W03 Footings and
foundation
Structural
elements
Strut Slab/plate Tie
Panels
Beam
Settlement
Types of
foundation
Mass
construction
Main
properties
Can be
Masonry
Stone
Earth Clay
Concrete
Materials
Elements
Bearing
capacity
Even
settlement
Uneven
settlement
Cracking Shallow
footings
Deep
footings
Stable
soil
Unstable
soil
Pad
footing Strip
footing Raft
foundations
End bearing
piles
Friction
piles
Compression
element Transfer
loads
Tension
element
Carry loads
Bearing
system
Compression/
tension
Compression Tension
Weak Strong
Slabs
Ashlars
Modular Non-
modular
Adobe
Bricks Honeycomb
Blocks
Vertical Horizontal
Enclosing
Wall Columns
/piers
Beam Arches
Vaults
Domes
Geometry &
Equilibrium
Centre of mass
Reaction
force
Moment M=F*d
Definition Bond
Course
Joint
Mortar
Raked
Ironed
Weather
struck
Flush
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Glossary :
• Moment: the tendency to make an object or a point rotate.
• Strip footing: used when loads from a wall or a series of columns is
spread in a linear manner.
• Retaining wall: used when sites are excavated to create basements
or where changes in site levels need to be stabilized.
• Slab on ground: a wide horizontal element designed to carry vertical
load in bending usually supported by beams.
• Pad footing: also called isolated footings, these types of footing help
to spread a point load over a wider area of ground.
Activities ‘on site’
The LOT6 café is a steel-concrete building, which can be seen from the photo is the style of the construction is different with surroundings. The columns in natural grey color transfer the applied gravity and lateral loads down to the foundation. The main material used for the enclosure system is transparent glass, which is divided by aluminum frames. These properties of main materials of concrete and glass is very durable. At the same time, the building can be maintained and cleaned easily as the utilizing of materials use.
The LOT6 café
The south lawn is famous for its efficient space use. The two photos displayed the interior and exterior of south lawn underground car park. South lawn plaza above ground, which is the largest open space in Parkville campus, is supported by numerous reinforced concrete columns underneath. In addition, the excellent design of these columns allow the stormwater flow down to the drainage under the car park. The main material concrete is very durable.
underground car park
Exterior vegetations http://www.pcs.unimelb.edu.au/standards_and_policies/docs/master_plans/Underground_Car_Park_and_South_Lawn_CMP.pdf
The stairs on the west of union house is mainly built by steel frames. The applied gravity and live loads will be supported and pulled by the steel columns and cables attached to cantilevers. It means both ground and bracing wall will be employed by the forces from the stairs. Accurate engineering calculations were quite important for this project, the design of the stairs from a architect will be integrated into a real workable construction by engineers’ calculations.
The stairs on the west of union house
The roof(roof system) in front of north count union house is mainly made by a composite material, which is might be the combination of rubber and plastic. This composite material should have two major properties-impermeable and durable under exposure of sun. This roof is hanged and supported by these cables shown on the left. The gravity and loads of the roof will be transferred in two ways.
north count union house
Beaurepaire centre pool is built by different materials. For the enclosure system, main materials employed are alumiunm frame and glass. And clay bricks were used in the wall systems. Alloy columns transfer the gravity of the roof and loads down to the ground. The utilizing of alloy and alumiunm is great, because the corrosion won’t occur in the high humidity.
Beaurepaire centre pool
The oval pavilion is a brick-concrete building. •Roof systems, floor systems, wall systems, and foundation systems are used. •The main material of the building is clay bricks. •Columns, walls, and beams are the major elements of the building.
Oval pavilion
New Melbourne school of design is a precast concrete and steel frames construction. •Roof system, wall system, flooring system, and foundation system are employed in this project. •Concrete slab, steel columns/beams are the main structural elements. •Precast concrete, steel frames, and glass of enclosure system are the major materials for this site.
