Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics and GynaecologyVol. xx, No. xxx, pp. 1e24, xxxxdoi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2006.01.008
available online at http://www.sciencedirect.com
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
NCORRECTEDPROOF7
Adenomyosis and reproduction
Gerhard Leyendecker* Dr med
Professor
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Klinikum Darmstadt, Teaching Hospital to the Universities of Frankfurt
and Heidelberg/Mannheim, Grafenstr. 9, 64283 Darmstadt, Germany
Georg Kunz Dr med
Lecturer
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St Johannes Hospital, Johannesstr. 9, 44127 Dortmund, Germany
Stefan Kissler Dr med
Lecturer
Department of Obstetric and Gynaecology, University of Frankfurt, Theodor Stern Kai, 760596 Frankfurt, Germany
Ludwig WildtProfessor
Department of Gynaecologic Endocrinology and Reproductive Medicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Anichstr. 35,
A6040 Insbruck, Austria
Evidence has been provided that pelvic endometriosis is significantly associated with uterine ad-enomyosis and that the latter constitutes the major factor of infertility in such conditions. Fur-thermore, it has become evident that both adenomyosis and endometriosis constitutea pathophysiological and nosological entity. Mild peritoneal endometriosis of the fertile womanand premenopausal adenomyosis of the parous and non-parous woman, as well as adenomyosisin association with endometriosis of the infertile woman, constitute a pathophysiological contin-uum that is characterized by the dislocation of basal endometrium. Due to the postponement ofchildbearing late into the period of reproduction, premenopausal adenomyosis might increas-ingly become a factor for infertility in addition to adenomyosis associated with endometriosisof younger women. In any event, the presence or absence of uterine adenomyosis should beexamined in a sterility work-up.
U* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49-6151-107-6150; Fax: þ49-6151-107-6249.
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Leyendecker).
1521-6934/$ - see front matter ª 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 1/24
2 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Key words: adenomyosis; endometriosis; dislocation of basal endometrium; uterine peristalsis;directed sperm transport; uterine dysperistalsis; hyperperistalsis; uterine auto-traumatization;archimetra; endometrial oestrogens.
Adenomyosis results from the invasion of basal endometrial glands and basal endome-trial stroma into the underlying myometrium. The surrounding myometrium resultsfrom stromal metaplasia forming peristromal muscular tissue that is homologous tothe archimyometrium.1,2 Adenomyosis is generally considered a uterine pathology ofpremenopausal women. It does, however, also present in younger women, and insuch cases is associated e more often than the premenopausal variety e with pelvicendometriosis.3e6 Because premenopausal adenomyosis and the variants in youngerwomen with and without endometriosis do not differ from each other with respectto sites of predilection within the uterine wall, gross anatomical shape and histology,6
a similar pathophysiology may be assumed.Recently, it became evident that adenomyosis is an important factor in infertility.
This has been shown in infertile women with endometriosis and in baboons withlife-long infertility.6,7 Because of the change in the pattern of reproductive behaviourduring recent decades, with the postponement of childbearing towards the end ofthe reproductive period of life, premenopausal adenomyosis e in addition to that as-sociated with endometriosis e may increasingly become a factor causing infertility.Thus, adenomyosis in general should become a concern in reproductive medicine, ren-dering its diagnosis or exclusion mandatory in a sterility work-up.
HISTORICAL REMARKS
The association of endometriosis with adenomyosis and vice versa has often been dis-cussed in the literature.8,9 The major authors of the last century described ectopicendometrial lesions occurring in both the uterus and in the peritoneal cavity, and thelesions were considered as variants of the same disease process.3,10e12 Also Sampson,who introduced the term ‘endometriosis’, described ‘primary endometriosis’ as theuterine variant of the disease.13 His scientific interest, however, was directed towardsthe development of the peritoneal variety. This and his view that uterine adenomyosisresulted from vascular transmission were probably the reasons why he did not reporton the parallel presentation of ‘primary endometriosis’ in his cases of peritonealendometriosis.8 In fact, it was his theory that laid the basis for considering uterineadenomyosis and external endometriosis as different disease entities.14 This was laterreinforced by the fact that endometriosis was mostly diagnosed by laparoscopy in a ste-rility work-up, and the uterus evades histological examination for obvious reasons insuch cases. Pelvic endometriosis became a topic of research, while the clinical and sci-entific interest in uterine adenomyosis almost completely vanished.
UTERINE TRAUMA AS A RISK FACTORFOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADENOMYOSIS
Counseller had already suggested that trauma could induce the development of ‘endo-metriosis’, a term that he used for both the extra- and intrauterine variants of the dis-ease.3 In a study that aimed to demonstrate a genetic background for the developmentof endometriosis, a history of hysterotomy showed a significant association with thedevelopment of the lesions in colonized rhesus monkeys.15 Particularly with respect
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 2/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 3
ARTICLE IN PRESS
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
to uterine adenomyosis, it was frequently demonstrated that the risk of developing ad-enomyosis is dramatically increased in parous women as well as following abortion,curettage and other uterine surgical procedures.16e19
A considerable number of non-parous women without a history of iatrogenic uter-ine trauma, however, do also develop uterine adenomyosis.6 A new understanding ofthe pathophysiology of such cases became possible when cyclic peristaltic activityof the non-pregnant uterus was discovered.20e22 It was, however, chiefly the aspect ofretrograde utero-tubal transport of this function that suggested, in view of Sampson’stheory, an association with the development of endometriosis.23,24 When the peristal-tic activity was studied in more detail,22,25e29 it became evident that continuous cyclicuterine peristaltic activity throughout the whole period of reproductive life could con-stitute a chronic trauma to the uterus responsible for the development of both endo-metriosis and adenomyosis.2,5,6,30
In this article an attempt will be made to delineate and discuss the association of ad-enomyosis with reproduction from both pathophysiological and clinical points of view.It will become apparent that a discussion on the development of uterine adenomyosis isnot possible without frequent reference to pelvic endometriosis. This requires, first ofall, a review of the data on peristaltic activity of the non-pregnant uterus. Evidence willbe summarized that uterine peristalsis and its dysfunction constitute very early steps inthe events that finally lead to pelvic endometriosis and uterine adenomyosis. Moreover,it will be shown that pelvic endometriosis of the fertile woman, endometriosis/adeno-myosis of the infertile woman, and premenopausal adenomyosis constitute a pathophys-iological continuum that is characterized by the dislocation of basal endometrium andcan, therefore, be considered as a syndrome of dislocated basal endometrium (SDBE)with bleeding disorders, pain and infertility as the symptoms of the severest forms. Fi-nally, the impact of adenomyosis on fertility will be discussed.
THE PERISTALTIC ACTIVITY OF THE NON-PREGNANT UTERUS
Rhythmic contractions of the non-pregnant uterus as well as rapid sperm transportwithin minutes from the vagina to the Fallopian tubes have long been recognized inmany species, including man. Since the velocity of spermatozoal movement could not ac-count for covering such a long distance through the female genital tract within a fewmin-utes, rapid sperm transport was considered a passive phenomenon and had beenascribed to uterine contractile activity. Recently, the availability of videosonography ofuterine peristalsis (VSUP)20e22 and hysterosalpingoscintigraphy (HSSG)22,31 using tech-netium-labelled albumin macrospheres of spermatozoal size made it possible to studyuterine peristaltic activity and utero-tubal transport in vivo without stress and injury.
Characterization of uterine peristaltic activity
Three major types of contractions may be distinguished from each other (Figure 1).Cervico-fundal contractions (type A), fundo-cervical contractions (type B), and isthmi-cal contractions (type C). While contractions of type A and B travel as peristalticwaves over the whole distance from the cervix to the fundal region and from the fun-dus to the cervical region, respectively, isthmical peristaltic waves (type C) only extendfrom the uterine isthmus to the lower mid-corporal region.32
In general, cervico-fundal contraction waves (type A) prevail during the follicular aswell as the luteal phase of the cycle (Figure 1). The frequency of these contractions is
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 3/24
4 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
low during the late menstrual period and increases gradually during the proliferativephase, with a maximum frequency during the preovulatory phase. In parallel, type Bcontraction waves (fundo-cervical peristalsis) decrease progressively during the latemenstrual period and almost completely disappear at mid-cycle. Thus, practically allperistaltic activity around ovulation is cervico-fundal in character.
