Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1695 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY OF LEAFY VEGETABLES IN
URBAN
(HOW TO CREATE RESILIENCE CITIES?)
Abul-Soud M. A.
Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate,
Agricultural Research Centre, Giza,
Egypt
ABSTRACT
Under climate change impacts and limited natural resources, urbanization and population increment presented
challenges related to food security and GHG's mitigation that generate many global interests towards urban agriculture
and recycling organic urban wastes.
The current study carried out during autumn and winter seasons of 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 at the Central
Laboratory for Agricultural Climate, Agricultural Research Center, Dokki, Egypt. The study investigated the ability of
using substrate culture system (peat moss: perlite (50:50) and sand: vermicompost (80:20) as rooftop garden on improve
food security of some leafy vegetables (lettuce, celery, salad and red cabbage) in substrate culture) under different pots
volumes 6 and 8 liters. Physical and chemical properties of substrates, vegetative growth, yield and N, P and K
characteristics of lettuce, celery, salad and red cabbage were determined.
The obtained results of both two factors indicated that the use of sand + vermicompost and pot volume 8 liters
recorded the higher vegetative, yield characteristics and N, P and K contents results of lettuce, celery, salad and red
cabbage compared to peat + perlite and pot volume 6. Increasing pot volume from 6 to 8 liters of substrate led to increase
the vegetative and yield of studied leafy vegetables. The interaction effect shown that the highest yield parameters / plant
and N, P and K contents of the studied vegetables presented by sand + vermicompost combined with pot volume 8 liters.
In reverse to the horticulture point view, the economic efficiency and food security had a different orientation while the
use of pot volume 6 liters produced the higher yield per area unit (2 x 3 m) as a result of increase the plant density from
48 plants/ area unit/ pot volume 8 liters to 72 plants/ area unit/ pot volume 6. The study take in high concern maximizing
area use efficiency to cover the food security and economic scales while canceled the impact of plant density factor of
both pot volume treatments. The study recommended to implement sand + vermicompost combined with pot volume 6
liters. The study offer applicable guide for enhancing the food security of leafy vegetables in urban and remote areas.
Keywords: Rooftop garden, urban agriculture, food security, substrate culture, vermicompost, lettuce, celery, salad
and red cabbage.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1696 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
1. INTRODUCTION
Mega cities citizens are normally a huge costumers but they could contribute as pioneers in mitigation and
adaptation of climate change impacts and create more sustainable cities and food production by implement integrated
environmental management of urban agriculture via soilless culture and recycling their organic wastes via
vermicomposting. Urban agriculture and vermicomposting create appropriate mitigation and adaptation strategies of
climate change.
Leafy vegetables are a great treasure for human being as a source of nutrients, vitamins, fibers, phytochemical
compounds and etc, in the human diet. Leafy vegetables could be consumed in different methods (fresh or cooked). The
increase of public awareness towards the leafy vegetables against junk food especially in urban area drive the force for
consume more leafy vegetables as essential part of a balanced diet. Leafy vegetables not just play a vital role in human
diet but also play a greater role in improve human health and fight the different risky diseases. Urban horticulture is not
just working on producing large variety of vegetables, cereals, flowers, ornamental trees, aromatic vegetables and
mushrooms but also fight the climate change impacts, poverty, hungry, malnutrition and illness while help food security,
economy and social needs (FAO 2012).
Many researchers in different countries have investigated the urban agriculture mainly in soil cultivation on
different scales and viewpoints such as: contamination effect of trace and heavy elements in urban soils on leafy
vegetables growth and production (Sharma et al., 2009, Temmerman et al., 2009, Nabulo et al., 2010, Saumel et al.,
2012 and McBride et al., 2014), human health risk assessment of vegetables consumed from contaminated urban soil
and foodborne pathogens (Sharma et al., 2009, Nabulo et al., 2012, Saumel et al., 2012, Lagerkvist et al., 2013,
Nicklett and Kadall 2013 and Swartjes et al., 2013), The role of urban agriculture in sustainable production and food
security in urban and peri-urban areas (Gockowski et al., 2003, Mawois et al., 2011, Grewal and Grewal 2012, Probst
et al., 2012, Hara et al., 2013, Rego 2014, Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014 and Bvenura and Afolayan 2015) and the
importance of leafy vegetables on human health in poor urban and peri-urban (Gockowski et al., 2003, Campbell et al.,
2009, Uusiku et al., 2010, Nicklett and Kadall 2013, Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014 and Bvenura and Afolayan 2015).
The use of soilless culture techniques in producing vegetables under urban agricultural led to avoid the problems of
urban soil contamination, shortage of soil, water and natural resources beside maximizing the production. The real
advantages of using soilless culture in urban agriculture are the using of neglect able area as rooftop as cultivation area
and the high water use efficiency. Alternating peat moss and perlite substrate by local substrate such as sand and
vermicompost contribute in reducing the cost and increase the sustainability of the substrate culture. Peat moss is the
most widely used substrate in horticultural activities (seedlings production and soilless culture) for its desirable physical
and chemical properties and the high production output but this substrate is un-regenerated natural resource. While the
environmental and ecological concerns in the recent years led to minimize or against the use of peat because its harvest is
destroying endangered wetland ecosystems worldwide (Robertson, 1993). A majority of horticulture crops are produced
in commercially available substrates. In general, growers want substrates that are consistent, reproducible, available, easy
to handle and mix, cost effective, and have the appropriate physical and chemical properties for the crop they are
growing (Klock-Moore, 2000), Widely used substrate components include peat moss, pine bark, perlite, vermiculite,
sand; etc. The need to produce local substrate instead of imported substrates drives many researchers to develop different
substrate to play the role of peat moss. Several studies revealed that peat can be substituted with various compost types
without any negative effects on a variety of crops raised in these substrates (Eklind et al., 2001; Hashemimajd et al.,
2004, AboSedera et al., 2015 and Abul-Soud et al.,2014, 2015 a, b).
In general, volume substrate reduction leads to a slight but significant decrease in crop yield and quality.
However, in an experiment conducted at University of Pisa with tomato grown in perlite bags no difference in crop
growth and fruit yield was found between standard (30 L m-2
) and reduced (24 L m-2
) bag volume. Thus, the reutilization
of substrate must be strongly encouraged along with the reduction of substrate volume. The substrate volume could be
reduce until 25%, without yield reduction, if irrigation scheduling is adapted to the lower water buffer (Pardossi et al.,
2011).
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1697 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Vermicomposting is double process which earthworms play a major role in digesting the organic wastes to worm
manure (vermicompost) and microbes play a secondary process (humification) in decrease C: N ratio and enhanced the
decomposition (worm cast) into more stabilized dark, earth-smelling soil conditioner and nutrient-rich compost that is
rich in major and micronutrients Abul-Soud et al., 2009, 2014 and 2015 a,b,c). Different urban organic wastes can be
vermicomposting by special species of earthworms include urban solid waste (Alves and Passoni, 1997), food wastes
(Singh and Sharma, 2002), paper waste (Gajalakshmi et al., 2002), animal manure, kitchen wastes, paper and fruit and
vegetable wastes (Abul-Soud et al., 2009), among others. It is also a sustainable solution for management of organic
wastes which are major source of environmental pollution (Lazcano et al., 2009). Needless to say that the most
important point of utilizing vermicomposting was mitigating the CO2 emission from the different organic wastes through
sequestration of the organic carbon into substrate and organic nutrient solution forms that could be utilize in ecology
soilless culture of different vegetables led to more mitigation of CO2 emission (Abul-Soud et al., 2009, 2014 a and 2015
a,b,c).