New Melbourne school of design
The entry structure of old geology south lecture theatre is a steel structure. The loads and
gravity of the extension roof are transferred down to the ground via the bracing walls and
columns of the brick structure building.
The entry structure of old geology south lecture theatre
Frank Tate pavilion is a timber-steel frame construction. •Roof systems, floor system are used •Columns, beams are the major structural elements on this project. •Timber, steel are the main materials.
Frank Tate pavilion
W04
Floor
system
Materials
Concrete
system
Mixed with
water
Concrete
Beam &
Cantilever IN-SITU
concrete
Precast
concrete
Steel
system
Timber
system
Slabs
One-way
span
Two-way
span
Steel framing
Joists Girder
Primary
beam
Secondary
beam
Bearers Joists
Spacing Span
Component s
Cement
Aggregate
Water
Chemical
reaction
Too much
water
Too little
water
Weak
concrete Too stiff
Pro & Cons
Advantages
Disadvantages
Fluid
Shapeless
Poor
vibration
Air
bubbles
Worse
performance
Element
failing
Permeable Moisture
Oxidation Formwork
Weak in
tension
Steel
mesh/bars
Reinforced
concrete
Fixed/rigid
joints
Materials
Formply Timber
Metal Plastic
Beam
Horizontal
structural
element
Carry loads
Transfer to
supports
Supported
Types Both
ends
Points along
the beam Points away
form ends
One end
Cantilever Horizontal
Vertical Angled
Process Uses
Joints
Fabrication of
the formwork
Placing
reinforcement
Pouring
Vibration
Curing
Shotcrete
Limited
time
Footings
Retaining
walls
Bespoke
structural
elements
Construction
Control
Temperature
differential
Material
coefficient
Dimensions
of the piece
Divide the
whole to
sections Purposes
Uses
Joints
More
standardized
Much faster
site process
Construction Structural
Desired
aesthetic
outcome
Retaining
wall
Columns Retaining
wall
Glossary : • Joist: a long thick piece of wood, steel or concrete which is used in
buildings to support a floor.
• Girder: a long thick piece of steel or concrete which supports a roof,
floor, bridge or other large structure.
• Steel decking: serves as a working platform during construction
and as formwork for a sitecast concrete slab.
• Concrete plank: framing system to support the concrete slabs.
• Span: is the distance measured between two structural supports
(vertical and horizontal) not necessarily the same as the
member length.
• Spacing: is the repeating distance between a series of like or
similar elements(vertical and horizontal) measured centre-
line to centre-line.
Activities 1 “SCALE, ANNOTATION AND
WORKING DRAWING CONVENTIONS”
•Why ‘scale’ is used for documenting building projects: for the building project, it is impossible to draw the sketches of all details of the building in 1:1 on the paper. A larger scale will be used for accurately documenting the dimensions. The scale drawings allow the building project fit and presented on the paper.
https://www.maptools.com/images/7830428.gif
•How ‘scale’ is used for documenting building projects: considering the real dimensions of the building project and the size of drawing paper. Then choose a proper scale(larger or smaller) to start the scale drawings.
According to our group discussion, centimeter is the preferred working units in the building projects. The scale range between 1:5 to 1:300 is appropriate to use for construction documentation.
ACTIVITY2: 'CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTATION TOUR'
What types of information on the elevations are expressed using words?
Illustrate how this is done.
•Selected questions from the case study questionnaire
1. The amendment for the existing building and surroundings.
2. The specific construction requirements and notes in building process.
3. Detailed explanations for the features in the new project.
4. The name of special building element.
5. The name of different level.
Cited from OVAL PAVILION construction drawings.
Illustrate how the section drawing differentiates between building
elements that are cut through and those that are shown in
elevation(beyond).
Use numbers and letters to mark different parts of the building elements, and utilize same symbol in elevation drawing.
Provide examples of how different materials are shown on drawings at
this scale.
Using words or codes to indicate different materials, the references of code will be described in the reference sheet.
Cited from OVAL PAVILION construction drawings.