During the luteal phase uterine peristaltic activity is composed of type A and type Ccontraction waves. The frequencies of type A and type C, respectively, decrease fromthe mid- to the late-luteal phase. This renders the fundal part of the uterus a region ofrelative peristaltic quiescence (Figure1).
The morphological basis of uterine peristalsis
Videosonography reveals that the uterine peristaltic waves are confined to the suben-dometrial myometrium. Anatomically, this is the stratum subvasculare of the myome-trium or archimyometrium and is characterized by a predominantly circulararrangement of the muscular fibres. The other two layers of the myometrium arethe stratum supravasculare, with a predominantly longitudinal arrangement of themuscular fibres, and the stratum vasculare as the middle layer, composed of a three-dimensional mesh of short muscular bundles that constitute the bulk of the humanmyometrium.29,33
The archimyometrium is the muscular component of the archimetra, of which theothers are the epithelial and stromal endometrium.28,29,33,34 It extends from the lowerpart of the cervix through the uterine corpus into the cornua, where it continues asthe muscular layer of the Fallopian tubes. In high-resolution sonography and MRI the
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
latemenstrual
period
earlyfollicular
midfollicular late follicular midluteal late luteal
Phase of cycle
Co
ntr./M
in
.
Type A - cervico-fundal
contr.
Type B - fundo-cervical
contr.
Type C - isthmical
contractions
Figure 1. Histogram demonstrating the frequency of the uterine peristaltic waves during menstruation, the
early-, mid- and late follicular and mid- and late-luteal phases of the cycle, respectively, as obtained from
video sonography of uterine peristalsis in healthy women. The relative distribution of cervico-fundal (type A)
versus fundo-cervical (type B) and isthmical (type C) contractions is also shown. The graph clearly demon-
strates the increase in the frequency of type A contractions with the progression of the follicular phase,
reaching a maximum during the late follicular phase, and the decrease during the luteal phase of the cycles,
respectively. With the progression of the menstrual cycle type B contraction waves almost disappear. Type C
contractions prevail during the luteal phase. These contractions do not extend beyond the isthmical or
lower corporal part of the uterus, rendering the fundo-cornual part of the uterus a zone of relative peristal-
tic quiescence during the period of embryo implantation.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 4/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 5
ARTICLE IN PRESS
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
archimyometrium can be visualized as a hypodense ‘halo’ and a hypointense ‘junctionalzone’, respectively, with 4e8 mm of width encircling the endocervix as well as the en-dometrium (Figure 2).4
Unlike the two outer layers of the myometrium that develop late during ontogenyand are therefore termed neomyometrium, the anlage of the archimyometrium can al-ready be identified during the first trimester of gestation (hence its denomina-tion).33,28,33 Circular mesenchymal layers surround the fused paramesonephric ductsand develop into muscular fibres during mid-gestation. The ontogenetically early for-mation of the archimyometrium is pertinent to its function and is in particular recog-nized by a kind of a fundo-cornual raphe that results from the fusion of the twoparamesonephric ducts and their mesenchymal elements to form the primordialuterus.30,33 The bipartition of the circular subendometrial myometrium in the upperpart of the uterine corpus and its separate continuation through the cornua intothe respective tubes is the morphological basis of directed sperm transport into thetube ipsilateral to the dominant follicle (Figure 3).34
Endocrine control of uterine peristalsis
Uterine peristaltic activity is controlled by the rising tide of oestradiol and progester-one secreted from the dominant ovarian structures, the preovulatory follicle and thecorpus luteum that corresponds to the cyclically changing oestradiol and progesteronereceptor expression in the archimetrial layers.25,29 In agonadal women the cyclic pat-tern of uterine peristalsis can be completely mimicked by the sequential administrationof oestradiol and oestradiol plus progesterone simulating the respective peripheralblood levels. Within certain limits, there is a doseeresponse relationship betweenthe blood levels of these steroids and the frequency of the peristaltic contractions.25
Although the cellular, autocrine and paracrine mechanisms within the archimetrathat control uterine peristalsis and are modulated by ovarian oestradiol and progester-one remain to be elucidated, there is circumstantial evidence that oxytocin constitutesone of the components of the stimulatory cascade since bolus injections of oxytocinincrease the frequency of cervico-fundal contractions during the follicular phases ofthe cycle and enhance directed sperm transport.25,31 Endogenous oxytocin that isoperative in this respect is probably not of hypothalamic origin but rather synthesizedlocally by endometrial cells. Oxytocin receptors have been identified in the human andrat endometrium.35
Functions of uterine peristalsis
Directed sperm transport
It has been shown using dynamic HSSG that changes in utero-tubal flow velocity occurat the same frequency as the peristaltic contractions.36 It is therefore reasonable toassume that the uterine peristaltic activity with cervico-fundal contraction waves pro-vides the forces that are required for the transport of spermatozoa from the externalos of the cervix into the tubes within minutes. According to the data obtained by ap-plying hysterosalpingoscintigraphy with labelled albumin macrospheres of sperm size,the following concept of the dynamics of rapid sperm ascension within the female gen-ital tract could be developed.22 Rapid sperm ascent occurs immediately following de-position of the ejaculate at the external os of the cervix. As early as 1 minutethereafter spermatozoa have reached the intramural and isthmical part of the tube.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 5/24
6 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Quantitatively, however, the extent of ascent increases with the progression of the fol-licular phase. While only a few spermatozoa enter the uterine cavity, and even fewerthe tubes, during the early follicular phase, the proportion of spermatozoa enteringthe uterine cavity increases dramatically during the mid-follicular phase, with still a lim-ited entry into the tube. During the late follicular phase there is a considerable ascentof spermatozoa into the tubes.
Figure 2. (a) A schematic representation of the endometrialesubendometrial unit (‘archimetra’) within the
human uterus based on immunocytochemical results and morphological and ontogenetic data, respectively.
The endometrialesubendometrial unit is composed of the glandular (green), the stromal part of the endo-
metrium, and the stratum subvasculare of the myometrium, with predominantly circular muscular fibres (yel-
low). Ontogenetically, the endometrialesubendometrial unit is derived from the paramesonephric ducts
(green) and their surrounding mesenchyme (yellow). The bulk of the human myometrium does not originate
from the paramesonephric ducts (blue). It consists of the stratum vasculare with a three-dimensional mesh-
work of short muscular bundles, and the stratum supravasculare with predominantly longitudinal muscular
fibres. The stratum vasculare is phylogenetically the most recent acquisition and, in contrast to the endome-
trialesubendometrial unit, both the stratum vasculare and supravasculare develop late during ontogeny. The
stratum vasculare and supravasculare surround the uterine corpus and extend caudally only to the uterine
isthmus. There is a transitory zone within the stratum vasculare adjacent to the stratum subvasculare where
muscular fibres of the two layers blend (yellow margin of the stratum vasculare). The endocervical mucosa is
the most caudal structure derived from the paramesonephric ducts. The underlying circular muscle fibres,
which progressively diminish in caudal direction, and the accompanying connective tissue blend with vaginal
tissue elements (red) to form the vaginal portion of the cervix. (b) A peritoneal endometriotic lesion (�400)
as an ectopic ‘microarchimetra’. With endometrial glands, endometrial stroma and peristromal muscular tis-
sue the lesion is composed of all the elements of the archimetra. (c) The primordial uterus of the 23rd week
of pregnancy (�50) is composed of the elements of the archimetra, such as endometrium and archimyome-
trium (specific actin staining) (top right). The archimetra is essentially the adult representation of the primor-
dial uterus. (d) The ‘halo’ in transvaginal sonography represents the archimyometrium, as does (e) the
‘junctional zone’ in MR imaging. Modified from Leyendecker et al (2004, Annals of the New York Academy
of Sciences 1034: 338e355) with permission.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 6/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 7
ARTICLE IN PRESS
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Furthermore, HSSG revealed the preferential direction of rapid sperm transportinto the tube ipsilateral to the dominant follicle, which corresponds with findingsduring surgery that the number of sperm around ovulation was higher in the tubeipsilateral to the dominant follicle than on the other side.22,37 This directed passivetransport of sperm (macrospheres) into the ‘dominant’ tube constitutes a genuineuterine function and results from both the specific structure of the archimyometrium,with its fundo-cornual bipartition of the circular fibres, and the effects of the utero-ovarian counter-current system that provide a higher input of stimulatory signalsfrom the ovary into the uterine cornual region ipsilateral to the dominant ovarianstructure.26,33
Fundo-cornual implantation
The uterine peristaltic pump is significantly active also during the luteal phase of thecycle. The specific quality of the contractile activity, however, renders the fundo-cornualregion a zone of relative peristaltic quiescence, presumably minimizing mechanical ir-ritation of the process of implantation.32 The contractions that reach the fundal part ofthe uterine cavity might ensure high fundal implantation of the embryo.