The study approach target to create resilience cities by achieving food security through encouraging implement
integrated urban agricultural via soilless culture and vermicomposting technology. The study aimed to investigate the
suitable type and volume of substrate in producing leafy vegetables (lettuce, celery, salad cabbage and red cabbage)
under urban conditions, also brief the economic and environmental impact assessment of urban agriculture.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in the experimental station at the Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate (CLAC),
Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Egypt, during the autumn and winter seasons of 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 in simple
substrate culture under urban conditions.
2.1 Plant material:
Leafy vegetable crops, celery (Agium gravealens var. dulace cv. Royal crown), lettuce (Iceberg type) Robinson F1
hybrid, salad (white) cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) cv. and red cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata f.
rubra) cv. were cultivated in the middle of October 2013 and 2014 (autumn season) and in the middle of January 2014
and 2015 (winter season), respectively. The four leafy vegetables were cultivated during four seasons, the first cultivation
autumn + winter season of 2013 / 2014 while the second cultivation autumn + winter season of 2014 / 2015. Seeds were
sown in the first of September and middle of November for autumn and winter seasons, respectively, in polystyrene
trays. After the fourth true leaf stage (6 – 8 weeks), the transplants were planted in plastic pots.
One seedling of each vegetable crop was planted in a vertical plastic pot (6 and 8 litre volume) in close system of
substrate culture. The pots were placed in double and triple rows/bed depending on the pot volume 8 and 6 litre
respectively. The final plant spacing was 30 cm in the row, 25 cm between the plants. The distance among the vegetable
crops changed after lettuce harvesting to give more necessary space among the rows for other vegetables.
Crop management practices of celery, lettuce, salad and red cabbage were in accordance with standard
recommendations for commercial growers.
2.2 The vermicomposting process:
The vermicomposting process and vermicompost production were done according to Abul-Soud et al.,
2009,2011,2013,2014,2015 (a and b). Kitchen wastes (vegetables and fruit scraps + food wastes) + newspaper in
proportions (80: 20 %) were vermicomposting as an urban organic wastes.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1698 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Table (1): The chemical composition (%) of the urban organic wastes before and after vermicomposting.
Raw material C/N ratio Macro elements %
N P K Ca Mg
Kit. Wast. 48.90 0.56 0.45 0.58 0.87 0.65
Sh. P 168.33 0.016 0.01 0.00 0.20 0.01
The mix 73.05 0.49 0.36 0.47 0.74 0.59
vermicompost 14.3 1.36 0.61 0.94 0.97 0.81
Kit. Wast. = kitchen wastes. Sh. P = shredded paper.
2.3 The system materials:
Three Metal frames (2 x 3 m) come with metal net (5 x 5 cm) covered by black polyethylene sheet (0.5 mm) (to
offer the base of the system and to collect the leaching) were used to perform the system. The systems located in slope 1
% and 50 cm height to offer collecting the drainage in close system. Twelve tanks were established (one tank per each
experimental plot) under the base of the system. Bricks arranged without cement around the black polyethylene (1mm) to
create a tank (40 x 50 x 50 cm (100 L). Each system divided to four parts (0.75 m width and 2 m length) with four tanks.
The vegetable crops under the study take a place in each part.
Vertical plastic pots 6 and 8 liters volume were filled with different substrate mixtures in close substrate system.
Pot volume 6 litre arranged in three rows to performed 18 plants from each vegetable crop while 12 plants through two
rows were take a place by pot volume 8 litre.
Nutrient solutions was pumped via submersible pump (80 watt). Plants were irrigated by using drippers of 2 l/hr
capacity. The fertigation was programmed to work 8 times / day and the duration of irrigation time depended upon the
season. The EC of the nutrient solution was adjusted by using EC meter to the required level (1.0 to 2.0 mmhos-1
)
according to the vegetable crop and growth stage. The chemical compositions of chemical nutrient solution were
illustrated in Table (2).
Table (2): The chemical composition of nutrient solutions (2.0 mmhos-1
)
Nutrient Macronutrients Micronutrients
N P K Ca Mg Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
Chemical 150 45 240 120 60 3.0 0.8 0.4 0.25 0.15 0.012
2.4 The study treatments:
The treatments investigated two factors (substrate and pot volume) on four leafy vegetables (celery, lettuce and
salad and red cabbage) as follows:, first: two substrate mixtures were used by substituting the standard substrate peat
moss + perlite (control) (50 %: 50 % v/v) with local substrate mixture sand + vermicompost (Sa + VC) in proportion of
(80 %: 20 % v/v) combined with the second, two pot volumes 6 and 8 liters.
The experimental design was a split plot with 3 replicates. The pot volume were assigned as main plots and
substrate types as subplots.
The physical and chemical properties of different substrates mixtures are illustrated in Table (3). Bulk density
(B.D), total pore space (T.P.S), water holding capacity % (W.H.C) and air porosity % (A.P) were estimated according to
Wilson (1983) and Raul (1996). The pH of the potting mixtures were determined using a double distilled water
suspension of each potting mixture in the ratio of 1:10 (w: v) (Inbar et al., 1993) that had been agitated mechanically for
2 h and filtered through Whatman no.1 filter paper. The same solution was measured for electrical conductivity (EC
mmhos-1) with a conductance meter that had been standardized with 0.01 and 0.1M KCl. Table (4) presented the cost of
different substrates / pot and the price of different plastic pots.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1699 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Table (3): The physical and chemical properties of different substrates.
Physical Chemical
Substrate B.D
Kg/l
T.P.S
%
W.H.C
%
A.P
%
E.C
mmhos-1
pH
Sa : Ver. 1.58 44.0 39.5 4.5 0.61 7.66
Peat : Pr 0.14 65.2 52.8 12.5 0.45 7.60
Sa : Ver. sand : vermicompost: (80 : 20 % v/v), Peat : Pr peat moss + perlite (50 %: 50 % v/v).
Table (4): The cost of different input materials (substrate and plastic pots) (LE).
The cost (LE)
Substrate Pot 6 L Total Pot 8 L Total
Sand + vermin 0.14 10.08 0.18 8.64
Peat + Perlite 3.00 216.00 4.00 192.00
Plastic pot 1.00 72.00 1.45 69.6
2.5 The measurements
2.5.1 The climatic data
Climatic data (Maximum, average and minimum Air temperature (°C) and relative humidity (RH) (%)) was presented
by Central Laboratory for Agricultural Climate (CLAC), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Egypt.
2.5.2The vegetative and yield characteristics:
Samples of three plants of each experimental plot were taken to determine growth parameters at the harvest time for
each vegetable crops as follows: plant height (cm), No. of leaves, plant weight and head weight (yield) (g/plant), average
fruit weight (g).
