A Research Paper is NOT…•A rearrangement or summary of information
from different sources•A report that could be included in a general encyclopedia•A matter of cutting and pasting together
from different resources•A result of one quick Database or Google
Scholar search
A Research Paper is…
Your own analysis of information discovered from peer reviewed resources
A chance to teach yourself something new
A chance to demonstrate to others what you have learned, organized in aprofessional, scholarly manner
Stages of Researched Writing •Choosing and Narrowing a Topic •Gathering Material: Note‐taking & Avoiding
Plagiarism •Annotated Bibliography •Thesis Statement •Types of Argument •Outline •Integrating Secondary Sources: Direct
Quotation, Paraphrasing, Summarizing •Works Cited Page •Title
Narrowing a Topic
General: Birds. Focused: The effect of deforestation on
endangered bird populations in Paraguay.
General: Nick in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby
Focused: Symbolism associated with Nick concerning themes of love and redemption.
Thesis Statement
•Answers the question, “What is this paper trying to prove to its audience?”
•Compresses the critical crux of your paper into one sentence.
•Conveys your main argument in a nutshell.
•Uses specific language and specific ideas. •Generates a multi‐faceted argument. •Appears in your paper’s introduction
A Research-Based Essay• A Research Paper will utilize statistics,
report findings, and expert opinion to demonstrate/support your stance on the subject.
• You may want to incorporate the opposition to your topic into the essay and work on refuting their claims and dissenting views.
• Refutation means pointing out the problems with the opposing viewpoints, thereby highlighting your own position’s superiority.
Opposition
Predict counterarguments
Example:
Your Argument: Organic produce from local Farmers’ Markets is better than store-bought produce.
The Opposition: Organic produce is too expensive.
Greek Basic Concepts of Logic: LOGOS Logos—the soundness of your
argument: the facts, statistics, examples, and authoritative statements you gather to support your viewpoint.
This supporting evidence must be unified, specific, adequate, accurate, and representative.
Greek Basic Concepts of Logic: PATHOS Pathos—the emotional power of
language: appeals to readers’ needs, values, and attitudes, encouraging them to commit themselves to a viewpoint or course of action.
Connotative language—words with strong emotional overtones—can move readers to accept a point of view and may even spur them to act.
Greek Concepts of Logic: ETHOS Ethos—the credibility and integrity of
the argument: you cannot expect readers to accept or act on your viewpoint unless you convince them that you know what you’re talking about.
Come across as knowledgeable and trustworthy by incorporating logos and taking the opposing views into account.
Avoiding Plagiarism
Precise note‐taking should help you avoid unintentional plagiarism, since you’ll keep secondary source information clearly distinct from your original thoughts. If the idea is not common knowledge (“the sun rises and also sets”), or not the product of your original thought processes, then cite it.
Tip: If in doubt, cite!
Note‐Taking
When taking notes, be sure to cite your sources carefully (author, title, page numbers, publisher, publication date) and mention whether you are quoting the source verbatim (direct quotation) or summarizing a source’s ideas in your own words.
Writing an Effective Research PaperEvidence/Support can be found in many
ways: Which source would a reader find more credible?
The New York Timeshttp://www.myopinion.com
Which person would a reader be more likely to believe?Joe Smith from Fort Wayne, INDr. Susan Worth, Prof. of Criminology at Purdue
University
Source Evaluation Questions
Ask yourself the following questions to determine a source’s level of credibility:
When was the source published? What are author’s credentials? Who’s the intended audience? Is the argument balanced or does it show bias
and make unsupported claims, illogical conclusions, or inaccurate generalizations?
Lastly, what sorts of references does your source cite?
A Mnemonic Device from Dr. Robert Harris: A Good Way to Remember the Previous Slide “CAAAR”= Currency Authorship Audience Argument References
Peer‐Reviewed/Refereed/Scholarly Sources: A Few Examples
Electronic Sources:
On‐line articles from our library’s subscription databases such as GaleNet, JSTOR and ProQuest.
Print Sources:
Journal articles, books.
Types of Sources
•Peer‐Reviewed/Scholarly/Refereed sources are by professional experts in the field. Examples: Publication of the Modern Language Association, Cell, Journal of the American Medical Association.
•General‐audience sources are for non‐experts. They are written in non‐technical, accessible language. Examples: Cosmopolitan, Newsweek, Better Homes & Gardens, and many Google‐able and Yahoo‐able websites.
Misrepresentation
Don’t misrepresent a quote or leave out important information.
Misquote: “Crime rates were down by 2002,”
according to Dr. Smith.