Figure 3. Modified original drawing from Werth and Grusdew33 showing the architecture of the subendo-
metrial myometrium (archimyometrium) in a human fetal uterus. The specific orientation of the circular
fibers of the archimyometrium results from the fusion of the two paramesonephric ducts forming
a fundo-cornual raphe in the midline (dashed rectangle). The peristaltic pump of the uterus, which is
continuously active during the menstrual cycle, is driven by coordinated contractions of these muscular
fibers. Directed sperm transport into the dominant tube is made possible by differential activation of these
fibers. By the time muscular distensions at the fundo-cornual raphe result in the formation of gaps that
results in endometrial proliferation into these dehiscencies. Modified fromWerth and Grusdew (1898, Archiv
fur Gynakologie 55: 325-409) with permission.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 7/24
8 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Retrograde menstruation
Towards the end of the luteal phase the number of oxytocin receptors increaseswithin the neometral myometrium, with highest expression in its fundal part.38 Thedischarge of menstrual debris might be facilitated by contractions of the neometra in-duced by the activation of these receptors by endometrial oxytocin.35 Anterogrademenstruation may be further supported by archimyometrial fundo-cervical peristalticcontractions that decrease with the progression of the early follicular phase.
Retrograde menstruation has been observed in menstruating women with patenttubes and may be caused by the increased uterine tone during menstruation andalso by cervico-fundal peristalsis that is already present during the menstrual periodand increases further during the early follicular phase.39,27 Because cervico-fundal peri-stalsis constitutes a potential risk of infection of the genital tract, and sperm transportthat early during the proliferative phase is unlikely to result in pregnancy, retrogrademenstruation must provide a significant evolutionary benefit.40 It had been suggestedthat cervico-fundal contractions increasing in number with the progression of themenstrual period enable, by retrograde menstruation, the preservation of iron con-tent of the body.41 This might be of particular importance in cases of juvenile dysfunc-tional bleeding with persistent follicles and high endogenous oestradiol levels thatstimulate the uterine peristaltic pump.
Auto-traumatization of the uterus and dislocationof basal endometrium to intra- and extra-uterine sites
Hyperperistalsis
Women with endometriosis show a significant increase in uterine peristaltic activity incomparison to women free of disease (Figure 4).27,41 During the early- and mid-follicularphases of the cycle the frequency of the peristaltic waves is doubled in comparison tonormal.27 The cyclical pattern of peristaltic activity in women with endometriosis issimilar to that obtained in normal women with high endogenous oestrogen levels dur-ing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation and with intravenous bolus injections of oxy-tocin.28 At mid-cycle, in women with endometriosis, the peristaltic activity becomesdysperistaltic. The regular contractions are replaced by a more convulsive uterine ac-tivity.27 Moreover, in women with endometriosis the intrauterine pressure is increasedin comparison to women without the disease.42,43
This change in the contractile activity of the uterus in women with endometriosishas a profound effect on the uterine retrograde transport capacity. In HSSG thetransport of labelled inert particles is dramatically increased during the early- andmid-follicular phases of the cycle. Within a few minutes the particles are transportedinto the tubes and even into the peritoneal cavity, demonstrating the enormous powerof the peristaltic pump. Directed transport of the particles into the tube ipsilateral tothe dominant follicle, however, is absent in the periovulatory phase. With respectto the fundamental mechanisms in the early processes of reproduction, these findingsallow the conclusion that in women with endometriosis directed sperm transportis severely impaired.27 Astonishingly, this aspect is not recognized as a possible mech-anism of subfertility in women with endometriosis and patent tubes.44 In any event,hyperperistalsis with increased intrauterine pressure constitutes a considerableauto-traumatization of the uterus (Figure 5).
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 8/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 9
ARTICLE IN PRESS
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Dislocation of basal endometrium
Hyperperistalsis that is already present during the menstrual period of the cycle inwomen with endometriosis abrades fragments of basal endometrium, which is notthe normal case. Immunohistochemical studies revealed that immunostaining for theoestradiol receptor (ER), progesterone (PR) receptor, and P450 aromatase (P450A)becomes negative in all of the functionalis and spongiosa but not in the basalis towardsthe end of the cycle. This discrepancy of the immunostaining between basalis and func-tionalis at the end of the cycle was utilized to identify endometrial fragments of thebasalis and the functionalis, respectively, in menstrual blood. It could be shown thatin 80% of women with endometriosis, and in only 10% of women without endometri-osis, fragments of basal endometrium could be detected in the respective menstrualblood specimen (P < 0.05).2
It is reasonable to assume that it is the retrograde transport of fragments of basalisrather than of functionalis that lead to pelvic endometriosis. Currently there is nodirect proof available for this assumption. Evidence, however, may be derived fromthe fact that at the end of the cycle the basal layer of the endometrium constitutesa very active tissue with an increasing mitotic rate and increasing expression of ERand PR, both in the epithelium and stroma, and with the persistent expression ofP450 aromatase, while the functionalis is destined for cell death. Moreover, all endo-metriotic lesions form peristromal muscular tissue. The potential to form Mullerianmuscular tissue fibres by stromal metaplasia, however, is e during ontogeny and duringthe menstrual cycle e confined to the basal stroma.2,33,45,46
Immunostaining of the whole uterine wall for ER, PR and P450 showed no dif-ferences in the cyclical immunoreactive scores (IRS) for the different uterine layers,
Figure 4. The distribution pattern of uterine peristalsis with respect to the absence (dotted line; n¼ 36) or
presence (solid line; n¼ 31) of endometriosis. Data from the mid-follicular and the mid-luteal phases of the
cycle, respectively, were used. The peristaltic frequency was normalized to the mean frequency in women
without endometriosis as 100%. In women with endometriosis the grade according to the revised American
Society for Reproductive Medicine (AFS) classification is indicated in addition. From Leyendecker et al (1996,
Human Reproduction 11: 1542e1551) with permission.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 9/24
10 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
including the basalis, in women with and without endometriosis. However, it wasobserved that the basal endometrium was significantly thicker in women withendometriosis than in those without the disease (0.8 mm versus 0.4 mm)(Figure 5).2
Figure 5. Representative scans obtained from hysterosalpingoscintigraphy in women without (left panel)
and with (right panel) endometriosis 32 minutes after application of technetium-labelled macrospheres of
sperm size in the posterior fornix of the vagina in six different women in (a) the early follicular, (b) the
mid-follicular, and (c) late follicular phases, respectively, of the menstrual cycle. In normal women with nor-
moperistalsis the particles usually remain at the site of application during the early follicular phase (left panel a).