The average growth and yield parameters of different seasons were calculated and presented as follows: autumn
2013 + winter 2014 calculated as average of first cultivation while the second cultivation was calculated as average of
autumn 2014 + winter 2015 respectively.
2.5.3 The chemical analysis:
For mineral analysis of leaves (N, P and K were estimated, Three plant samples at the harvest stage of each plot were
dried at 70 oC in an air forced oven for 48 h. Dried plants were digested in H2SO4 according to the method described by
Allen (1974) and N, P and K contents were estimated in the acid digested solution by colorimetric method (ammonium
molybdate) using spectrophotometer and flame photometer Chapman and Pratt, (1961).. Total nitrogen was determined
by Kjeldahl method according to the procedure described by FAO (1980). Phosphorus content was determined using
spectrophotometer according to Watanabe and Olsen (1965). Potassium content was determined photo-metrically using
Flame photometer as described by Chapman and Pratt (1961).
2.5.4 The environmental and economic study:
Nutrient save /ton = Nutrient % (after composting) x 10 (Abul-Soud et al., 2015)
Total weight (Kg) of each vegetable crops was estimated depending on:
Total weight = Average weight (both cultivation seasons) x No. of plants (18 plants/ pot 6 L and 12 plants / pot 8 L
treatment) x 4 seasons (autumn – winter 2013 / 2014 and autumn – winter 2014 / 2015).
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1700 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Substrate cost determined by the cost of substrate / pot x No. of plants.
2.5.5 The statistical analysis:
Statistical analysis was determined by computer, using SAS program for statistical analysis. The differences among
means for all traits were tested for significance at 5 % level according to the procedure described by Snedicor and
Cochran (1981).
3. RESULTS
3.1 Climatic data
Average daily temperatures under urban condition as well as opened field during 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 seasons
showed that the air temperature decreased from October until January and start to increase from the middle of February
(Fig. 1,2,3 and 4). The highest temperature was recorded the first middle of October (2013 and 2014) and the second
middle of April in both years (2014 and 2015), while the lowest minimum temperature was gained during December and
January. Extreme decrease in maximum, average and minimum temperature occurred during middle of December 2014,
while this extreme repeat in frequencies during December 2013 and January 2014 and 2015 but with the minimum
temperature only. Increasing the temperature during harvest time had a negative impact on celery, lettuce, salad and red
cabbage. The difference between maximum and minimum temperature enhance the vegetative growth and production
yield of leafy vegetables under the study.
Fig. (1) : Fig. (2) :
Fig. (3) : Fig. (4) :
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1701 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Fig. (1,2,3 and 4): The maximum, average and minimum air temperature (°C) under urban condition of Cairo, Egypt
during the four studied seasons (2013/2014 and 2014/2015).
Average relative humidity increased by decreasing the air temperature, Fig. 5, 6, 7 and 8 presented that the average
relative humidity begin to increase during October in both seasons until reach the highest peak during December and
January of both seasons while the air temperature recorded the lowest values. The high relative humidity with cold
weather help lettuce, salad and red cabbage in achieving high quality yield (compact and high density head). While the
increase of temperature with relative humidity reduction were resulting in decrease the quality and quantity of the leafy
vegetables under the study.
Fig. (5) : Fig. (6) :
Fig. (7) : Fig. (8) :
Fig. (5,6,7 and 8): The average relative humidity (%) under urban condition of Cairo, Egypt during the four studied
seasons (2013/2014 and 2014/2015).
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1702 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
3.2 The effect of substrate types and pot volumes on celery
The obtained results in Table (5) indicated that the substrate sand + vermicompost (80 : 20 v/v) recorded higher
significant values of plant height, plant weight, No. of leaves, stem diameter and total chlorophyll content compared to
peat + perlite.
Regarding to the pot volume effect, pot volume 8 L gave the higher data of celery characteristics but total
chlorophyll content compared to pot volume 6 L.
The interaction effect between substrate types and pot volume shown that the highest plant height, plant weight, No.
of leaves and stem diameter records was presented by sand + vermicompost combined with pot volume 8 while sand +
vermicompost combined with pot volume 8 sand + vermicompost combined with pot volume 6 recorded the highest total
chlorophyll content. The significant among the treatments were true in both cultivations as presented in table (5).
On the other hand, the effect of substrate type was significant on N, P and K contents of celery leaves while sand +
vermicompost (80 : 20 v/v) recorded the highest values compared to peat + perlite.
The pot volume had no significant difference during the first cultivation season (average of autumn and winter
seasons 2013 / 2014) on the N, P and K contents of celery but in the second cultivation, pot volume 8 L gave superior
significant effect compared to pot volume 6 L.
The interaction effect as presented in Table (5) revealed that sand + vermicompost combined with pot volume 8 L
had the highest results of N, P and K contents of celery leaves in both cultivation seasons while the lowest values
recorded by peat + perlite combined with pot volume 6 L.
Table (5) : Effect of substrate types and pot volumes on growth and yield of celery.
Cultivation First cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Second cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Treatments Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean
Plant weight (g)
Sand + Ver 580 b 703 a 641.5 A 511 b 677 a 594 A
Peat + Per 425 d 511 c 468 B 393 c 497b 445 B
Mean 502.5 B 607 A 452 B 587 A
Plant height (cm)
Sand + Ver 57 a 51 b 54 A 54 a 51 a 52.5 A
Peat + Per 51 b 53 ab 52 A 49 b 48 b 48.5 B
Mean 54 A 52 A 51.5 A 49.5 A
No. of leaves
Sand + Ver 28 a 28 a 28 A 24a 26 a 25 A
Peat + Per 15 b 19 b 17 B 13 c 18 b 15.5 B
Mean 21.5 A 23.5 A 18.5 B 22 A
Stem diameter (cm)
Sand + Ver 3.4 b 4.2 a 3.8 A 3.2 b 3.6 a 3.4 A
Peat + Per 2.7 c 2.9 c 2.8 B 2.4 c 2.8 bc 2.6 B
Mean 3.05 B 3.55 A 2.8 B 3.2 A
Average total chlorophyll content (SPAD)
Sand + Ver 56.4 a 53.7 a 55.05 A 58 a 49.7 b 53.85 A
Peat + Per 48.5 b 46.1 b 47.3 B 46.1 bc 43.3 c 44.7 B
Mean 52.45 A 49.9 A 52.05 A 46.5 B
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1703 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Average N content (%)
Sand + Ver 2.71 b 3.20 a 2.96 A 2.82 b 3.36 a 3.09 A
Peat + Per 2.22 c 2.04 c 2.13 B 2.38 c 2.45 c 2.42 B
Mean 2.47 A 2.62 A 2.60 B 2.91 A
Average P content (%)
Sand + Ver 1.86 b 2.05 a 1.96 A 1.81 b 2.09 a 1.95 A
Peat + Per 1.13 c 1.17 c 1.15 B 1.19 c 1.18 c 1.19 B
Mean 1.50 A 1.61 A 1.50 B 1.64 A
Average K content (%)
Sand + Ver 3.11 b 3.46 a 3.29 A 3.03 b 3.49 a 3.26 A
Peat + Per 2.09 c 2.12 c 2.11 B 2.17 c 2.38 c 2.28 B
Mean 2.60 A 2.79 A 2.60 B 2.94 A
* Similar letters indicate non-significant at 0.05 levels.
