CHEMISTRY AND
NUTRITIVE VALUES OF
NIGERIA`S
FOODS AND FEEDING
STUFFS
ABN 520
B. R. O. Omidiwura
Introduction, Chemistry and
nutritive values of proteinaceous
feeds; legumes, animal products
Protein
Describe protein as
much as you know it
Protein
• Next to water, protein is the major component of the
body tissue
• It is the essential nutrient for growth. •
• The body is in a dynamic state, with protein and
other nitrogenous compounds being degraded and
resynthesized continuously.
• More protein is turned over daily in the body than is
ordinarily consumed in the diet.
• Proteins are large molecules made up of amino acids
bonded together by peptide linkages.
• They provide the essential amino acids, which are the
initial materials for tissue synthesis and constituent of
tissue protein.
• Thus, it was often referred to as the “currency” of
protein nutrition and metabolism (Young, 2001).
• The maintenance of body tissue is essential because the
body is constantly undergoing wear and tear, and
proteins and amino acids provide continuous repairs.
Physiological functions of proteins
• The formation of regulatory compounds.
• Some hormones, all enzymes and most other
regulatory materials in the body are protein
substances.
• Proteins defend the body against disease.
• Proteins attracts water and this helps to
maintain the fluid balance in their various
compartments.
• In addition, proteins help maintain the balance
between acids and bases within the body fluids
by accepting and releasing hydrogen ions.
• Even though proteins are needed for growth,
maintenance and repair, they will be used to
provide glucose when the need arises.
Sources of protein
1. Animal proteins 2. Plant proteins
• Animal proteins are more “biologically complete”
than vegetable protein with regards to the amino acid
composition.
• The term “complete protein” refers to foods that contain all
the essential amino acids needed by the body, whereas,
“incomplete proteins” refers to foods lacking in one or more
essential amino acids.
• There are more complete proteins from animal sources than
most vegetable proteins, which are “biologically
incomplete”.
Complementarity of proteins
• An incomplete protein can be converted
into a complete protein if two incomplete
proteins are added together by employing
what is called “complementarity of
proteins”. Two plant proteins such as
legumes and grains or legumes and
nuts/seeds can be mixed to produce a
complete protein from two incomplete ones.
Protein use
• It is important to have an appropriate available
energy supply in a balanced diet for efficient
protein use by livestock
• High energy to protein ratio is needed to optimize
the use of the protein
• The protein inclusion in the diet should balance
the provision of “essential”, “semi-essential” and
“conditionally indispensable” amino acids.
• Different protein feed ingredients have their
amino acid strengths and weakness. For
example:
• the lysine limitation in maize, and
• methionine and cysteine limitations in soyabean.
These are key issues for appropriate protein use
and feed formulation.
CLASSIFICATION OF
PROTEIN BASED ON ORIGIN
Plant Protein Sources
1. Soyabean meal
2. Groundnut cake
3. Sesame seed meal
4. Palm kernel cake
5. Cowpea meal
6. Wheat gluten meal
7. Corn gluten meal
8. Cotton seed cake
9. Full fat soya meal
10. Rape seed meal or canola meal
Soybean Meal (SBM)
• Soybean meal has one of the best essential amino
acid profiles of all protein-rich plant feedstuffs
• A high crude protein content of 44 to 50 percent and
a balanced amino acid composition, complementary
to maize meal for feed formulation
• A high level of inclusion (30-40 percent) is used in
high performance monogastric diets
• Whole soyabeans contain about 15% less protein
than soyabean meal. –Why?