In women with endometriosis and hyperperistalsis there is in this phase already a massive transport of the
particles through the uterine cavity in one of the tubes (right panel a). In the mid-follicular phase normal
women show only an ascent of the particles into the uterine cavity, and sometimes a trend of ascent into
the tube ispsilateral to the dominant follicle (left panel b). In women with endometriosis the ascension dra-
matically increased and in this example the particles are transported through the tube into the peritoneal
cavity. This was, however, the contralateral tube to the dominant follicle (right panel b). During the pre-
ovulatory phase of healthy women the particles are rapidly transported into the ‘dominant’ tube (left panel c),
while, due to dysperistalsis, there is a breakdown of directed sperm transport in women with endometriosis
(right panel c). These scans show the enormous power of the uterine peristaltic pump during the early and
mid-follicular phase of the cycle in women with hyperperistalsis and endometriosis. Continuous hyperperis-
talsis results in auto-traumatization of the uterus. Modified from Leyendecker et al (1996, Human Reproduc-
tion 11: 1542e1551) with permission.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 10/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 11
ARTICLE IN PRESS
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Parallel development of adenomyosis
During the studies on uterine peristalsis in women with and without endometriosis,significant structural abnormalities of the uterine wall became apparent in womenwith endometriosis. As judged from the data of transvaginal sonography (TVS) andMRI, respectively, there was a significant association between uterine adenomyosisand peritoneal endometriosis (Figure 6).4 In a more recent extended study withMRI scans of the uterus in 227 infertile patients or couples, respectively, including160 women with endometriosis and 67 controls, these results could be confirmed.The posterior junctional zone (JZ) was significantly thicker in women with endometri-osis (11.5 mm) than in the controls (8.5 mm). On the basis of a ‘healthy control’ groupthat was defined as the patients younger than 37 years without endometriosis, with aninfertile partner and a maximum diameter of the posterior junctional zone of 10 mm,the prevalence of diffuse and focal adenomyosis in all patients with endometriosis was79%, and reached 90% in those women younger than 36 years and with a fertile part-ner. In the ‘total control’ group of women without endometriosis, the prevalence ofadenomyosis was 28% and in the ‘healthy control’ group only 9%.6
A unifying concept of the development of endometriosisand adenomyosis
The data presented above provide strong circumstantial evidence that endometriosisresults from the transtubal dislocation and implantation of basal endometrium. Like-wise, from a mere topographical point of view, it is evident that uterine adenomyosisresults from the infiltration of basal endometrium into the underlying myometrium.Both endometriotic and adenomyotic lesions form peristromal muscular tissue thathas, with respect to the ER and PR expression, the immunohistochemical characteris-tics of the archimyometrium. Both lesions with all their components e such as glan-dular and stromal endometrium and peristromal muscular tissue e mimic withrespect to the cyclical pattern of the IRS of ER and PR expression the respective cy-clical pattern of the basal endometrium and the archimyometrium. It was thereforesuggested that dislocated fragments of basal endometrium have ‘stem-cell potential’,and when implanted on e.g. peritoneal surfaces, or when they infiltrate into the deepermyometrium, they resume their embryonal growth programme to form all compo-nents of the archimetra, including muscular tissue.2 The ectopic endometrial lesionscan therefore be considered as micro-primordial uteri or ‘microarchimetras’(Figure 2b).
THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE DEVELOPMENTOF ENDOMETRIOSIS AND ADENOMYOSIS
The basal endometrium as an endocrine gland: archimetralhyperoestrogenism
Uterine hyperperistalsis is one of the predominant uterine findings in endometriosisand associated adenomyosis. Since the extent of peristaltic activity is independent ofthe disease (Figure 4), it was suggested that hyperperistalsis constitutes the primaryand endometriosis the secondary phenomenon.27
Hyperperistalsis can be induced by increased peripheral levels of oestradiol inblood. In women with endometriosis and hyperperistalsis, however, the mean
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 11/24
12 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
peripheral oestradiol and also progesterone levels during the menstrual cycle did notdiffer from those without the disease.
Oestradiol inducing hyperperistalsis might come from the endometrium itself. Byvirtue of the expression of the P450 aromatase that also persists during the wholeluteal phase within the basalis, the basal endometrium constitutes an endocrinegland that produces oestrogen from androgenic precursors.2 In women with endo-metriosis and adenomyosis the concentration of oestradiol in menstrual blood washigher than in healthy women, while the respective peripheral levels were thesame.47 In a study applying micro-array technology an endometrial gene, Cyr61,was identified that is oestrogen-dependent and highly upregulated in endometriaof women with endometriosis in comparison to controls and also in endometrioticlesions.48 In our recent study the basalis, as measured during the luteal phase anddistant from adenomyotic lesions, was twice as thick as the basal endometrium inhealthy women, probably increasing dramatically the amount of oestrogen in theendometrium with its paracrine effects in the chain of events that result in
Figure 6. Transverse (top) and sagittal (bottom) MRI scans in two women with adenomyosis. Left panel: 40-
year-old parous woman with secondary infertility. Focal adenomyosis was suspected by transvaginal sonog-
raphy and verified by MRI. No laparoscopy was performed. Right panel: 30-year-old woman with primary
infertility, grade IV endometriosis, and focal to diffuse adenomyosis. In both women the transverse scans
show a preponderance of the development of adenomyosis in the uterine midline (fundo-cornual raphe).
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 12/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 13
ARTICLE IN PRESS
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
hyperperistalsis.2 It remains to be shown whether there is an increased productionof oestrogen in the basal endometrium per volume tissue of women with endome-triosis in comparison to controls.
This concept of non-ovarian archimetrial hyperoestrogenism as one of the initialevents in the development of endometriosis may be pertinent to the ongoing dis-cussion of the role of environmental factors such as endocrine disruptors and foodintake.49e51 In the animal experiment dioxin increased the tubal peristaltic activity,and it was active via the oestrogen receptor.52 In a study aiming at examining thehereditary component of endometriosis in colonized rhesus monkeys only a historyof treatment with oestrogen patches (in addition to a history of trauma by hyster-otomy) showed a significant association with endometriosis.15 Taken together, ourown data and data from the literature strongly suggest that the principal mecha-nism of endometriosis/adenomyosis is the paracrine interference of endometrialoestrogen with the cyclical endocrine control of archimyometrial peristalsis exertedby the ovary.
In Figure 7 an attempt is made to summarize our present concept of the devel-opment of endometriosis and adenomyosis, which is an extension of the conceptproposed earlier.28 The archimyometrium is stimulated by locally increased levelsof oestradiol and by a cascade of events that may include the endometrial oxytocinand its receptor. The primary event or events that lead to an archimetral hyperoes-trogenism are currently not known. The P450 aromatase system seems to playa fundamental role. The activation of the P450 aromatase and the increased localproduction of oestrogen appears to constitute a general principle in tissue repair.53
Archimetral hyperoestrogenism results in uterine hyperperistalsis and increaseduterine pressure.
In any event hyperperistalsis constitutes a mechanical trauma resulting in an in-creased desquamation of fragments of basal endometrium and, in combination withan increased retrograde uterine transport capacity, in enhanced transtubal dissem-ination of these fragments. By chance, these fragments might implant somewhere inthe peritoneal cavity, with certain sites of predilection dependent on the pelvictopography. After the process of implantation spontaneous healing might be possible,but also proliferation and infiltrative growth, depending upon the proliferativepotential of the seeded basal fragments. The pleiomorphic appearance of pelvic en-dometriosis is largely due to the long causal chain between the primary disturbanceon the level of the archimetra and the eventually established individual endometri-otic lesion.
In adenomyosis this chain of events is shortened. Hyperperistalsis and increased in-trauterine pressure might result in myometrial dehiscencies that are infiltrated by basalendometrium with the secondary development of peristromal muscular tissue. Diffuseor focal adenomyosis of varying extent ensues. Adenomyotic foci are usually localizedin the anterior and/or posterior walls, with preference for the posterior wall, andpractically never in the lateral walls of the uterine corpus. Early lesions usually presentclose to the ‘fundo-cornual raphe’ of the archimyometrium (Figures 3 and 6), under-lining the primarily mechanical or traumatic character of their development. Withtheir muscular component, the adenomyotic lesions might contribute to the increasedintrauterine pressure.