** Capital letters indicate the significant difference of each factor (P<0.05)
*** Small letters indicate the significant difference of interaction (P<0.05)
3.3 The effect of substrate types and pot volumes on lettuce
Concerning the effect of different substrate type, pot volume and the interaction between them on vegetative
characteristics (plant weight, head weight, head volume, head density and average of chlorophyll content) of lettuce
presented in Table (6), the obtained results showed that applying sand + vermicompost as a substrate gave the highest
significant values of vegetative characteristics of lettuce in the first cultivation season compared to peat + perlite. While
in the second cultivation, there was no significant difference.
Data showed that increasing pot volume from 6 to 8 L increased significantly the vegetative characteristics of
lettuce except the average of chlorophyll content in both cultivation seasons.
Regarding the interaction data showed that, in spite of the treatment of sand + vermicompost combined with pot
volume 8 L had the highest significant values of the vegetative characteristics of lettuce in the first cultivation season,
this case changed during the second cultivation season to treatment of peat + perlite combined with pot volume 8 L as
presented in Table (6).
Table (6) showed the effect of different substrate type, pot volume on N, P and K % contents in lettuce leaves.
Data showed that the use of sand + vermicompost in substrate culture of lettuce recorded the highest significant results of
N, P and K contents of lettuce leaves in both cultivation seasons compared to peat + perlite.
Although, there was no significant effect for the pot volume treatments on N, P and K % contents in lettuce leaves
in the first cultivation season, pot volume 8 L gave the highest significant values of N and P contents of lettuce in the
second cultivation season.
The interaction effect between substrate type and pot volume, data showed that sand + vermicompost combined
with pot volume 8 L had the highest significant results of N, P and K % contents of lettuce leaves in both cultivation
seasons as presented in Table (6).
Table (6) : Effect of substrate types and pot volumes on growth and yield of lettuce.
Cultivation First cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Second cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Treatments Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean
Plant weight (g)
Sand + Ver 975 c 1235 a 1105 A 1026 bc 1094 b 1060 A
Peat + Per 801 d 1114 b 957.5 B 778 c 1408 a 1093 A
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1704 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Mean 888 B 1174.5 A 902 B 1251 A
Head weight (g)
Sand + Ver 807 bc 1019 a 913 A 888 b 915 b 901.5 A
Peat + Per 603 c 882 b 742.5 B 586 c 1165 a 875.5 A
Mean 705 B 950.5 A 737 B 1040 A
Head volume (cm3)
Sand + Ver 1460 b 1700 a 1580 A 1550 b 1600 b 1575 A
Peat + Per 1270 c 1600 a 1435 B 1284 c 1800 a 1542 A
Mean 1365 B 1650 A 1417 B 1700 A
Head density (g / cm3)
Sand + Ver 0.553 ab 0.599 a 0.576 A 0.573 b 0.572 b 0.572 A
Peat + Per 0.475 c 0.551 ab 0.513 B 0.456 c 0.647 a 0.552 A
Mean 0.514 B 0.575 A 0.515 B 0.610 A
Average total chlorophyll content (SPAD)
Sand + Ver 45.5 a 42 ab 43.75 A 42.8 a 42.6 a 42.7 A
Peat + Per 42.1 ab 41.3 b 41.7 A 40.1 a 40 a 40.05 A
Mean 43.8 A 41.65 A 41.45 A 41.3 A
Average N content (%)
Sand + Ver 2.37 ab 2.64 a 2.51 A 2.21 b 2.76 a 2.49 A
Peat + Per 1.81 b 1.69 b 1.75 B 1.49 c 1.66 c 1.58 B
Mean 2.09 A 2.17 A 1.85 B 2.21 A
Average P content (%)
Sand + Ver 0.81 b 0.90 a 0.86 A 0.77 b 0.94 a 0.86 A
Peat + Per 0.56 c 0.49 c 0.53 B 0.48 c 0.52 c 0.50 B
Mean 0.69 A 0.70 A 0.63 B 0.73 A
Average K content (%)
Sand + Ver 1.76 b 1.94 a 1.85 A 1.79 b 2.00 a 1.90 A
Peat + Per 1.31 c 1.19 c 1.25 B 1.28 c 1.28 c 1.28 B
Mean 1.54 A 1.57 A 1.54 A 1.64 A
* Similar letters indicate non-significant at 0.05 levels.
** Capital letters indicate the significant difference of each factor (P<0.05)
*** Small letters indicate the significant difference of interaction (P<0.05)
3.4 The effect of substrate types and pot volumes on salad cabbage
Table (7) presented the effect of substrate type and pot volume on salad cabbage, the results showed that sand +
vermicompost had a superior effect on growth and yield of salad cabbage comparing to peat + perlite. The implement of
sand + vermicompost gave higher significant values of plant weight, head weight, head volume and total chlorophyll
content while the effect on plant density was not clear. Increasing the pot volume from 6 to 8 liters led to significantly
increase in plant weight, head weight and head volume.
On the other hand, the interaction effect as shown in Table (7) indicated that sand + vermicompost combined
with pot volume 8 liters gave the highest results of growth and yield characteristics while the lowest values recorded by
peat + perlite combined with pot volume 6.
Similar trends was occurred for N, P and K content of salad cabbage, sand + vermicompost gave the higher
significant results in first cultivation in the second cultivation there was no significant difference of N content. The pot
volume had no significant effect on N, P and K content of salad cabbage (Table 7). Sand + vermicompost combined with
pot volume 8 had the highest significant data of N, P and K content of salad cabbage while the lowest contents differ
non-significantly recorded by peat + perlite combined with both pot volumes.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1705 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Table (7) : Effect of substrate types and pot volumes on growth and yield of salad cabbage.
Cultivation First cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Second cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Treatments Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean
Plant weight (g)
Sand + Ver 1945 b 2115 a 2030 A 1902 bc 2209 a 2055.5 A
Peat + Per 1909 b 1912 b 1910.5 A 1727 c 1980 b 1853.5 B
Mean 1927 A 2013.5 A 1814.5 B 2094.5 A
Head weight (g)
Sand + Ver 1581 b 1703 a 1642 A 1568 bc 1734 a 1651 A
Peat + Per 1550 b 1558 b 1554 B 1380 c 1632 b 1506 B
Mean 1565.5 A 1630.5 A 1474 B 1683 A
Head volume (cm3)
Sand + Ver 2500 ab 2800 a 2650 A 2350 b 2800 a 2575 A
Peat + Per 2350 b 2380 b 2365 B 2250 b 2400 b 2325 B
Mean 2425 B 2590 A 2300 B 2600 A
Head density (g / cm3)
Sand + Ver 0.632 ab 0.608 b 0.620 A 0.667 a 0.619 b 0.643 A
Peat + Per 0.660 a 0.655 a 0.657 A 0.613 b 0.680 a 0.647 A
Mean 0.646 A 0.631 A 0.640 A 0.650 A
Average total chlorophyll content (SPAD)
Sand + Ver 45.2 a 44.8 a 45.0 A 42.5 a 43.0 a 42.8 A
Peat + Per 36.4 b 36.6 b 36.5 B 37.0 b 37.1 b 37.1 B
Mean 40.8 A 40.7 A 39.8 A 40.1 A
Average N content (%)
Sand + Ver 3.43 a 3.56 a 3.50 A 3.01 a 3.06 a 3.04 A
Peat + Per 2.84 b 2.97 b 2.91 B 2.94 a 3.01 a 2.98 A
Mean 3.14 A 3.27 A 2.98 A 3.04 A
Average P content (%)
Sand + Ver 1.06 a 1.12 a 1.09 A 0.92 a 0.97 a 0.95 A
Peat + Per 0.68 b 0.67 b 0.68 B 0.70 b 0.66 b 0.68 B
Mean 0.87 A 0.90 A 0.81 A 0.82 A
Average K content (%)
Sand + Ver 2.31 b 2.56 a 2.44 A 2.09 a 2.23 a 2.16 A
Peat + Per 1.57 c 1.62 c 1.60 B 1.68 b 1.70 b 1.69 B
Mean 1.94 A 2.09 A 1.89 A 1.97 A
* Similar letters indicate non-significant at 0.05 levels.
