a n d w h ich ch a rm s th e p eop le is gana, p ro fan e m u s ic '. (Sang. Ratn . I I , 4 , 3 a n d Svar. K a l. 2 , 9 .)

d e Sh I (Secu lar M usic): T h e song , d an ce an d p la y o f in s trum en ts , d iffe ren t from

co u n try to c o u n tr y an d p erfo rm ed a s th e ir p eop le p lease, w h ich ch arm s th e h ea r t, is c a lled d esh i (se cu la r ) ." (Chat. Rdgd. 1 , 1 0 ; and Sang. Ratn . 1 , 1 , 23 .)

M a tan ga M uni con siders th a t th e w o rd desh i (world ly) app lie s to a ll e a r th ly m usic. "S o u n d (dhvan i) goes e ve ryw h ere in e v e r y p la ce , h ence i t is ca lled d esh i. (D riliaddeih i 1 , 2 .)

A ll th e w orld , an im a te o r in an im ate , is su b je c t to sound (dhvan i). S ound is d iv id ed in to tw o k in d s m an ife s t a n d un m an ifest. M an ifest is th e sound th a t com es to th e lip s in th e fo rm o f a m e lod ic m o vem en t (v a rn a ) , g iv in g rise to d esh i (secular) m usic . (id . 1 , 12 .)

THE NATURE OF SOUND

39

C H A P T E R I I I

T H E S C A L E

The T on ic or Drone

,L m usic is b ased u pon re la tion s b e tw een sounds. T h esere la tion s can , h ow ever , be w o rked ou t in d ifferen t w ay s ,*g iv in g rise to d ifferen t g roup s o f m usica l sy s tem s, each

o f w h ich h as po ssib ilitie s o f exp ression p e cu lia r to itse lf .T h e m oda l g rou p o f m u s ica l sy s tem s, t o w h ich p ra c t ic a lly

th e w ho le o f In d ian m usic Ixdongs, is b a sed on th e e s tab lish m en t o f re la tion s b e tw een d ive rse su ccess ive sounds o r no tes on th e on e h an d and , on th e o th er , u pon a p erm anen t sound fix ed an d in va r iab le , th e to n ic .

C on tra ry t o comm on b e lie f, m oda l m usic is n o t m ere ly m e lo d y w ith o u t a ccom pan im en t, nor h as a son g o r m e lod y , in itse lf , a n y th in g to d o w ith m ode. T h e m odes u sed in th e m usic o f th e C h ris tian Chu rch a re m odes o n ly in n am e, though th e y m a y h a v e b een rea l m odes o r ig in a lly . B u t m uch of S co tt ish an d Ir ish m usic , fo r ex am p le , is t r u ly m odal: it belongs to th e sam e m usica l fam ily a s Ind ian m usic an d is independen t o f th e W estern h arm on ic sy s tem .

Ind ian m usic, l ik e a ll m odal m usic, th u s e x is ts o n ly b y th e re la tion s o f e a ch n o te w ith th e ton ic . I t is th is re la t io n th a t d e term in es w he th e r a g iv en no te is a m in o r th ird , a f if th , a sev en th o r a fo u rth . T h e re la tion w ith th e ton ic , in fa c t , d e te rm in es th e exp ression o f a n y g iv en sound . T h e to n ic m ust th e re fo re b e c o n s ta n t ly h ea rd . I t c an e ith e r b e k e p t in th e b a ck g rou nd lik e a d rone o r rep ea ted a t v e r y frequ en t in te rva ls , a s is g en e ra lly d on e in p la y in g a s tr in ged in strum en t. I t shou ld be rem em bered th a t th e d ron e is no t m ere ly in ten d ed to keep th e s in gers in tu n e , s o th a t th e y m a y a t ta c k a lw a y s a t th e co rre c t p itch , b u t i t is th e k e y to a ll m od a l exp ress ion . S o long a s th e h eare r h as no t e n t ir e ly id en tified h im se lf w ith th e ton ic , b u t s t ill p erce ives d rone and m e lod y a s sep a ra te en tit ie s , i t is im possib le fo r h im to fo llow o r understand th e m ean in g and th e b e a u ty o f m od a l m usic.

See the authors Introduction to the Study o f Musical Scales, p. 21.40

TIIF. SCALE

I t appears th a t a t d iffe ren t p eriod s d iffe ren t n o tes w e re ta k en a s th e s ta rt in g -p o in t o f th e sca le . B u t th e S lia d ja (Sa, C), th e to n ic o f a ll m odern m usic , seem s to h a v e been con sidered a s su ch sin ce m ed ieva l tim es.