As ectopic archimetras endometriotic as well as adenomyotic lesions possess thebiochemical potential of the parent basal endometrium. Thus, the lesions are ableto produce oestrogen and may therefore be able to sustain their benign proliferative
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 13/24
14 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
UNCORRECTEDPROOFpotential. That is why infiltrative endometriosis and adenomyosis may constitute pro-gressive diseases e in rare cases even beyond the menopause.54
‘EXTERNAL’ ADENOMYOSIS
The development of ‘deeply infiltrating endometriosis’ or ‘external adenomyosis’ isenigmatic and still a matter of debate.55 The paradigm of chronic traumatization andincreased tissue concentrations of oestrogen in consequence of the activation ofthe repair system that involves the expression or hyperexpression of P450A mightalso be pertinent to the understanding of the development of such lesions. Character-istically, these lesions are located at sites of chronic mechanical irritation such as thebowel, the recto-vaginal septum, the bladder, as well as the sacro-uterine ligaments. Itappears that chronic trauma to the ectopic ‘microarchimetras’ results in the same tis-sue response as seen in uterine adenomyosis. While superficial endometriotic lesionsdistant from mechanical irritation might heal, those accidentally located at sites ofchronic mechanic irritation develop into deeply infiltrative foci. This might explainthe frequent finding of severe uterine adenomyosis with a ‘frozen’ pouch of Douglasdue to recto-vaginal endometriosis and a pelvic peritoneum otherwise free of endo-metriotic lesions.56
The syndrome of dislocated basal endometrium (SDBE):a pathophysiological continuum
According to our understanding of the disease process, minimal and mild endometri-osis of the fertile woman, endometriosis in association with adenomyosis of theinfertile woman, and premenopausal adenomyosis, respectively, constitute a pathophys-iological continuum that could be summarized with the term ‘syndrome of dislocatedbasal endometrium’ (SDBE). Pelvic pain, bleeding disorders and infertility constitute
Figure 7. A schematic representation of the pathophysiology of endometriosis and adenomyosis. From
Leyendecker et al (2004, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1034: 338e355 with permission.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 14/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 15
ARTICLE IN PRESS
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
the cardinal symptoms of this syndrome. The presentation of the various forms ofSDBE is determined by the strength and temporal occurrence of the uterine auto-traumatization and also iatrogenic trauma.
Normoperistalsis
Women without endometriosis and proven fertility desquamate fragments of basal en-dometrium during menstruation, although at a significant lower rate than infertilewomen with endometriosis.2 Moreover, in the presence of normoperistalsis the uter-ine retrograde transport capacity during menstruation is low in these women(Figure 5).27 Nevertheless, retrograde menstruation, though limited, might cause inci-dental dissemination of fragments of basal endometrium within the peritoneal cavity.The probability that implantation might occur increases with age.57,58
Premenopausal adenomyosis occurs in parous and non-parous women. Bird et al9
reported on a prevalence of 69% of adenomyosis in uterine specimen of 200 consec-utive hysterectomies in mostly parous women, which is close to prevalence estimatesof adenomyosis in the range of 54% based on uteri removed at autopsy.8 In our recentstudy, 28% of the non-parous women of our control group without endometriosis hadsigns of adenomyosis according to MRI, with the majority of the women with adeno-myosis being older than 37 years of age.6
Presumably, chronic normoperistalsis throughout the reproductive period of lifeconstitutes the principal factor that induces the development of premenopausaladenomyosis by causing continuous traumatization of the archimetra at the fundo-cornual raphe (Figure 6). Parity and iatrogenic trauma are additional factors. Assoon as adenomyotic foci have developed, local oestrogen levels permanently increase,stimulating the further progression of the disease.59 The slow development of pre-menopausal adenomyosis, with the uterus becoming increasingly rigid, prevents ma-jor dissemination of endometrial tissue into the peritoneal cavity. Thus, theassociation of premenopausal adenomyosis with endometriosis is low. This obser-vation, however, does not justify the conclusion that these two conditions are dif-ferent clinical and nosological entities with no shared aetiological mechanisms(Figure 8).17
Hyperperistalsis
In infertile women, due to an abnormal stimulation of archimetral oestrogen receptorsthat results in hyperperistalsis, the process of the development of adenomyosis is inten-sified and advanced.5 In this dynamic process of disease development endometriosisusually comes first and is followed by adenomyosis. Therefore, no static value forthe prevalence of adenomyosis in endometriosis can be expected. This value varies de-pending on the study population chosen. In our study, a prevalence of adenomyosis inendometriosis in the range 79e90% was observed. The patients were suffering fromlong-standing infertility and seeking treatment by assisted reproduction, increasing theprobability that both the peritoneal and the uterine variant of the disease had devel-oped in these women.
ADENOMYOSIS AND INFERTILITY
In young couples with proven fertility the chance of achieving a pregnancy isaround 35% per menstrual cycle.40 About 85% become pregnant after 6 months.60
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 15/24
16 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Women with mild to moderate endometriosis have a reduced chance of becomingpregnant, with only about a 25% and 50% chance of achieving a spontaneous preg-nancy after 6 and 18 months, respectively.61 The remaining 50% of patients do notbecome pregnant at all. Surgical and medical eradication of the endometrioticlesions does not improve or normalize fertility in such patients, suggesting that peri-toneal endometriotic lesions without tubo-ovarian involvement do not constitutea major cause of infertility in such patients.61,62 Infertility in these patients is oftenconsidered as unexplained.
On the basis of the significant association of uterine adenomyosis in infertilewomen with endometriosis, it was suggested that adenomyosis could constitute this
Figure 8. The uteri of two women of 37 years of age with diffuse uterine adenomyosis as presented by MRI
in sagittal scans. Top: the parous woman with two children aged 12 and 14 years presented with increasing
pelvic pain and bleeding disorders. During laparoscopy-assisted vaginal hysterectomy a minor endometriotic
lesion at the peritoneum of the urinary bladder could be documented and excised. Histology confirmed the
diagnosis of both adenomyosis and endometriosis. Bottom: the patient presented with longstanding primary
infertility. Upon query she reported increasing pelvic pain and premenstrual spotting. A previously per-
formed laparoscopy had revealed minor endometriosis of the peritoneum of the urinary bladder. The con-
dition of the parous woman would be considered as premenopausal adenomyosis associated with mild
adenomyosis. Prior to the diagnosis of diffuse adenomyosis, the condition in the infertile patient would
have been considered as unexplained infertility. Apart from parity, the clinical and pathological conditions
in these two women are the same. These cases illustrate the pathophysiological continuum of the syndrome
of dislocated basal endometrium (SDBE).