Nutrient Soyabean seeds
% of DM
Soyabean meal SBM
(Banaszkiewicz
20000) % 44% CP, % of
DM
49% CP, % of
DM
Crude protein 37.08 43.8 – 49.9 52.8 – 56.3 44.4
Crude ash 4.86 5.6 – 7.2 5.2 – 9.1 6.65
Crude fat 18.38 0.55 – 3.0 1.0 – 3.3 2.18
Crude fiber 5.12 4.3 – 7.2 3.1 – 4.1 6.75
NDF 12.98 12.3 – 18.9 7.4 – 12.2 15.51
ADF 7.22 8.9 – 11.9 5.2 – 6.7 9.5
N-free-
extractive
24 34.3 33.2 31.82
Starch 4.66 5.51 5.46 6.3
Mineral
components
Soyabean
seeds
Soyabean meal SBM
Banaszkiewicz
(2000) Mechanical
extracted (cake)
Solvent
extracted 44%
CP
Ca 2.62 2.96 3.12 2.71
p 5.7 6.64 6.37 5.14
Mg 2.8 2.84 2.72 2.27
K 15.93 20.28 19.85 6.66
Na 0.29 0.33 0.18 0.3
vitamins Soyabean
meal solvent
Soyabean meal
dehulled
solvent
Soyabean
expeller
Soyabean
full-fat
E, (mg/kg) 3 3.3 6.6 31
Thiamin,
(mg/kg)
1.7 1.7 1.7 6.6
Riboflavin,
(mg/kg)
3 2.6 4.4 2.64
Pantothenic
acid, (mg/kg)
13.3 13.2 13.8 15.6
Biotin, (µg/kg) 320 320 320 286
Folic acid,
(µg/kg)
450 700 450 3542
Niacin, (mg/kg) 59.8 20.9 36.7 22
Amino acids Soyabean seeds %
of DM
Soyabean meal
44% CP, % of DM
SBM, g/16gN
(Banaszkiewicz, 2000)
Arginine 2.45 – 3.1 3.49 – 3.78 6.79
Cystine 0.45 – 0.67 0.66 – 0.75 1.57
Histidine 1.0 – 1.22 1.21 – 1.32 2.58
Isoleucine 1.76 – 1.98 2.15 – 2.78 4.24
Leucine 2.2 – 4.0 3.66 – 3.92 8.21
Lysine 2.5 – 2.66 2.99 – 3.22 6.49
Methionine 0.5 – 0.67 0.6 – 0.69 1.5
Phenylalanine 1.6 – 2.08 2.35 – 3.0 4.93
Threonine 1.4 – 1.89 1.89 – 2.03 3.99
Tryptophan 0.51 – 2.44 0.66 – 0.75 1.05
Valine 1.5 – 2.44 2.24 – 2.67 5.22
Fatty acids Soyabean seeds % of DM Soyabean oil %
Palmitic acid 1.44 – 2.31 07 – 12
Stearic acid 0.54 - 0.91 02 – 05
Oleic acid 3.15 – 8.82 19 – 34
Linoleic acid 6.48 – 11.6 48 – 60
Linolenic acid 0.72 – 2.16 02 – 10
Arachidic acid 0.04 – 0.7 < 1.0
• Soyabean meal is commonly used to spare fish
meal, however, only to a point
• The nutritive value of soyabean is limited by
anti-nutritional factors. Especially by trypsin
and chymotrypsin inhibitors
• trypsin inhibitor reduces digestibility of soy protein
by the enzyme trypsin
• solution: most soybeans are roasted prior to milling
(destroys inhibitor)
Anti-nutritional factors in
soyabean
• Protease inhibitors
• Lectins
• Phytoestrogens
• Stachyose and raffinose
• Phytates
• Allergens
• Pectins
• Oligosaccharides
Full-fat Soybeans
• Full fat soybean meal is different from regular
SBM in that it has a full fat complement
• fat has not been solvent extracted
• 18% fat vs 0.5%
• often used as an energy source or for general
balancing of the formula
• REM: too high fat = reduced nutrient intake
Grains and By-products
• Grains are primarily used as COH sources
• when whole, they contribute about 62%-
72% of dietary starch
• starches are fairly well digested by warm-
water species (60-70%), but not by cold
• heating via extrusion improves digestibility
by 10=15%
• can also be used as binding agents
Grains and By-products
• Corn is commonly used in the U.S., but
is high in xanthophyll (a pigment),
giving tissue a yellow color (not good
for fish sales!)