The drawing set is more informative than the site observation, because designers have to complete the
building details(exterior and interior) in different views, but users could not observe all details from a completed
construction via limited views. In the other hand, it is more likely to interact with the site by a real visit than
traveling the drawings.
For the architectural drawings, it will focus more on displaying all designing and planning details including
the function of different spaces. But the structural drawings focus more on the building techniques and methods, how to achieve the design proposes in the
building process.
W05 Columns
Short
Columns Long
Columns
Shorter
and
thicker Taller and
slimmer
Ratio of effective column
length to the smallest cross section
dimension is greater than 12:1
Ratio of effective column
length to the smallest cross section
dimension is less than 12:1
Crushing
Buckling
Wall
systems
Structural
frames
Load
bearing
walls
Stud walls
Concrete
frames
Steel
frames
Timber
frames
Concrete
Masonry
Light
gauge
steel
framing
Timber
framing
GRID of
concrete
columns
GRID of
steel
columns
GRID of
timber
posts/poles
In situ
Precast
Reinforced
Masonry
Solid
Masonry
Cavity
Masonry
Brick veneer
construction
Wood and
timber
Grain
direction
Early
wood
Late
wood
Thin, large
cells, lighter
color
Thick, small
cells, darker
color
Parallel perpendicular
Strong &
stiff Weak
Seasoning
Why What How
Increased
stability
Free
moisture
Bound
moisture
Air
Kiln
Solar
Green
sawing
Quarter
sawn
Back
sawn
Radial
sawn
Less
common
More
common
Efficient
Timber
Properties
Hardness Fragility Ductility
High
Medium
low
Medium
low Low High flexible
and medium
plastic
Porosity/permeability
Density
Conductivity
Flexibility Varies
depending
on timber
type
Poor
Durability
Reusability Sustainability Cost
Very
Durable
Very high
Very low
embodied
energy Effective
Knots
Weak
points
Arris
knots
Centre
knots
Edge
knots
Slope of
grain
Considerations
Damage
Fungal
attack Swelling,
shrinkage
Moisture
>20% Cracks
Engineering
timber
Solid
product
Sheet
product
LVL
GLULAM CLT
PLYWOOD MDF
CHIPBOARD &
STRANDBOARD
Manufactured
product
“I” beam
Box beam
Timber
flanged steel
web joists
Glossary : • Stud: a wall stud is a vertical framing member in a building's wall of
smaller cross section than a post.
• Axial load: a force administered along the lines of an axis.
• Nogging: an architectural term used for the filling in-between wall
framing in buildings.
• Buckling: is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural member
subjected to high compressive stress.
• Lintel: a load-bearing building component.
• Seasoned timber: timber with a moisture<15%
ACTIVITY: ‘STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS’
For the assigned section of the case. Foundation systems, wall systems, floor systems, and roof systems are employed. Concrete is the main material for the floor and foundation systems, blocks and bricks are the major materials for the wall system. In addition, metal decking roof and thermal insulation are also important in this part. It is also important to note that, from the e-module of this week, stud walls are employed in this case. And the light gauge steel frame might be used in the wall system.
In the foundation system, concrete footing beams and concrete slab used to carry loads and support the building as the substructure. The lateral forces can cause the foundation to impose no uniform pressure on the supporting soil (Ching, 2008, 3.02).
Cited from OVAL PAVILION construction
drawings(A46-03).
The blockwork will be used as the retaining wall, according to Ching, active and passive earth pressure exerted by a soil mass and developed by a soil mass in response to the horizontal movement of a foundation.
Cavity masonry walls are employed in this case. According to the e-module video about wall this week. Better thermal performance and opportunities for insulation within the cavity, better waterproofing are the advantages of cavity walls.
Loading path
Glue the beam footings
and double the footing
to reinforce.