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 16/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 17
ARTICLE IN PRESS
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
hitherto unidentified factor.4,30 This notion was recently substantiated in a largerstudy.6 The most plausible explanation for the impact of adenomyosis on fertility isthe impairment of the uterine mechanism of rapid and sustained directed spermtransport in consequence of the destruction of the normal architecture of the archi-myometrium.22,27 With the peristromal muscular cells of the adenomyotic lesions,a muscular tissue develops that is irregularly arranged, in contrast to the archimyome-trium with its circular muscle fibres. Moreover, this muscular tissue is presumably esince it is homologous to the archimyometrium e responsive to the endocrine andparacrine stimuli that regulate uterine peristalsis.2,25,32 This may result in increasedintrauterine pressure and in dysperistalsis during the late follicular phase in womenwith endometriosis.27,42,43
This does not, however, exclude other ‘non-mechanical’ uterine factors leading toinfertility in endometriosis, such as the increased colonization of the endometriumwith macrophages and a possible direct impact of the adenomyotic lesions with theirsecretory products on ovarian function.63 A number of studies have demonstrated a di-minished ovarian reserve, an impaired granulosa celleoocyte environment, and an im-paired oocyte quality and fertilization rate, respectively, in patients withendometriosis.64e67 Our own preliminary data from in-vitro fertilization indicatethat there is a correlation between the percentage of immature oocytes among thoseretrieved and the depth of adenomyotic infiltration (G. Kunz, G. Leyendecker, unpub-lished). Also the rate of blastocyst formation is reduced in the presence of extendedadenomyosis (W. Bernart, U. Mischeck, A. Bilgicyildirim, G. Leyendecker, unpublished).The basal endometrium is, by virtue of the expression of P450 aromatase throughoutthe menstrual cycle, a tissue capable of converting androgen into oestrogen and pro-ducing various substances that are mainly active in a paracrine way, such as oxytocin,prostaglandins, growth factors and cytokines.2,47 Not only is the eutopic endometriumsignificantly enlarged in women with endometriosis in comparison to controls, the ad-enomyotic lesions with their basal endometrium further increase the size of this intra-uterine ‘gland’ in women with endometriosis, which could affect ovarian function viathe utero-ovarian counter-current system that has been shown to be of physiologicalsignificance both in the animal and the human.2,26,68, 69
PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES AND SUGGESTIONSFOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Adenomyosis is encountered in infertile women with endometriosis and constitutes, inaddition to the possible impairment of utero-tubal function by adhesions and endome-trioma, the major cause of infertility in these women. Adenomyosis is also observed innon-parous women without endometriosis, and the development of this variety usu-ally takes place in the last third of the reproductive period of life. Due to the post-ponement of childbearing, however, it has increasingly become a factor in sterility.Thus, in a sterility work-up the uterus has not only to be studied with respect to al-terations such as fibroids, malformations and endometrial polyps but also with respectto the presence or absence of adenomyosis. In addition to the clinical examination thatwill eventually show an enlarged or irregularly shaped uterine corpus with ‘sourness’upon palpation, transvaginal sonography constitutes the method of choice in the out-patient clinic. Abnormal shapes and sizes of the uterus if fibroids are excluded, asym-metry with respect to the anterior and posterior walls, irregularities of the lining ofthe endometrium, an unusual texture of the myometrium, and of course a broadened,
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 17/24
18 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
focally destroyed or completely absent ‘halo’ are indicative of the presence of adeno-myosis (Figure 9).
In cases of adenomyosis the probability of a spontaneous pregnancy occurring islow, suggesting assisted reproduction as the appropriate mode of treatment. This ispertinent to patients with and without endometriosis. In younger women with endo-metriosis and a short history of complaints and infertility, the absence of adenomyosismight warrant an expectant attitude or minor treatment modalities such as ovarianstimulation with and without insemination. The results, however, are usually limitedin comparison to IVF.70
Because of poorer results of IVF in women with endometriosis in comparison towomenwithout the disease, prolonged pretreatment with gonadotrophin-releasing hor-mone (GnRH) analogues has been suggested, and an improved pregnancy rate in patientswith endometriosis could bedemonstrated.71,72 This improvementwas significant, however,only in severe grades of the disease that are more likely to be associated with extendedadenomyosis.72 It is very possible that a longer period of down-regulation by GnRH an-alogues reduces, at least temporarily, the detrimental effects of adenomyosis on the co-hort of follicles that is recruited in the subsequent cycle of ovarian stimulation.
In viewof the fact that endometriosis and adenomyosismight develop very early in thereproductive period of life and rapidly lead to destruction of the reproductive organs,with infertility and disabling pain as the major sequels, an early diagnosis with the possi-bility of hindering further progression of the disease appears to be desirable. There is nodoubt that early onset and severe dysmenorrhoea, and even intermittent attacks of pel-vic pain prior to menarche, might be early clinical signs.73 Methods should become avail-able that allow us to distinguish between functional dysmenorrhoea and thosemenstrualpains that are symptoms of a beginning disease process. We suggested that menstrualblood could be examined for the presence of fragments of desquamated basal endome-trium.74 Using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) the usefulness of examiningmenstrual blood could be confirmed. It was shown that patients with endometriosishad significantly increased levels of oestrogen receptor-b and progesterone receptorin menstrual blood samples, whereas no differences were recognized between womenwith endometriosis and the controls in peripheral blood samples.75
The theory presented here does not conflict with other theories such as that ofSampson and those that consider immunological phenomena, growth factors, integrinsand cytokines as essential pathophysiological factors. Many of these phenomena esuch as the increased expression of factors of angiogenesis and wound healing ecan be considered as secondary to archimetral hyperoestrogenism. With respect toimmunological factors it has to be kept in mind that inflammatory defence is one ofthe fundamental functions of the endometrium in the early process of reproduction.28
Endometriotic and adenomyotic lesions display, as ectopic ‘microarchimetras’, thesame immunological potential as the parent tissue. While immunoreactive cells suchas ‘bone-marrow-derived white blood cells’ and macrophages are cyclically shedwith menstruation, they cannot be externalized, at least from extrauterine ectopic le-sions. They remain in situ and cause immunological and inflammatory processes thatresult in cyclical pain.
CONCLUSIONS
Adenomyosis and endometriosis constitute, as diseases of the archimetra, a pathophys-iological and nosological entity. They both result from the dislocation of basal
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 18/24
ARTICLE IN PRESS
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
Figure 9. Examples of uterine adenomyosis as presented by transvaginal sonography (left panel) and con-
firmation by MRI (right panel).
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 19/24
20 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
endometrium into uterine and extrauterine sites, respectively, in consequence to uter-ine auto-traumatization by chronic uterine peristalsis and hyperperistalsis. Iatrogenictrauma might constitute an additional cause. In uterine hyperperistalsis that is causedby a pathological stimulation of archimetral oestrogen receptors, the traumatization isdrastically intensified, resulting in an advancement of the disease process with a highassociation of both adenomyosis with endometriosis and vice versa. The adenomyoticcomponent of the disease constitutes the principal factor of infertility in patients withendometriosis. Premenopausal adenomyosis that was formerly mostly associated withparity and iatrogenic trauma as special risk factors now emerges as a cause of infertilitybecause today not infrequently women postpone childbearing into the last years oftheir reproductive period of life.
REFERENCES
1. Brosens JJ, Barker FG & de Souza NM. Myometrial zonal differentiation and uterine junctional zone
hyperplasia in the non-pregnant uterus. Hum Reprod Update 1998; 4: 496e502.2. Leyendecker G, Herbertz M, Kunz G & Mall G. Endometriosis results from the dislocation of basal
endometrium. Hum Reprod 2002; 17: 2725e2736.
3. Counseller VS. Endometriosis. A clinical and surgical review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1938; 36: 877e886.
Practice points
� the uterus is composed of two phylogenetically and ontogenetically differentstructures
� the inner structure, the endometrialesubendometrial unit, is phylogeneticallyand ontogenetically old and is therefore termed the ‘archimetra’. Ontogenet-ically, the archimetra is of paramesonephric (‘Mullerian’) origin. The outerstructures of the uterus, the stratum vasculare and supravasculare of themyometrium are phylogenetically and ontogenetically younger and not ofMullerian origin (‘Neometra’). They are derived from the serosal mesenchymecovering the primordial uterus
� the archimetra is composed of the endometrial glands, the endometrial stromaand the subendometrial myometrium also termed the ‘archimyometrium’
Research agenda
� what morphologically and functionally indicates that the archimetra is a pairedorgan in character?
� what is the basis for considering endometriosis and adenomyosis as diseases ofthe archimetra?
� elucidation of the endocrine and paracrine regulation of the peristaltic func-tion of the archimyometrium
� aetiology of archimetral hyperoestrogenism and hyperperistalsis� early diagnosis of the beginning of the disease process of endometriosis/ad-
enomyosis in young women� definition and development of preventive measures
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 20/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 21
ARTICLE IN PRESS
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
4. Kunz G, Beil D, Huppert P & Leyendecker G. Structural abnormalities of the uterine wall in women with
endometriosis and infertility visualized by vaginal sonography and magnetic resonance imaging. Hum
Reprod 2000; 15: 76e82.