** Capital letters indicate the significant difference of each factor (P<0.05)
*** Small letters indicate the significant difference of interaction (P<0.05)
3.5 The effect of substrate types and pot volumes on red cabbage
The effect of substrate type and pot volume on growth, yield characteristics and N, P and K content of red
cabbage gave very similar trends a salad cabbage.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1706 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Table (8) : Effect of substrate types and pot volumes on growth and yield of red cabbage.
Cultivation First cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Second cultivation
(Average of Autumn and winter seasons)
Treatments Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean Pot 6 Pot 8 Mean
Plant weight (g)
Sand + Ver 1474 ab 1556 a 1515 A 1450 b 1646 a 1548 A
Peat + Per 953 c 1249 b 1101 B 912 d 1301 c 1106.5 B
Mean 1213.5 B 1402.5 A 1181 B 1473.5 A
Head weight (g)
Sand + Ver 1142 b 1262 a 1202 A 1108 b 1324 a 1216 A
Peat + Per 765 d 979 c 872 B 770 d 964 c 867 B
Mean 953.5 B 1120.5 A 939 1144
Head volume (cm3)
Sand + Ver 1450 b 1650 a 1550 A 1420 b 1650 a 1535 A
Peat + Per 1030 d 1200 c 1115 B 1015 d 1170 c 1092.5 B
Mean 1240 B 1425 A 1217.5 B 1410 A
Head density (g / cm3)
Sand + Ver 0.788 ab 0.765 b 0.776 A 0.781 b 0.802 ab 0.792 A
Peat + Per 0.743 b 0.816 a 0.779 A 0.758 b 0.824 a 0.791 A
Mean 0.765 A 0.790 A 0.770 A 0.813 A
Average total chlorophyll content (SPAD)
Sand + Ver 43.5 a 43.9 a 43.7 A 41.7 a 42.1 a 41.9 A
Peat + Per 36.8 b 36.1 b 36.5 B 36.7 b 36.4 b 36.6 B
Mean 40.2 A 40.0 A 39.2 A 39.3 A
Average N content (%)
Sand + Ver 3.37 a 3.52 a 3.45 A 2.89 a 2.94 a 2.92 A
Peat + Per 2.90 b 2.87 b 2.89 B 2.91 a 2.83 a 2.87 A
Mean 3.14 A 3.20 A 2.90 A 2.89 A
Average P content (%)
Sand + Ver 0.89 ab 0.98 a 0.94 A 0.81 a 0.87 a 0.84 A
Peat + Per 0.55 b 0.56 b 0.56 B 0.53 b 0.52b 0.53 B
Mean 0.72 A 0.77 A 0.67 A 0.70 A
Average K content (%)
Sand + Ver 2.60 a 2.78 a 2.69 A 2.31 ab 2.54 a 2.43 A
Peat + Per 1.86 b 1.87 b 1.87 B 1.88 b 1.88 b 1.88 B
Mean 2.23 A 2.33 A 2.10 A 2.21 A
* Similar letters indicate non-significant at 0.05 levels.
** Capital letters indicate the significant difference of each factor (P<0.05)
*** Small letters indicate the significant difference of interaction (P<0.05)
3.6 The environmental and economic impact assessment of urban horticulture
The sustainable of cities and human life are exposing to crisis according to the climate change impacts. The case
of cities in depending on rural area for sustainable supply food should be changes to create cities more sustainable and
independent in offering food security. Integrating ecology soilless culture and vermicomposting in urban agriculture
located on (rooftop) and in (kitchen) buildings will share in improve the food safety and security enrich the lives of city
dwellers and conserve building energy.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1707 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Fig. (9) showed that the nutrient saved (Kg/ton) via vermicomposting of urban organic wastes. The obtained
results presented that vermicomposting had a positive effect on saving the essential nutrients instead of losing these
nutrient through an ordinary treatments (incineration or burial) of urban organic wastes. The nutrient save (Kg / tone) via
using vermicomposting process from non-significant organic sources such as kitchen wastes and shredded newspapers
gave good evidences on recycling the urban organic wastes and the application of the output. Also, vermicomposting
contribute in save energy, cost and environmental of transport the urban organic wastes that contained about of 55- 60 %
of organic wastes. The vermicomposting process increased the total N, P, K, Ca and Mg % of the vermicompost as
compared to that of the raw materials while C/N ratio decreased as a result of N fixation, concentrated the nutrients and
bulk reduction. At the same time, the heavy metals contents of vermicompost were in the friendly range lower than the
commercial composts in the Egyptian market.
Fig. (9): The nutrient saved (Kg/ton) via vermicomposting of urban organic wastes
However, the determined calculation measured the organic carbon of organic wastes used in this study that treated
by vermicomposting and produced in vermicompost was estimated by 765 Kg per each tone of urban organic wastes
instead of incineration. The cost of collect, transport, separation, handling and recycle the urban wastes in case of
implement vermicomposting technology in urban and rural areas decreased the direct cost about 75 – 80 % while the
indirect cost of environmental, health and socioeconomic impacts need to estimated.
The study canceled the direct and indirect impacts of urban cultivation on rooftop through water, soil and energy
save, reducing the warm urban island, sequestrate air CO2 by the cultivation vegetable crops, enhance the nutritional
values of fresh vegetables, generate O2, reduce, recycle and reuse the urban wastes and etc… The need to mention the
rest of impacts above will take in consider in anther research article.
The study results as presented in Table (9) indicated that the highest average yield (g) per plant was recorded by
sand + vermicompost (80 : 20 % v/v) combined with pot volume 8 liters followed by peat + perlite combined with the
same pot volume 8 liters.
While In the reverse of plant results, the economical results showed that the average yield / season / area unit 2 x
3 m had a different direction effect according to the pot volume that cause two different plant densities 18 plants per each
crop / area unit / pot volume 6 L and for pot volume 8 liters, 12 plants per each crop / area unit. The highest yield per
area unit gave by sand + vermicompost (80 : 20 % v/v) combined with pot volume 6 liters while peat + perlite combined
with 8 liters recorded the lowest average yield of the studied leafy vegetables / season / area unit (Table 9).