S h ad ja (Sa, C) is th e firs t o f a ll th e n o tes an d so i t is th e m ain o r ch ie f n o te . (S im h . C omm , on Sang. R a in , i , 4,

6 - s rA lth o u gh ce rta in n o tes a re m o re u su a lly ch o sen a s th e

ton ic , a n y sound , w h a te v e r i t s p itch , becom es th e to n ic of sca les th a t a re bu ilt u pon it . S h ad ja ( th e ton ic), w h ich w e here a lw a y s tra n scr ib e as C , h as no t a f ix e d p itc h lik e th e C o f k e y boa rd in strum en ts . Thus:

D a t t i la e xp la in s th a t th e S h ad ja (th e ton ic ) m a y b e e s tab lish ed a t w ill a t a n y p itch (on a n y sh ru ti) a n d th a t , b y re la tion w ith it , th e o th e r n o tes sh ou ld b e e s tab lish ed a t th e p rop e r in te rv a ls . (S im h . C omm , o n Sang. R a in . 1 , 4,

1 5 - 16 .) B u t a comm on ton ic is n e ce ssa ry so th a t th e rag&s, a ll b u ilt

upon it , m a y b e e a s ily com pared . In th e n o ta t io n s o f rag a s w h ich fo rm th e second vo lum e o f th is b ook , th e to n ic in e v e ry case is C , s in ce th a t is u su a lly con s id e red th e first n o te o f th e m odem W este rn sca le , ju s t a s S a (in p re sen t-d ay m usic a lw a y s th e ton ic) is th e f irs t n o te o f th e p resen t In d ian scale .

W ith C a s ton ic , th e w h ite k e y s o f a n y k e y e d in strum en t, su ch a s th e p iano o r o rgan , g iv e a p p ro x im a te ly th e m a jo r m ode o r u n a lte re d (shuddha) sca le , th e s ca le o f B i la v a l in m od em In d ian m usic. T h en th e d iffe ren t m odes can e a s ily b e v isu a liz ed a s m od ifica t ion s o f th is basic (shuddha) scale .

T h e f a c t th a t th e to n ic u sed b y m ost s ingers is low er often B f ia t (N i k om a la ) is o f m in o r im portan ce . O n ce th e real n a tu re o f e a ch m ode h as been p ro p e r ly understood (and m usica l p ra c t ic e show s th a t th is is easier i f th e to n ic is a lw a y s C) th e m odes can b e tran spo sed in to a n y p itch th a t m a y b e su itab le fo r d ifferen t v o ic e s o r in strum en ts .

The Seven Svards (Notes)

T h e w o rd n o te , b y w h ich w e here tra n s la te svard, is u su a lly ta k e n to m ean m ere ly a c e r ta in p itc h o f so im d; b u t th e w ord svard m ean s a p itch o f sound p lu s an exp ress ion , so

i t w ou ld b e m ore c o r re c t ly rendered a s e xp re ss iv e no te . A s M atartg says:

" T h e sound th a t g en e ra te s an expression is a s v a r , a n o te . (.B rihaddeshi comm , on i , 63 .)

T h e d e r iv a tion o f th e w o rd s v a r is g iv en a s fo llow s: T h e w o rd s v a r (note) is a u th o r ita t iv e ly kn ow n to

m ean th a t w h ich sh in es o f its e lf from r jr i ( to shine) w ith th e w o rd svd (self) a s p re fix . (M a tah g , B rihaddesh i 1 ,

63.)In d ian m usic recogn izes seven m a in an d tw o se conda ry

n o te s o r sva r s . T h e se n o tes rep resen t d e fin ite in te rv a ls and , a s such , form th e b a s ic o r n a tu ra l (shuddh) sca le . T h e y can , h ow ever , b e ra ised o r low ered to fo rm o th e r sca les . In th a t ca se th e y a re con sid ered a lte red (v ik r it ) . T h e n o tes th a t fo rm th e b a s ic sca le a re c a lled pu re (shuddh); n o te s low ered b y h a lf a to n e a re sa id to b e k om a l ( s o f t= f la t ) ; n o tes ra ised b y h a lf a ton e a re ca lled t v r (sharp).