5. Leyendecker G, Kunz G, Herbertz M, Beil D, Huppert P, Mall G, Kissler S, Noe M & Wildt L. Uterine
peristaltic activity and the development of endometriosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 2004; 1034: 338e355.6. Kunz G, Beil D, Huppert P, Noe M, Kissler S & Leyendecker G. Adenomyosis in endometriosis e prev-
alence and impact on fertility. Evidence from magnetic resonance imaging. Hum Reprod 2005; 20: 2309e
2316.
7. Barrier BF, Malinowski MJ, Dick Jr EJ, Hubbard GB & Bates GW. Adenomyosis in the baboon is associ-
ated with primary infertility. Fertil Steril 2004; 82(supplement 3): 1091e1094.
8. Emge LA. The elusive adenomyosis of the uterus. Its historical past and its present state of recognition.
Am J Obste Gynecol 1962; 83: 1541e1563.9. Bird CC, McElin TW & Manalo-Estrella P. The elusive adenomyosis of the uterus-revisited. Am J Obstet
Gynecol 1972; 112: 583e593.
10. Meyer R. Uber den Stand der Frage der Adenomyositis und Adenome im allgemeinen und insbesondere
uber Adenomyositis seroepithelialis und Adenomyometritis sarcomatosa. Zbl Gynakol 1919; 43: 745e750.
11. Cullen TS. The distribution of adenomyoma containing uterine mucosa. Arch Surgery 1920; 1: 215e283.
12. De Snoo K. Das Problem der Menschwerdung im Lichte der Vergleichenden Geburthilfe. Jena: Verlag von Gus-
tav Fischer; 1942.
13. Sampson JA. Peritoneal endometriosis due to the menstrual dissemination of endometrial tissue into the
peritoneal cavity. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 1927; 14: 422e429.
14. Ridley JH. The histogenesis of endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1968; 23: 1e35.15. Hadfield RM, Yudkin PL, Coe CL, Scheffler J, Uno H, Barlow DH, Kemnitz JW & Kennedy SH. Risk fac-
tors for endometriosis in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta): a case-control study. Hum Reprod Update
1997; 3: 109e115.
16. McCausland AM & McCausland VM. Depth of endometrial penetration in adenomyosis helps determine
outcome of rollerball ablation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996; 174: 1786e1794.
17. Parazzini F, Vercellini P, Panazza S, Chatenoud L, Oldani S & Crosignani PG. Risk factors for adenomyosis.
Hum Reprod 1997; 12: 1275e1279.
18. Parkar W, Meekins JW & Nicol A. Adenomyosis following endometrial resection e a retrospective study.
J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 18: 564e565.
19. Curtis KM, Hillis SD, Marchbanks PA & Peterson HB. Disruption of the endometrial-myometrial border
during pregnancy as a risk factor for adenomyosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 543e544.20. De Vries K, Lyons EA, Ballard G, Levi CS & Lindsay DJ. Contractions of the inner third of the myome-
trium. Am J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 162: 679e682.
21. Lyons EA, Taylor PJ, Zheng XH, Ballard G, Levi CS & Kredentser JV. Characterisation of subendometrial
myometrial contractions throughout the menstrual cycle in normal fertile women. Fertil Steril 1991; 55:
771e775.
22. Kunz G, Beil D, Deininger H, Wildt L & Leyendecker G. The dynamics of rapid sperm transport through
the female genital tract. Evidence from vaginal sonography of uterine peristalsis (VSUP) and hysterosal-
pingoscintigraphy (HSSG). Hum Reprod 1996; 11: 627e632.23. Leyendecker G & Wildt L. Endometriose- Epidemiologie, Atiologie und therapeutische Aspekte. In:
Runnebaum B, Breckwoldt M (eds.). Leuprorelinacetat- ein neues GnRH Analogon. Grundlagen und Klinik.
Heidelberg: Springer Verlag; 1992, pp. 1e10.24. Leyendecker G, Wildt L, Plath T & Kunz G. Endometriose - ein neues Modell ihrer Entstehung. Fraue-
narzt 1995; 36: 82e86.
25. Kunz G, Noe M, Herbertz M & Leyendecker G. Uterine peristalsis during the follicular phase of the men-
strual cycle. Effects of oestrogen, antioestrogen and oxytocin. Hum Reprod Update 1998; 4: 647e654.26. Kunz G, Herbertz M, Noe M & Leyendecker G. Sonographic evidence of a direct impact of the ovarian
dominant structure on uterine function during themenstrual cycle.Hum Reprod Update 1998; 4: 667e672.
27. Leyendecker G, Kunz G, Wildt L, Beil D & Deininger H. Uterine hyperperistalsis and dysperistalsis as
dysfunctions of the mechanism of rapid sperm transport in patients with endometriosis and infertility.
Hum Reprod 1996; 11: 1542e1551.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 21/24
22 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
1091
1092
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
28. Leyendecker G, Kunz G, Noe M, Herbertz M & Mall G. Endometriosis: A dysfunction and disease of the
archimetra. Hum Reprod Update 1998; 4: 752e762.
29. Noe M, Kunz G, Herbertz M, Mall G & Leyendecker G. The cyclic pattern of the immunocytochemical
expression of oestrogen and progesterone receptors in human myometrial and endometrial layers:
Characterisation of the endometrial-subendometrial unit. Hum Reprod 1999; 14: 101e110.
30. Leyendecker G. Endometriosis is an entity with extreme pleiomorphism. Hum Reprod 2000; 15: 4e7.
31. Wildt L, Kissler S, Licht P & Becker W. Sperm transport in the human female genital tract and its mod-
ulation by oxitocin ass assessed by hystrosalpingography, hysterotonography, electrohysterography and
Doppler sonography. Hum Reprod Update 1998; 4: 655e666.
32. Kunz G, Kissler S, Wildt L & Leyendecker G. Uterine peristalsis: directed sperm transport and fundal
implantation of the blastocyst. In: Filicori M (ed.). Endocrine Basis of Reproductive Function. Bologna, Italy:
Monduzzi Editore; 2000.
33. Werth R & Grusdew W. Untersuchungen uber die Entwicklung und Morphologie der menschlichen Ute-
rusmuskulatur. Arch Gynakol 1898; 55: 325e409.
34. Leyendecker G, Kunz G, Noe M, Herbertz M, Beil D, Huppert P & Mall G. Die Archimetra als neues
morphologisch-funktionelles Konzept des Uterus sowie als Ort der Primarerkrankung bei Endome-
triose. Reproduktionsmedizin 1999; 15: 356e371.
35. Zingg HH, Rosen F, Chu K, Larcher A, Arslan AM, Richard S & Lefebvre D. Oxytocin and oxytocin re-
ceptor gene expression in the uterus. Recent Progr Hormone Res 1995; 50: 255e273.
36. Schmiedehausen K, Kat S, Albert N, Platsch G, Wildt L & Kuwert T. Determination of velocity of tubar
transport with dynamic hysterosalpingoscintigraphy. Nucl Med Commun 2003 Aug; 24(8): 865e870.
37. Williams M, Hill CJ, Scudamore I, Dunphy B, Cooke ID & Barratt CLR. Sperm numbers and distribution
within the human fallopian tube around ovulation. Hum Reprod 1993; 8: 2019e2026.38. Maggi M, Magini A, Fiscella A, Giannini S, Fantoni G, Toffoletti F, Massi G & Serio M. Sexsteroid modu-
lation of neurohypophysial hormone receptors in human nonpregnant myometrium. J Clin Endocrinol
Metab 1992; 74: 385e392.
39. Halme J, Hammond MG, Hulka JF, Raj SG & Talbert LM. Retrograde menstruation in healthy women and
in patients with endometriosis. Obstet Gynaecol 1984; 64: 151e154.
40. Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR & Baird DD. Timing of sexual intercourse in relation to ovulation - effects on
the probability of conception, survival of the pregnancy, and sex of the baby. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:
1517e1521.41. Salamanca A & Beltran E. Subendometrial contractility in menstrual phase visualised by transvaginal
sonography in patients with endometriosis. Fertl Steril 1995; 64: 193e195.