The total cost was affected mainly by the cost of substrate type and pot volume as presented in Table (9), the use
of peat + perlite substrate was higher expensive compared to sand + vermicompost. The use of sand + vermicompost as a
production substrate for producing celery, lettuce, salad and red cabbage was cost less than 5% of peat + perlite use.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1708 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
Increasing the pot volume from 6 to 8 liters led to increase the cost of substrate and the applied plastic pots also. The
sand + vermicompost (80 : 20 % v/v) combined with pot volume 6 had the lowest total cost. On the other hand, the
highest total cost was recorded by while peat + perlite combined with 6 liters of pot volume.
The economic benefits and net return of cultivating the rooftop by celery, lettuce, salad and red cabbage were
not estimated according to the target in reducing the cost and improve the food security in urban area under climate
change impacts. The need to investigate the use of organic nutrient solution such as vermin-liquid and vermicompost-tea
should take in consider to reduce the cost. The average price/ yield / season changed strongly depending on the head
weight, season and the market. The average price of celery in the range of (2 – 3 LE), lettuce ranged 1.25 to 2.5 LE, salad
cabbage 3 LE and red cabbage 3 – 4 LE. The average price calculated on the commercial price not on the client price.
Table (9): The total production of lettuce, celery and salad and red cabbage in urban area (2 x 3 m) under the study
conditions.
Sub. Pot
volu
me
Vegetable
crop
No. of
plants
Ave.
weight
(g)
Ave.
weight/
Sea.(Kg)
Cost (LE) Average
Price / yield /
season (LE) Subst. Ferti. +
Pl. pot
Total
San
d +
Ver
mi Sm
all
Celery 18 545.5 9.82 2.52 31.5 34.0 36
Lettuce 18 847.5 15.26 2.52 18.9 21.4 27
Salad Cab. 18 1574.5 28.34 2.52 31.5 34.0 54
Red Cab. 18 1125 20.25 2.52 31.5 34.0 72
Total 72 4092.5 73.67 10.08 113.4 123.4 189
Mid
.
Celery 12 690 8.28 2.16 33.5 35.7 36
Lettuce 12 967 11.60 2.16 20.9 23.1 24
Salad Cab. 12 1718.5 20.62 2.16 33.5 35.7 36
Red Cab. 12 1293 15.52 2.16 33.5 35.7 48
Total 48 4668.5 56.02 8.64 121.4 130.0 144
Pea
t +
Per
lite
Sm
all
Celery 18 409 7.36 54.00 31.5 85.5 31.5
Lettuce 18 594.5 10.70 54.00 18.9 72.9 22.5
Salad Cab. 18 1465 26.37 54.00 31.5 85.5 54
Red Cab. 18 767.5 13.82 54.00 31.5 85.5 54
Total 72 3236 58.25 216.00 113.4 329.4 162
Mid
.
Celery 12 504 6.05 48 33.5 81.5 24
Lettuce 12 1023.5 12.28 48 20.9 68.9 30
Salad Cab. 12 1595 19.14 48 33.5 81.5 36
Red Cab. 12 971.5 11.66 48 33.5 81.5 42
Total 48 4094 49.13 192.00 121.4 313.4 132
Average prices were calculated depending on Obor market prices (Main wholesale market).
http://www.oboormarket.org.eg/prices_today.aspx
4. DISCUSSION
Can cities become self-reliant in food? This question was asked by many Scientifics and through different
studies around the world to answer this question, the need to develop and improve the urban agriculture becomes more
serious especially under climate change impacts. One of these studies, Grewal and Grewal (2012) mentioned that
modern cities almost exclusively rely on the import of resources to meet their daily basic needs. Food and other essential
materials and goods are transported from long-distances, often across continents, which results in the emission of harmful
greenhouse gasses. As more people now live in cities than rural areas and all future population growth is expected to
occur in cities,
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1709 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
The use of simple soilless culture systems and vermicomposting technology in rooftop garden assist in
producing leafy vegetables and avoiding the problems of water, natural resources, energy, and available area and at the
same time contribute in food security program.
The substrate type had significant effect on the vegetative, yield characteristics and N, P and K contents of
celery, lettuce, salad and red cabbage. Sand + vermicompost substrate had a superior impact compared to peat + perlite.
These results agreed with Abul-Soud et al., 2014 and 2015 a and b, the use of vermicompost as a substrate amendments
had a significant encouragement impacts on the growth and yield of sweet paper, snap bean, lettuce and strawberry. The
vermicompost contained an essential nutrients for supporting the plant nutrient requirements beside the high organic
matter and assist in improve the physical and chemical properties of substrates. These results also agreed with different
study focusing on vermicompost application such as, Arancon et al., (2002) on tomato and peas, Arancon et al., 2004
on strawberry.Bachman and Metzger (2008) studied the addition of vermicompost in media mixes of 10% VC and 20%
VC had positive effects on plant growth of marigold, tomato, green pepper, and cornflower. A consistent trend obtained
also indicated that the best plant growth responses, with all needed nutrients supplied, occurred when vermicompost
constituted a relatively small proportion (10% to 20 %) of the total volume of the container medium mixture, with greater
proportions of vermicompost in the plant growth medium not always improving plant growth (Subler et al., 1998).
Moreover, referring to the different mixtures, the results agreed with those reported by Litterick et al., (2004) who
found that using organic compost can improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of growing medium.
Replacement of peat with moderate amounts of vermicompost produces beneficial effects on plant growth due to the
increase on the bulk density of the growing, and decrease on total porosity and amount of readily available water in the
pots (Bachman and Metzger, 2007; Grigatti et al., 2007). Such changes in the physical properties of the substrates
might be responsible for the better plant growth with the lower doses of compost and vermicompost as compared to the
peat-based substrate. Furthermore, plant growth is enhanced through the addition of vermicompost to a potting substrate
or as a soil amendment. Furthermore, biologically active metabolites such as plant growth regulators and humates have
been discovered in vermicomposted materials (Atiyeh et al., 2002). Photosynthetic pigments and a significant increase in
the ratio of chlorophyll relative to the control in an experiment involving beans it was observed that addition of 8.2%
w/w vermicompost /soil induced the largest increase in chlorophyll content in the leaves of common bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris.L) plants (Ferri et al., 2010).
The use of different organic and inorganic substrates allows the plants to have better nutrient uptake, sufficient
growth and development to optimize water and oxygen holding (Verdonck et al., 1982; Albaho et al., 2009). These
results coincided with that recommended for vermicompost application for encourging plant growth and quality through
increasing the available forms of nutrients (nitrates, exchangeable P, K, Ca and Mg) for plant uptake of strawberry
(Arancon et al., 2004). Vermicompost contained a large amounts of humic substances which release nutrients relatively
slowly in the soil that improve its physical and biological properties of soil and in turn rise to much better plant quality
(Muscolo et al., 1999).
Regarding to pot volume effect, the pot volume had a significant positive effect on the growth and yield of the leafy
vegetables under the study while this effect was not significant on N, P and k contents of celery, lettuce, salad and red
cabbage plants. The positive effect resulting from improve the root system that increase the water and nutrients uptake by
increasing the pot volume.