• corn gluten meal is high in protein
(60%) and contains high levels of MET
(excellent for formulation)
• rice bran often used in developing
countries due to local rice production
• rice bran is a reasonable COH source,
but is high in fiber and fat
• wheat gluten is a good protein source,
but too expensive, often used as a binder
Animal Protein Sources
• Fish meal
• Blood meal
• Casein
• Liver meal
• Meat meal
• Meat and bone meal
• Shrimp meal
• Crayfish meal
• Larva meal
• Feather meal
• Poultry by-products
(litter and feather
meal)
• Maggot meal
• Frog meal
• Grasshopper meal
• Urea
Fish Meal (FM)
• If made from good quality whole fish,
properly processed, it is the highest quality
protein source commonly available
• rich source also of energy and minerals
• highly digestible, highly palatable, also
serves as an attractant
• usually contains about 65% protein, that is
around 80% digestible
• high in LYS, MET (deficient in plant
sources)
Fish Meal (FM)
• if made from byproducts, its quality is not as good
as trawler-caught
• Quality of FM is determined by the part of fish
used and processing method
• only problem observed: high ash content can
sometimes result in mineral imbalance
• used sparingly because of high cost
• can be partially replaced by soyabean meal and
other animal meals
Fish Meal (FM)
• When using FM, one must remember that it cannot be
stored forever
• can become rancid due to high lipid content
• further, not all FM is created equal
• some types (menhaden) appear to be superior to others
(sardine meal)
• FM must be very well ground and sieved to help
remove indigestible parts
• big producer countries are Norway, Canada, USA,
Peru, Mexico, Ecuador
Parameters Norwegian
Norse-LT94
Canadian
Herring meal Whitefish meal
Protein, min. (%) 70 68 60
Fat (soxhlet extraction),
Max. (%)
11.5
Fat (Crude), min. (%) 5 3
Ash, total, max. (%) 14 16 20
Moisture, min (%) 5 5 5
Moisture, max (%) 10 10 10
Ammonia-N (TVN), max
(%)
0.16 0.2 0.2
Pepsin digestibility, min
(%)
94
Digestible protein, min
(%)
90 90
Dimethyl nitrosamine ND
Salmonella ND ND ND
Antioxidant, added
(ethoxyquin, ppm
400 200 200
Amino Acid Norse-LT94 Herring meal Menhaden Anchovy
Steam Flamed
Arginine 95.9 95.7 91.6 91.3 81.5
Histidine 96.4 89.5 90.3 85.4 75.9
Isoleucine 94.9 93.1 90.8 90.6 81.6
Leucine 95.3 93 91 89.3 82.3
Lysine 94.6 90.9 87.7 84.1 80.6
Phenylalanin
e
94.4 92.4 89.5 89.2 80.2
Threonine 93.2 89.4 87.4 85.1 80.7
Tryptophan 85.9 88.1 93.3 72.7 81.3
Valine 94.8 92.6 89.7 89.7 81.5
Average 93.9 91.6 90.1 86.4 80.6
Protein 87 85.1 82.6 78.2 76.7
Methods of assessing quality
• Gross inspection
• Chemical analyses
• Biological evaluation
• Gross inspection
– colour, texture, odour and microscopical
examinations.
• Chemical analyses – in vitro chemical tests
have been used to assess the protein quality of
fishmeals including test for:
– Acid corrected pepsin digestible protein (AOAC and
Torry methods)
– Multienzyme digestible proteins (Pedersen and
Eggum, 1983)
– Total volatile basic nitrogen (Woyewoda et al., 1986)
– Available lysine (Booth, 1971)
– Sulphydryl groups, and disulphide bonds (opstvedt et
al., 1984)
• Biological evaluation
– feeding trials involving growth and
feed utilization measurements for fish
and chicken, and also chick gizzard
erosion score have been used for the
biological evaluation of fishmeal.
QUESTIONS
Meat Meal
Meat and Bone Meal
Test
A. Discuss the following terms
– Biologically complete protein
– Complementarity of protein
• B.
i. The protein quality and nutrient composition of fishmeal
are influenced by a. --------------------------------------------
and b. ----------------------------------------------------------
ii. Soyabean meal is a rich source of high quality vegetable
protein for animal feed but the nutritive value is limited by
anti-nutritional values. List at least 5 of the anti-nutritional
factors.
CHEMISTRY AND
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF SOME
NIGERIAN GRASSES AND
LEGUMES
QUESTION
What is major problem
facing livestock
producers?
What are Forages?
• Forages are plant materials (mainly plant leaves
and stems) eaten by grazing livestock.
• The term may also include pods and seeds.
• The use of forages in livestock feeding is not
restricted to ruminants as forages are sometimes
processed and included in the diets of
monogastrics.