Actual quote: “Crime rates were down by 2002, but steadily began climbing again a year later,” said to Dr. Smith.
Integrating Your Sources
• For each source, you should establish the credibility of the material or person being cited.
• After each quote, you need to explain the material to the reader and then provide a response.
• By providing a response to the sourced material, you are integrating the support into your argument.
Mary Sherry, owner and founder of a research and publishing firm, finds that many writers who aim to publish their work are “inadequately suffering from grammar amnesia and are deluded by a desire to be famous” (515). By this, I think she means that many of the writers today have overlooked the importance of grammar and punctuation and simply want to be recognized. This supports my stance that many writing students today. . .
Quotation No‐Nos!
•NO dropped quotations or quoting without proper context presented by your own thoughtful phrasing.
•NO traffic‐jam quoting or choo‐chootrain quoting where several direct quotations are strung together, one after another, without discussion.
Inductive Reasoning Involves examination of specific cases,
facts, or examples. Based on these specifics, you then draw a conclusion or make a generalization.
Evidence: My head is aching Evidence: My nose is stuffy Evidence: My throat is scratchy Conclusion: I am coming down with a
cold.
Deductive Reasoning
Begins with a generalization that is then applied to a specific case
This movement from general to specific involves a three-step form of reasoning called a syllogism:
1)Major Premise
2)Minor Premise
3)Conclusion
Example of Syllogism
Major Premise: In an accident, large cars are safer than small cars
Minor Premise: The Hummer is a large car.
Conclusion: In an accident, the Hummer will be safer than a small car.
Logical Fallacies• Hasty Generalization• Sweeping Generalization• Post Hoc Fallacy (“after this, therefore because of
this”)• Non Sequitor Fallacy (“it does not follow”)• Ad Hominen Argument (“to the man”)• Appeals to Questionable or Faulty Authority• Begging the Question• A False Analogy• Either/or Fallacy• Red Herring Fallacy• Appeal to Reader’s Fear or Pity
Hasty Generalizations
• Hasty Generalization: making a claim on the basis of inadequate evidence.
• Example: It is disturbing that several of the youths who shot up schools were users of violent video games. Obviously, these games can breed violence, and they should be banned.
[Most youths who play violent video games do not behave violently.]
Sweeping Generalization
• Absolute statements involving words such as all, always, never, and no one that allow no exceptions.
• Examples: People who live in cities are unfriendly.Californians are fad-crazyWomen are emotionalMen can’t express their feelings[These are often considered stereoptypes]
Post Hoc Fallacy• Occurs when you conclude that a cause-
effect relationship exists simply because one even preceded another.
• Example: A number of immigrants settle in a nearby
city.The city suffers an economic decline.The immigrants’ arrival caused the decline.[This is simply co-occurrence. There are most
likely other reasons for the decline.]
Non-Sequitor
Linking two or more ideas that in fact have no logical connection.
Example: She uses a wheelchair, so she must be unhappy.
[The second clause has nothing to do with the first.]
Ad Hominem
Attacking the qualities of the people holding an opposing view rather than the view itself.
Example: Bill Clinton had extramarital affairs, so his views on global policy merit no attention.
[Do the ex-president’s marital problems invalidate his political views?]
Appeals to Questionable or Faulty Authority• Occurs when the argument fails to provide
the credibility of the sourced material.• Examples:Sources show…An unidentified spokesperson states…Experts claim…Studies show…
[If these people and reports are so reliable, they should be clearly identified.]
Begging the Question
Involves failure to establish proof for a debatable point.
Example: The college library’s funding should be reduced by cutting subscriptions to useless periodicals.
[Are some of the library’s periodicals useless?]
False Analogy• Implies that because two things share some
characteristics, they are therefore alike in all respects. • Example: Nicotine and marijuana involve health risks
and have addictive properties.“Driving while smoking a cigarette isn’t illegal, so driving
while smoking marijuana shouldn’t be illegal.”
[By making this argument, you have overlooked a major difference between these two substances. Marijuana impairs perception and coordination—important aspects of driving—while there’s no evidence that nicotine does the same.]
Either/or Fallacy
• Assuming that a complicated question has only two answers, one good and one bad, or both bad.
• Example: Either we permit mandatory drug testing in the workplace or productivity will continue to decline.
[Productivity is not necessarily dependent on drug testing.]
Red Herring • Introducing an irrelevant issue intended to
distract readers from the relevant issues• Example: A campus speech code is
essential to protect students, who already have enough problems coping with rising tuition.
[Tuition costs and speech codes are different subjects. What protections do students need that a speech code will provide?]