The retaining wall
of foundation Bracing on the wall
systems
Steel frames to
support the roof
W06
Roof
systems
Flat roofs
Pitched
and
sloping
roofs
Concrete
roofs
Pitch:1°~ 3°
Pitch:>3°
Flat plates of
reinforced
concrete
Structural steel
framed roofs
Flat
Sloping Portal
frames
Trussed
roofs
Framed roofs
constructed from a
series of open web type
steel timber elements
Space
frames
3D plate type
structure that
are long
spanning in two
directions
Light
framed
roofs
Gable
roofs
Materials
Timber
Cold –formed
steel sections
Heavier steel
Hip roofs
Materials
Timber Cold –formed
steel sections
Metal Types
Ferrous
Non-
ferrous
Alloys
Hardness Fragility
Ductility
Porosity/permeability
Density
Conductivity
Flexibility
Durability
Reusability
Sustainability
Cost
Properties
Varied Low High Medium
Impermeable
High
Very good Very
durable
High
Very high
embodied
energy
Generally
effective
Metal
Considerations
Water related
damage
Oxidation and
corrosion
Types
Ferrous
Alloys
Iron
Wrought
Iron
Cast Iron
Steel
Structural
Steel
Hot rolled
Cold
formed
Reinforcing
bars
Steel
sheeting
Cladding Roofing
Stainless
steel alloys
Aluminum
Non-
Ferrous
Window
frames
Door
handles
Cladding
panels
Copper Roofing
material
Zinc
Lead
Tin
Titanium Bronze
Copper + tin
Brass
Copper + zinc
Glossary :
• Rafter: is one of a series of sloped structural members (beams) that
extend from the ridge or hip to the wall plate.
• Eaves: the bottom edge of a roof.
• Purlin: a purlin (or historically purline, purloyne, purling, perling) is
any longitudinal, horizontal, structural member in a roof.
• Alloys: combinations of two or more metals
• Cantilever: a beam anchored at only one end.
• Soffit: the underside of any construction element.
• Portal frame: consist of braced rigid frames (two columns and one
beam) with purlins for the roof and girts for the walls.
• Top chord: the top beams in a truss are called top chords.
A02: FULL SIZE
IN-CLASS INTERIM SUBMISSION
Commentary: other groups had not finished their models until W06 studio.
Site1
(Edge Water)
First visit: foundation
and ground floor timber
frames were finished
Second visit: steel frames were added
to some parts of the construction. The
floor systems and wall systems of first
floor almost done
Different types of
structure systems
employed.
Steel structure
Steel columns and beams
employed in the wall and floor
systems. The utilizing of steel
benefit the increasing of stability
because steel is strong in both
tension and compression. However,
steel is too heavy to widely
introduce into the project.
Timber structure
Timber frames are widely used in
the project. Although the hardness
of timber is not quite high, timber is
very durable, and flexible. While the
material is popular in Australia
because of its effective cost.
Concrete bricks were used
in the foundation retaining
wall and bearing wall in the
superstructure wall
systems. And concrete
slabs were used in floor
systems. Concrete is very
durable and quite strong in
compression.
Concrete structure
Joints
Bolted
Joints Fixed
Joints
Site2
(Newport)
First visit: foundation,
timber frames and roof
systems almost finished
Second visit: no more
significant development
Foundation systems
Shallow foundation
Concrete piers, timber
floor bearers, timber floor
joists, and timber slabs.
Materials
Timber
Timber frames are widely used in the
project. Although the hardness of
timber is not quite high, timber is
strong and flexible when parallel to
grain direction. It is easy to recycle.
While the material is popular in
Australia because of its effective cost.
Steel
Reinforcement
of timber frame,
partly utilizing.