A cco rd in g to th e In d ian th eo ry , th e sound s o f m u sic are first p e rce ived a s r e la t iv e p itch e s o r in te rva ls . I t is o n ly w hen th e ir a c t io n h as la s ted fo r som e tim e th a t th ese in te rv a ls c o n v e y to th e m ind a n id ea o r a n exp ression . H en ce th e a r ith m e tic a l c la ss ifica tion o f sounds a s in te rv a ls is con sid ered prior to , a n d th e b a s is o f, th e ir m u s ica l c la ss ifica tion a s e xp re ss iv e n o te s . T h is d iffe ren tia tion , w h ich w a s kn ow n to th e an c ien t G re ek a s w e ll a s to th e an c ien t In d ian th eo ris ts , e x p la in s w h y th e sh ru tis , o r in te rva ls , a re con sid ered th e b asis o f th e sva r s o r no tes , o r (in G reek term s) w h y th e enharm on ic is con sid ered th e b asis o f b o th ch rom a tic and d ia ton ic .

M a tan g says: h ad j (C) and th e o th e r n o tes (svars) a re a lw a y s m an i

fe sted th rou gh th e in te rv a l th e y fo rm w ith th e to n ic , th e ir sh ru tis , ju s t a s a p itch e r in th e d a rk is m ad e m an ife s t b y a lam p . (B r ihadde ih i 1 , 36.)

T h e com m en ta ry on th e Rg V ibodh (1 , 14) adds: W h a t th en co n s titu te s a no te , a sva r? W h a t is th e p a r t icu la r ity o f th ese seven sounds? I t is th e ir in te llig ib ility , th e i f c a p a c ity to p lea se th e m ind , to ap p ea l to th e consciousness o f th e h earer. A n d th a t t h e y d o th is o f th em se lves , w ith o u t e x te rn a l a id . N ih sh an k (Sh n ig ad ev ) says:

"S o u n d is first h ea rd a s a n in te rva l, a hruti; b u t th e reson an ce th a t im m ed ia te ly fo llow s , c o n v e y in g o f its e lf (w ith ou t e x te rn a l a id ), a n exp ress ion to th e m ind o f th e h earer, is

42

NORTHERN IND IAN MUSIC

THE SCALE

ca lled a 'sv a r& \ a 'm u sica l n o te '." {Sang. Ratn . I , 3, 24 -25 .) And:

" T h e e xp re ss iv e sound , a t t r a c t iv e an d p leas ing , w h ich resounds im m ed ia te ly a f te r th e e x a c t in te rv a l ( th e shru ti) h as m an ife s ted itse lf , is c a lled s v a r i (n o te ) ." (Sang. Darp.

x , 5 7 - )T h e n o tes a re seven in num ber."F rom th e [ tw en ty -tw o m ain] in te rv a ls (hrutis) com e th e

seven n o te s (svaras) c a lled S h ad ja , R ish ab h a , G andhara , M adhyam a, P an ch am a , D h a iv a ta , N ish adS . (Chat. Ragd. 1 , 18 -19 ; Sang- D arp . 1 , 167 ; $h. tat. R a tn . 6 , 7 , 2 2 -23 .)

"O th e r s c a ll th em (for short):S a (D o), R i(R e ) , G a(M i), M a(F a ), P a (S o l), D h a (L a ) , a n d N i (S i). (Sang. Darp . I , 168 .)28

T h ese no tes, c la ss ified a cco rd in g to th e ir r e la t iv e im po rtance , fo rm th e d iffe ren t p a r ts o f th e "p e r so n o f th e m oda l sca le (m u rch hana).

" T h e n o te S a (Do, th e ton ic) is s a id to b e th e sou l, R i(R e ) is c a lled th e h ead , G a (Mi) is th e a rm s, M a (Fa) th e ch est, P a (Sol) th e th ro a t , D h a (La) th e h ips, N i (Si) th e fe e t . S u ch a re th e seven lim b s o f th e m od a l sca le . (Narada Sam hita 2 , 5 3 -

54T"T h e s e no tes , a s a ru le seven , co rrespond , in th e v iew o f

M a ta iig a , w ith th e seven b a s ic e lem en ts o f th e p h y s ica l b o d y , an d issue from th e seven cen tres o f th e su b tle b o d y (ch ak ra s) ." (K a il. comm , on Sang. Ratn. 3 , 23.)S0

A n in te re s tin g w a y o f defin ing th e in te rv a ls rep resen ted b y th e sva ra s o r n o tes o f th e u n a lte red (shuddha) sca le is b a sed on th e c r y o f c e r ta in an im als.