The results of economical use of different treatments under urban condition a rooftop garden disagree strongly with
the vegetative and yield of celery, lettuce, salad and red cabbage results. The economic point of view recommended that
the use of pot volume 6 L had a higher economic and environmental impact comparing to the bigger volume. This impact
regarding to the different plant density which changed from 72 plants for the recommended unit area (2 x 3 m) to 48
plants of the leafy vegetables under the study.
Needless to mention that the food security had a strong representative role in this study, by offering more food of
leafy vegetables (celery, lettuce, salad and red cabbage) under urban condition. The limited resources and climate change
impacts drive the forces to increase the food production under urban condition to increase the resilience of the big and
mega cities. The sustainability of cities depend on mitigate and adapted the climate change impacts, urban agricultural
via rooftop garden and vermicomposting technology provide an integrated technique to create resilience city. Through
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1710 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
the study, use of organic urban waste as a raw material for producing vermicompost that resulting in mitigate GHG's
emission instead of incineration or burring and reduce the soil, air and water pollution beside the different biohazards.
Utilize of vermicompost in ecology soilless culture of different vegetables led to more mitigation of GHG's emission.
While the utilize simple substrate culture on rooftop had a positive impact on increasing the cultivated area, food security
and safety beside maximize the plant production per unit area and minimize the use of natural resources (soil and water).
5. CONCLUSION
The current study provide technical guide for producing some leafy vegetable crops (celery, lettuce salad and
red cabbage) in urban area via substrate culture by using minor available area (building roof) for satisfying the food
security. The study also through vermicomposting and rooftop garden contribute in mitigation and adaptation climate
change impacts in urban and rural regions. The study conclusion recommended the use of substrate sand +
vermicompost (80: 20 (v/v)) in pot volume 6 L for producing more food economically and environmentally. The changes
of production through the different seasons should be studied as effect of climate impacts. Also, more research need to
investigate substitute the chemical nutrient solution by organic nutrient solution. Also the direct and indirect impacts
urban agriculture should be investigate on the larger scale.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author acknowledge the support provided by "Integrated environmental management of urban organic
wastes using vermicomposting and green roof (VCGR) project" No. 1145, funded by Science and Technology
Development Fund, Egypt.
7. COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
8. REFERENCES
[1] AboSedera FA, Shafshak NS, Shams AS, Abul-Soud MA, Mohammed MH. 2015. The utilize of
Vermicomposting Outputs in Substrate Culture for Producing Snap Bean. Annals of Agric. Sci., Moshtohor,; 53
(1): 139 -151.
[2] Abul-Soud M., Medany M, Hassanein MK and Abul-Matty Sh, Abu-hadid AF. 2009. Case study: Vermiculture
and vermicomposting technologies use in sustainable agriculture in Egypt. The seventh international conference
of organic agriculture, Cairo, Egypt. Egypt. J. Agric.,2009; 87 (1), 389:403.
[3] Abul-Soud MA, Emam MSA, Hawash AH, Hassan M. and Yahia Z. 2015. The utilize of vermicomposting
outputs in ecology soilless culture of lettuce. Journal of Agriculture and Ecology Research, 5(1): 1-15, Article
no.JAERI.20008
[4] Abul-Soud MA., Emam MSA. and Abd El-Rahman Noha, G. 2015. The potential use of vermicompost in
soilless culture for producing strawberry. International Journal of Plant & Soil Scienc; 8 (5): 1 – 15.
[5] Abul-Soud MA., Emam MSA., Abdrabbo MAA. and Hashem FA. 2014. Sustainable Urban Horticulture of
Sweet Pepper via Vermicomposting in Summer Season. J. of Advanced in Agri; 3 )1( : 110-122.
[6] Albaho M, Bhat N, Abo-Rezq H, Thomas B. . 2009. Effect of Three Different Substrates on Growth and Yield
of Two Cultivars. Eur. J. Sci. Res; 28(2): 227-233.
[7] Allen S E. 1974. Chemical Analysis of Ecological Materials. Black-Well, Oxford,565.
[8] Alves W, Passoni A. 1997. Compost and vermicompost of urban solid waste in Licania tomentosa (Benth)
seedling production for arboriculture. Pesqui. Agropecu. Bras. 32, 1053–1058.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1711 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
[9] Arancon, N.Q., Edwards, C.A., Bierman, P., Metzger, J., Lee, S., Welch, C. 2002. Applications of
vermicomposts to tomatoes and peppers grown in the field and strawberries grown under high plastic tunnels.
Proceedings of the International Earthworm Symposium, Cardiff Wales September 2002.
[10] Arancon, NQ, Edwards CA, Atiyeh R, Metzger JD. 2004. Effects of vermicomposts produced from food waste
on the growth and yield of greenhouse peppers. Bioresource Technology, 93: 139-144.
[11] Arancon, NQ, Edwards CA, Atiyeh RM, Metzger JD. . 2004. Effects of vermicomposts produced from food
waste on greenhouse peppers. Bioresour. Technol; 93, 139–144.
[12] Atiyeh RM, Lee S, Edwards CA, Arancon NQ, Metzger JD. 2002. The influence of humic acids derived from
earthworms-processed organic wastes on plant growth. Bioresour. Technol.84, 7–14.
[13] Bachman GR, Metzger JD . 2008. Growth of bedding plants in commercial potting substrate amended with
vermicompost. Bioresource Technol.,99: 3155–3161.
[14] Bachman, G.R and, J.D, Metzger. 2007. Physical and chemical characteristics of a commercial potting substrate
amended with vermicompost produced from two different manure sources. Hort Technology 17(3), 336-340.
[15] Bvenura C. and Afolayan AJ. 2015. The role of wild vegetables in household food security in South Africa:
Areview. / Food Research International 76: 1001–1011.
[16] Campbell A. A., A. Thorne-Lyman, K. Sun, S. de Pee, K. Kraemer, R. Moench-Pfanner, M. Sari, N. Akhter, M.
W. Bloemb, R. D. Semba. 2009. Indonesian women of childbearing age are at greater risk of clinical vitamin A
deficiency in families that spend more on rice and less on fruits/vegetables and animal-based foods. Nutrition
Research, 29, 75–81.
[17] Chapman HD, Pratt FP. 1961. Ammonium vandate-molybdate method for determination of phosphorus. In:
Methods of analysis for soils, plants and water. 1st Ed. California: California University, Agriculture
Division,184-203.
[18] Eklind, Y, Raemert, B, Wivstad, M, 2001. Evaluation of growing media containing farmyard manure compost,
household waste compost or chicken manure for the propagation of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) transplants. Biol.
Agric. Hortic.19, 157–181.
[19] FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (1980). Micro nutrients and the nutrient status of soils. FAO Soils
Bulletin,;48:242-250.
[20] FAO, 2012. Growing greener cities in Africa. First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa.
216. ISBN 978-92-5-107286-8.
[21] Ferri R., D. Hashim, D. R. Smith, S. Guazzetti, F. Donna, E. Ferretti, M. Curatoloe, C. Moneta, G. Maria Beone,
R. G. Lucchini. 2015. Metal contamination of home garden soils and cultivated vegetables in the province of
Brescia, Italy: Implications for human exposure. Science of the Total Environment 507–517.