Nutritive Value • Ability of a feed resource to supply nutrients for animal function to
meet the required production target.
• The feed and animal types are therefore functions that
determine the nutritive value of a feed resource.
• A feed resource with a high nutritive value for a particular animal
specie A may have a low nutritive value for animal specie B.
• Nutritive value is a function of the feed intake (FI) and the
efficiency of extraction of nutrients from the feed during
digestion (digestibility)
• Feed of high nutritive value promote high levels of production (live
weight gain)
• Feed intake in ruminants consuming fibrous forages is
primarily determined by the level of rumen fill, which in turn is
directly related to the rate of digestion and passage of fibrous
particles from the rumen.
Chemical composition of feed
resources
• Chemical composition of the feed is not a sure way
of determining the nutritive value of feed.
• A feed resource may have an excellent chemical
composition but may not be adequately digested and
absorbed by the animal.
• Chemical composition is therefore of limited value
as a predictor of nutritive value.
Nutritive value of ranking
• The nutritive value of feeds should be ranked on the
following characteristics
– Voluntary consumption potential.
– Potential digestibility and ability to support high rates of
fermentative digestion.
– High rates of microbial protein synthesis to the rumen relative
to volatile fatty acids (VFA) produced (fermentation
protein/energy (P/E) ratio)
– High rate of propionic acid synthesis (glucogenic) relative to
total VFA synthesis fermentation glucogenic/energy (G/E)
ratio) and
– Ability to provide bypass nutrients (protein, starch and lipid)
for absorption from the small intestine (aborbed P/E and G/E
ratios)
GRASSES
• Grasses are grouped into about 620 genera
with nearly 10,000 species.
• The grass family (Gramineae) include about
75% of the species cultivated as forage
crops and all cereal crops.
Classification of Grasses
• Forages are often named according to a botanical
binomial.
• Plants with same reproductive structures belong
to same genus while
• the species consists of a natural population of
plants with common morphological
characteristics, having a common ancestry and
capable of reproducing like types. – Example, for Guinea grass Panicum maximum
– Panicum is the ‘Genus’ while ‘maximum’ is the species.
Characteristics of the grass family
• Annual or perennial
• Herbaceous (non-woody)
• Height at maturity from few
centimetres to 20m
• Monocotyledons
• The leaves are bore on the
stem, one at each node, but
are projected alternately in
two rows on opposite sides
of the stem
• The leaf consists of sheath,
blade, and ligule
• The blades are parallel
veined and typically flat
and narrow
• The stems can be creeping
or erect
• Possession of fibrous root
system
• Possession of inflorescence
(a unit called spikelet)
• The flowers are usually
small perfect flowers-
usually wind pollination
• Hypogeal germination
Some major grass species of tropical region
Common names Species
Gamba grass Andropogon gayanus Kuth
African star grass Cynodon nlemfuensis
Guinea grass Panicum maximum
Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
Carpet grass, lawn grass, blanket grass Axonosus compressus
Napier grass Pennisetum purpureum
Giant spear grass Imperata cylindrical (Linn.)
Rhodes grass Chloris gayana Stapf.
Job‟s tears Coix lacryma-jobi
Protein content (g/kg dry matter) of most grasses vary between 6-13%
LEGUMES
• Improvement in soil fertility (N-fixing ability)
• Green manure to replenish organic matter content of
the soil
• Protect the soil surface against erosion run-off (crop
cover)
• Sources of protein for livestock production
• Sources of fuel as fire woods
Classification of Legumes
• The pasture legumes
•
• Calopogonium
• Canavalia
• Stylosanthes
• Lablab
• Pueraria
• Centrosema
• etc
• The browse legumes
• Leucaena
• Cassia
• Acacia
• Cajanus
• etc
Characteristics of Legumes
• May be annual, biennials or
perennials
• Dicotyledons
• Possession of pods- monocarpellary
(one-chamber)- with two sutural
dehiscing along both sutures
• Most legumes grow symbiotically
with rhizobial bacteria that form
nodules (difference between
nodules and gall formation in roots)
• Arrangement of the leaves on
petioles can be unifoliate or
trifoliate
• Compound leaves can be pinnate
where a central leaflet is connected
by long petiodule where all blades
have equally short petiolules
• Leaves have reticulate veination
• Stem of legumes vary greatly
between species in length, size and
amount of branching and
woodiness
• Most legumes have prominent tap
root system
• Development of colourful flowers-
pollination may be self, insect,
birds, etc
• Germination is epigeal
Pasture Legumes
• The tropical legumes are generally richer in protein and
most minerals but have a range of digestibilities similar
to tropical grasses.