M ost an im a ls h a v e a d is t in c t c r y b a sed on tw o notes. I f w e con s id e r th e low e r n o te a s th e S a (D o), th e h igh e r n o te w ill g iv e u s a second , a th ird , a fo u r th , e tc . T h is c an b e v e r y e a s i ly v e r ified b y ob se rva tion . T hu s:

" S h a d ja (th e o c tave ) is sounded b y th e p eaco ck ; th e n ex t n o te R ishabha . (th e m a jo r second) is u tte re d b y th e c h a ta k a b ird , f h e g o a t b le a ts G an dh ara (th e m ino r th ird ) ,* th e heron (k rau n ch i) c r ie s M adh yam a (th e p e r fe c t fou rth ). I n th e season o f flow ers, P an ch am a (th e p e r fe c t fifth ) is s o f t ly sung b y th e cu ck o o (kok ila). D h a iv a ta (th e n a tu ra l s ix th ) is c ro ak ed b y th e fro g in th e season o f ra in s. A t a ll t im es , O

* In terms o f the modern one, the ancient natural scale would contain an fla t and a B flat (Ga komalii and N i komala).

43

NORTHERN- IND IAN MUSIC

Goddess! N ih5d5 ( th e m in o r seven th ) is trum pe ted b y th e e le p h a n t ." ( K o h a l i q uo ted in Brihaddeih i, comm , on 63.)

A s im ila r lis t is g iv en in th e Naradd Sam h itd (2, 5 5 -56 ) an d a s l ig h t ly d iffe ren t o n e in th e M an d u k i S h ik sh d (1 , 9) a n d in th e A aradtyd Sh iksha ( I , V . 4 5 ) a lso rep roduced in th e Shiva tatva Ratndkard. (V I , 7 , 33 -35 ).

T h e p e a co ck 's o c ta v e s ta r t s from th e u pp e r no te . K a lid a s a says:

" B o th lis ten ed to th e lo v e ly c r y o f c re s ted p ea co ck s ra is in g th e ir h ead s a t th e sound o f th e a x le o f th e ch a r io t. In th is c r y resound tw o k in d s o f S h ad ja s v a r a ." {Raghuvamsha, 1 ,

3 9 .)"W e ob serve th a t th e g o a t b le a ts th e m ino r th ird (D o M ib ,

S a -G a kom ala ) th a t th e a n g ry e leph an t g iv e s a p ro longed S i f la t (N i komalft) in te rsp ersed w ith rep ea ted low er D o -s (Sa). T h is sh ow s c le a r ly w h a t w as th e an c ien t n a tu ra l scale .

R ea d e rs in In d ia w ill b e fam ilia r w ith th e fifth o f th e cu ckoo .Som e m odern w rite rs h a v e su ggested th a t th ese an im a l

c r ie s h a v e an ab so lu te p itch . S o fa r a s I am aw are th is is no t a fa c t , b u t th e in te rv a ls th em se lv e s d o seem to be in variab le .

The Intercalary Notes, K a k a li N i and An tard Ga

T o th e seven m ain n o te s w ere added , in an c ien t m usic , tw o a cce sso ry n o tes d iv id in g th e m a jo r ton es N i, S a (m odern N i k ., Sa; B b , C) and G a , M a (m odem G a k ., Ma; K b , F ) in to tw o ha lf-tones . T h ese tw o in te r c a la ry (sadharanS) n o tes w ere ca lled K a k a l l N i (th e p lea s in g Si) a n d A n ta rS G a ( in te rm ed ia ry M i).

W hen tw o sh ru tis (h a lf a tone) from S a (Do) p a ss in to N i (Si), th is is (ca lled) K a k a l i (S i- , N i shuddhft). T h e sam e from Ma (Fa) in to G a (Mi) is A n ta r a (Mib, G a huddh5) . " (Q uo ted in S im h . comm , on Sang. R a in . 1 , 3 , 40, a n d in S h . tat. Ratn.

V I , 7 . 5 1 .) * T h e no te c a lled K a k a l i is o b ta in ed b y ra is in g N i (m odem

N i k ., S ib ) b y tw o sh ru tis . T h e n o te ca lled A n t a r i is o b ta in ed from G a (m odern G a k . M i b) in th e sam e w a y . T h e y a re no t p ro p e r ly con sid ered n o tes (svaras) b ecau se th e y