[22] Gajalakshmi S., Ramasamy E.V. & Abbasi S.A., 2002. High-rate composting-vermicomposting of water
hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms]. Bioresour. Technol., 83, 235-239.
[23] Gockowski J., J. Mbazo’o, G. Mbah, Terese Fouda Moulende. 2003. African traditional leafy vegetables and the
urban and peri-urban poor. Food Policy 28: 221–235.
[24] Grewal S.S., P.S. Grewal. 2012. Can cities become self-reliant in food? Cities 29: 1–11.
[25] Grigatti M., Giorgonni M.E., Ciavatta C., 2007. Compost-based growing : infuence on growth and nutrient use
of bedding plants. Bioresource Technol 98, 3526-3534.
[26] Hara Y., A. Murakami, K. Tsuchiya, A. M. Palijon, M. Yokoharid. A. 2013. Quantitative assessment of
vegetable farming on vacant lots in an urban fringe area in Metro Manila: Can it sustain long-term local
vegetable demand? Applied Geography, 41 195-206.
[27] Hashemimajd K, Kalbasi M, Golchin A. and Shariatmadari H. 2004. Comparison of vermicompost and
composts as potting media for growth of tomatoes. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 6:1107-1123.
[28] Inbar Y, Chen Y, Hadar Y. 1993. Journal of Environmental Quality,;22:875-863.
[29] Klock-Moore, K.A. 2000. Comparison of salvia growth in seaweed compost and Bio-solids compost. Compost
Sci. Util. 8:24-28.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1712 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
[30] Lagerkvist C.J., S. Hess, J. Okello, H. Hansson, Nancy Karanja. 2013. Food health risk perceptions among
consumers, farmers, and traders of leafy vegetables in Nairobi. Food Policy 38 : 92–104.
[31] Lazcano, C., Arnold, J., Tato, A., Zaller, J. G., & Domíngues, J., 2009. Compost and vermicompost as nursery
pot components: effects on tomato plant growth and morphology. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research,
7(4), 994-951.
[32] Litterick, A.M., L. Harrier, P. Wallace, C.A. Waston and M. Wood, 2004. The role of uncomposted materials,
compost, manures and compost extracts in reducing pests and diseases incidence and severity in sustainable
temperate agricultural and horticultural crop production. Plant Science, 23(6): 453-479.
[33] Mawoisa M., Aubry C, M. Le Bail. 2011. Can farmers extend their cultivation areas in urban agriculture? A
contribution from agronomic analysis of market gardening systems around Mahajanga (Madagascar). Land Use
Policy28: 434–445.
[34] McBride M.B., H. A. Shayler, H. M. Spliethoff, R. G. Mitchell, L. G. Marquez-Bravo, G. S. Ferenz, J. M.
Russell-Anelli, L. Casey, S. Bachman. 2014. Environmental Pollution 194 : 254-261.
[35] Muscolo, A., Bovalo F., Gionfriddo F. and Nardi F., 1999. Earthworm humic matter produces auxin-like effects
on Daucus carota cell growth and nitrate metabolism. Soil Biol. Biochem., 31:1303-1311.
[36] Nabulo G, Young SD, Black CR. 2010. Assessing risk to human health from tropical leafy vegetables grown on
contaminated urban soils. Science of the Total Environment, 408: 5338–5351.
[37] Nabulo G., C.R. Black, J. Craigon, S.D. Young. 2012. Does consumption of leafy vegetables grown in peri-
urban agriculture pose a risk to human health? Environmental Pollution 162: 389-398.
[38] Nicklett EJ and A.R Kadell. 2013. Fruit and vegetable intake among older adults: A scoping review. Maturitas
75: 305–312.
[39] Pardossi A, C. G, C. Diara, I. L, R. Maggini, D. Massa. 2011. .Fertigation and Substrate Management in Closed
Soilless Culture. Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante Agrarie, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
[40] Probst L., E. Houedjofonon, H. M. Ayerakwa, R. Haas. 2012. Will they buy it? The potential for marketing
organic vegetables in the food vending sector to strengthen vegetable safety: A choice experiment study in three
West African cities. Food Policy 37 : 296–308.
[41] Raul IC. 1996. .Measuring physical properties. Rutgers Cooperative Extension. New Jersey Agriculture
Experiment Station. New Jersey University.
[42] Rego L.F.G.. 2014. Urban vegetable production for sustainability: The Riortas Project in the city of Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil . Habitat International 44 510-516.
[43] Robertson RA. 1993. Peat, horticulture and environment. Biodivers. Conserv.; 2: 541–547.
[44] Säumel I., I. Kotsyuk, Marie Hölscher, Claudia Lenkereit, F. Weber, I. Kowarik. 2012. How healthy is urban
horticulture in high traffic areas? Trace metal concentrations in vegetable crops from plantings within inner city
neighborhoods in Berlin, Germany. Environmental Pollution 165: 124-132.
[45] Sharma R.K., M. Agrawal, Fiona M Marshall. 2009. Heavy metals in vegetables collected from production and
market sites of a tropical urban area of India. Food and Chemical Toxicology 47: 583–591.
[46] Singh, A. and Sharma, S., 2002. Composting of a crop residue through treatment with microorganisms and
subsequent vermicomposting. Biores. Technol. 85, 107–111.
[47] Snedicor, GW, Cochran WG. 1981. Statistical methods. 7th Iowa State Univ. Press, Iowa, USA,;225-320 .
[48] Subler S, Edwards CA, Metzger JD. 1998. Comparing composts and vermicomposts. Biocycle;39, 63–66.
[49] Swartjes FA, K. W. Versluijs, P. F. Otte. 2013. A tiered approach for the human health risk assessment for
consumption of vegetables from with cadmium-contaminated land in urban areas. / Environmental Research
126: 223–231.
[50] Temmerman L. De, Nadia Waegeneers, Natacha Claeys, E. Roekens. 2009. Comparison of concentrations of
mercury in ambient air to its accumulation by leafy vegetables: An important step in terrestrial food chain
analysis. Environmental Pollution 157:1337–1341.
Vol-2, Issue-11 PP. 1695-1713 ISSN: 2394-5788
1713 | P a g e 3 0 N o v e m b e r 2 0 1 5 w w w . g j a r . o r g
[51] Uusiku N.P., A. ´ Oelofse, K. G. Duodu, Megan J. Bester, M. Faber. 2010. Nutritional value of leafy vegetables
of sub-Saharan Africa and their potential contribution to human health: A review. Journal of Food Composition
and Analysis 23: 499–509.
[52] Verdonck O, De Vleeschauwer D, De Boodt M. 1982. The influence of the substrate to plant growth. Acta.
Hortic. 126: 251-258.
[53] Watanabe FS, Olsen SR. 1965. Test of an ascorbic acid method for determining phosphorus in water and Na
HCO3 extracts from soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.29: 677-678.
[54] Wertheim-Heck S.C.O., G. Spaargaren, S. Vellema. 2014. Food safety in everyday life: Shopping for vegetables
in a rural city in Vietnam. Journal of Rural Studies 35: 37-48.