42. Makarainen L. Uterine contractions in endometriosis: effects of operative and danazol treatment. Obstet
Gynecol 1988; 9: 134e138.
43. Bulletti C, De Ziegler D, Polli V, Del Ferro E, Palini S & Flamigni C. Characteristics of uterine contractility
during menses in women with mild to moderate endometriosis. Fertil Steril 2002; 77: 156e1161.
44. Akande VA, Hunt LP, Cahill DJ & Jenkins JM. Differences in time to natural conception between women
with unexplained infertility and infertile women with minor endometriosis. Hum Reprod 2004; 19:
96e103.
45. Bird CC & Willis RA. The production of smooth muscle by the endometrial stroma of the adult human
uterus. J Path Bact 1965; 90: 75e81.46. Fujii S, Konishi I & Mori T. Smooth muscle differentiation at endometrio-myometrial junction. An ultra-
structural study. Virch Archiv A Pathal Anat 1989; 414: 105e112.
47. Takahashi K, Nagata H & Kitao M. Clinical usefulness of determination of estradiol levels in the men-
strual blood for patients with endometriosis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Jpn 1989; 41: 1849e1850.
48. Absenger Y, Hess-Stumpp H, Kreft B, Kratzschmar J, Haendler B, Schutze N, Regidor PA &
Winterhager E. Cyr61, a deregulated gene in endometriosis. Mol Hum Reprod 2004; 10: 399e407.
49. Rier SE, Martin DC, Bowman RE, Dmowski PW & Becker JL. Endometriosis in rhesus monkeys (Macaca
mulatta) following chronic exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1993;
21: 433e441.
50. Koninckx PR, Braet P, Kennedy SH & Barlow DH. Dioxin pollution and endometriosis in Belgium. Hum
Reprod 1994; 9: 1001e1002.51. Parazzini F, Chiaffarino F, Surace M, Chatenoud L, Cipriani S, Chiantera V, Benzi G & Fedele L. Selected
food intake and risk of endometriosis. Hum Reprod 2004; 19: 1755e1759.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 22/24
Adenomyosis and reproduction 23
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1093
1094
1095
1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
1101
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
UNCORRECTEDPROOF
52. Tsai ML, Webb RC & Loch-Caruso R. Increase in oxytocin-induced oscillatory contractions by 4-
hydrated-20, 40, 60-trichlorobiphenyl is estrogen receptor mediated. Biol Reprod 1997; 56: 341e347.
53. Garcia-Segura LM, Wozniak A, Azcoitia I, Rodriguez JR, Hutchison RE & Hutchison AB. Aromatase
expression by astrocytes after brain injury: Implications for local estrogen formation in brain repair.
Neuroscience 1999; 89: 567e578.54. Takayama K, Zeitoun K, Gunby RT, Sasano H, Carr BR & Bulun SE. Treatment of severe postmenopausal
endometriosis with an aromatase inhibitor. Fertil Steril 1998; 69: 709e713.
55. Brosens IA & Brosens JJ. Redefining endometriosis: is deep endometriosis a progressive disease? Hum
Reprod 2000; 15: 1e3.
56. Vercellini P, Aimi G, Panazza S, Vicentini S, Pisacreta A & Crosignani PG. Deep endometriosis conun-
drum: evidence in favor of a peritoneal origin. Fertil Steril 2000; 73: 1043e1046.
57. Moen MH. Is a long period without childbirth a risk factor for developing endometriosis? Hum Reprod
1991; 6: 1404.
58. Moen MH & Muus KM. Endometriosis in pregnant and non-pregnant women at tubal sterilisation. Hum
Reprod 1991; 6: 699.
59. Yamamoto T, Noguchi T, Tamura T, Kitiwaki J & Okada H. Evidence for estrogen synthesis in adenomy-
otic tissue. Am J Obste Gynecol 1993; 169: 734e738.
60. Gnoth C, Godehardt D, Godehardt E, Frank-Herrmann P & Freundl G. Time to pregnancy: results of the
German prospective study and impact on the management of infertility. Hum Reprod 2003; 18: 1959e
1966.
61. Hull ME, Moghissi KS, Magyar DF & Hayes MF. Comparison of different treatment modalities of endo-
metriosis in infertile women. Fertil Steril 1987; 47: 40e44.
62. Marcoux S, Maheux R & Berube S. Laparoscopic surgery in infertile women with minimal or mild endo-
metriosis. Canadian Collaborative Group on Endometriosis. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 217e222.
63. Leiva MC, Hasty LA & Lyttle CR. Inflammatory changes of the endometrium in patients with minimal-to-
moderate endometriosis. Fertil Steril 1994; 62: 967e972.
64. Simon C, Gutierrez A, Vidal A, de los Santos MJ, Tarin JJ, Remohi J & Pellicer A. Outcome of patients
with endometriosis in assisted reproduction: results from in-vitro fertilization and oocyte donation. Hum
Reprod 1994; 9: 725e729.
65. Pal L, Shifren JL, Isaacson KB, Chang Y, Leykin L & Toth TL. Impact of varying stages of endometriosis on
the outcome of in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer. J Assist Reprod Genet 1998; 15: 27e31.
66. Hull MG, Williams JA, Ray B, McLaughlin EA, Akande VA & Ford WC. The contribution of subtle oocyte
or sperm dysfunction affecting fertilization in endometriosis-associated or unexplained infertility: a con-
trolled comparison with tubal infertility and use of donor spermatozoa. Hum Reprod 1998; 13: 1825e1830.
67. Azem F, Lessing JB, Geva E, Shahar A, Lerner-Geva L, Yovel I & Amit A. Patients with stages III and IV
endometriosis have a poorer outcome of in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer than patients with tubal
infertility. Fertil Steril 1999; 72: 1107e1109.68. Einer-Jensen N. Countercurrent transfer in the ovarian pedicle and its physiological implications. Oxford
Rev Reprod Biol 1988; 10: 348e381.
69. Cicinelli E, Einer-Jensen N, Cignarelli M, Mangiacotti L, Luisi D & Schonauer S. Preferential transfer of
endogenous ovarian steroid hormones on the uterus during both the follicular and luteal phases.
Hum Reprod 2004; 19: 2001e2004.
70. Dmowski WP, Pry M, Ding J & Rana N. Cycle-specific and cumulative fecundity in patients with endo-
metriosis who are undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation-intrauterine insemination or in vitro
fertilization-embryo transfer. Fertil Steril 2002; 78: 750e756.
71. Surrey ES, Silverberg KM, Surrey MW & Schoolcraft WB. Effect of prolonged gonadotropin-releasinh
hormone agoonist therapy on the outcome of in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer in patients with en-
dometriosis. Fertil Steril 2002; 78: 699e704.72. Rickes D, Nickel I, Kropf S & Kleinstein J. Increased pregnancy rates after ultralong postoperative ther-
apy with gonadotropin-releasing hormonr analogs in patients with endometriosis. Fertil Steril 2002; 78:
757e762.
73. Marsh EE & Laufer MR. Endometriosis in premenarcheal girls who do not have an obstructive anomaly.
Fertil Steril 2005; 83: 758e760.
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 23/24
24 G. Leyendecker et al
ARTICLE IN PRESS
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
OF
74. Leyendecker G, Herbertz M & Kunz G. Neue Aspekte zur Pathogenese von Endometriose und Adeno-
myose. Der Frauenarzt 2002; 43: 297e307.
75. Kissler S, Schmidt M, Keller N, Wiegratz T, Tonn T, Roth KW, Seifried E, Baumann R, Siebzehnruebl E,
Leyendecker G & Kaufmann M. Real-time PCR analysis for estrogen receptor beta and progesterone
receptor in menstrual blood samples e a new approach to a non-invasive diagnosis for endometriosis.
Hum Reprod 2005; 20(supplement): i179. (P-496).
UNCORRECTEDPRO
YBEOG634_proof � 15 February 2006 � 24/24