•
• The CP for tropical legumes may vary from 5.6-40%.
• The leafier parts possess higher protein values than the
older leaves but lower values than the seeds.
• Low CP digestibilities have been associated with low CP
percentages in the plans and vice versa i.e the higher the
CP the higher in plant the digestibility of CP
Some pasture Legumes
Common names Systematic or scientific names
centro Centrosema molle formerly C. pubescens
alfalfa Medicago sativa
calopogonium Calopogonium muconoides
Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan
Tropical kudzu Puereria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth.
Groundnut Arachis hypogen
Cowpea Vigna sinensis
Stylo Stylosnathes guinensis
Lablab (Hyacinth beans) Dolichos lablab
Pueraria phaseloides
This is a vigorious, deep-rooted, perennial
twinning and climbing legume, slightly
woody, hairy.
Feeding Value
• P. phaseloides possess high level of protein (CP
12-24%), and minerals, particularly Ca.
• has a high digestibility (IVDMD 60-70%).
• In Nigeria, 6-month regrowth had insacco DMD
of 52%, CP 14%, P 0.29% and Ca 0.80%.
• Palatability/acceptability: requires a period of
adaptation by cattle.
• Commonly of only low to moderate palatability
to grazing cattle during the wet season.
• Relative palatability increases substantially at
flowering
Centrosema molle
• This is a perennial, trailing-climbing-
twining herb with strong taproot system.
Feeding Value
• Nutritive value high CP contents (17-26%)CP,
• Medium IVDMD (45%-65%)
• In common centro 3-month old leaf, means of 7 cuts:
26%, 52% IVDMD, 0.24%P, 0.86 Ca.
• Palatability/acceptability: High to medium
• Toxicity: None detected so far
• Production potential.
• In pure stands, up to 12 t/ha/year D, possible
• In mixed pastures, 1-3 t/ha/year (humid tropics,
Australia).
• About 260-600 kg/ha/year LWG reported for mixtures
with a grass (e.g Panicum maximum)
Pigeon pea (cajanus cajan)
• Nutritive value
• High quality (10-15% crude protein)
especially when developing seed
pods are nmixed with the edible stem
fraction.
• Threshing waste was an extremely
nutritious feed for sheep..
• Pigeon pea is moderately unpalatable
until stock becomes accustomed to
the taste
Lablab purpureus (Lablab)
• Soil advantages • adaptability to any soil
• drought resistant
• Grows in diverse range
of environmental
conditions
• Green through dry
season
• Provides up to six
tonnes of dry matter/ha
• Livestock advantages • Palatable to livestock
• Provides adequate
needed protein and can
be utilized in several
ways
• It can be grazed on
pasture setting or as a
companion
Browse Legumes
• The word browse means shorts or sprouts,
especially tender woody plants with leaves.
•
• The term is also extended to include the
fruits and pods, which are often more
valuable than the foliage, especially if the
browse shrub is deciduous (evergreen)
Some common browse plants „top feeds‟
Common names Species
Gliricidia, quick-quick Gliricidia sepium (Jacq) Steud.
Leucaena, ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala (Lam) de Wit
Baobab Adansonia digitata L
Calliandra calothyrsus Meissner
Balanities aegyptiaca (L) Del
Acacia Faidherbia albida (formerly Acacia albida)
Caloropis precera
Sesbania sesban
Prosopis juliflora (SW) Dc
Zizyphus mortiania
Ficus spp
Tephrosia spp
Albizia saman
Features of browse
• A common feature of the browses found in
drier regions is that they have thorns and
spines which are protective mechanism
against desiccation and animals.
• In spite camels and goats have been
equipped to handle the thorns.
Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-ipil)
• Perennial fast growing
nitrogen fixing tree
• Grows in both tall and small
bushy weedy type
• In tropics with many varieties
• Nutritive forage especially for
cattle, sheep and goats
• It is used as firewbood, timber,
charcoal, fence posts and rich
organic feftilizer