Bricks Flooring systems Timber frame
wall systems
Top plates
Bottom plates
Vertical studs
Nogging
Bracings
Diagonal
Bracings
Crossing
Bracings
Plywood
Bracings
W07
Detailing for
moisture
Conditions for
penetrate
An opening
Water present
at the opening
A force to move
water through the
opening
Prevent water
penetrating
Remove
opening
Keep water
away from
openings
Neutralise forces
to move water
through the
opening
Planned
elements
Unplanned
openings
Windows,
doors,
skylights, etc
Poor
construction
workmanship
Deterioration
of materials
Grading
roofs
Downpipes
and
stormwater
system
Overlapping
cladding and
roof
elements
Sloping
window and
door sills Sloping the
ground
surface
Gravity
Surface tension
and capillary
action
Momentum
Air pressure
differential
Detailing for
heat
Conditions
Heat is conducted through
the building envelope
Building envelope and
building elements are
subjected to radiant heat
sources
Themal mass is used to
regulate the flow of heat
Controlling heat
Conduction
Radiation Thermal
insulation
Thermal
brakes
Double
glazing
Reflective
surfaces
Shading
system
Thermal
mass
Masonry
Concrete
Water
bodies
Rubber Rubber
types
Natural
Rubber
Synthetic
Rubber
Porosity/permeability Cost
Hardness Fragility Ductility
Density
Conductivity
Flexibility
Durability
Reusability
Sustainability Properties
Harder resist
abrasion
Softer
provide
better seals
Low High in heat,
varied in cold
High
Impermeable
1.5x water
Very poor
Very
durable
High
Varies
Generally
effective
Seals, gaskets,
flooring,
insulation,
hosing
EPDM,
NEOPRENE,
SILICONE
Glossary : • Drip: is used between surfaces to prevent water clinging to the
underside of surfaces.
• Down pipes: a pipe that carries waste water or sewage away
from buildings.
• Vapour barrier: resists diffusion of moisture through wall, ceiling
and floor assemblies of buildings.
• Flashing: prevent the passage of water into a structure from a joint.
• Gutter: a narrow trough or duct which collects rainwater from the
roof of a building and diverts it away from the structure,
typically into a drain.
• Insulation: materials used to reduce the rate of heat transfer.
• Parapet: a barrier which is an extension of the wall at the edge of a
roof, terrace, balcony, walkway or other structure.
• Sealant: a substance such as paint or polish that is painted onto a
surface to protect it from other liquids from going into it, or
is put in the space between two materials for the same
reason.
Detailing for moisture
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lhwm8m5R_Co&feature=youtu.be
W08
Doors &
windows
Door
frame
Door
leaf Handel
latch &
lock
Door
swing
Roof
opening Jamb Head
Top rail
Stile
Feature panel glass
or hollow/solid core
infill
Mid rail
Bottom
rail Door
materials
Timber
doors
Aluminum
doors Steel
doors Window
frame
Jamb Head
Sill
Window
materials
Timber
windows
Aluminum
windows
Steel
windows
Curtain
walls
Glass
Glass
history
Blown
glass
Sheet
glass
Lead
crystal Plate
glass
Lamination
glass
Float
glass
Porosity/permeability Cost
Hardness Fragility Ductility
Density
Conductivity
Flexibility
Durability
Reusability
Sustainability
Properties
Non-
porous
2.7x
water
Transmit
heat and
light but not
electricity
High High Very low High when
molten, low
when cooled
Very
durable
Very high
High embodied
energy and
carbon footprint
Expensive
Glass Glass
types
FLAT
Glass SHAPED
Glass
FLOAT
Glass
CLEAR
FLOAT
Glass
LAMINATED
FLOAT Glass
TEMPERED
Glass
Tinted
Glass
Wired
Glass
Patterned
Glass
Curved
Glass
Photovoltaic
Glass
Glass
channels
Slumped and
formed Glass
Glass fibers
Glossary :
• Window sash: a frame to hold panes of glass.
• Door furniture: any of the items that are attached to a door or a
drawer to enhance its functionality or appearance.
• Deflection: the degree to which a structural element is displaced
under a load.
• Stress: a physical quantity that expresses the internal forces that
neighbouring particles of a continuous material exert on
each other.
• Moment of inertia: torque needed for a desired angular
acceleration about an axis of rotation.
• Shear forces: unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one
direction, and another part the body in the opposite
direction.
CHING, ‘Building Construction Illustrated’, 8.02
CHING, ‘Building Construction Illustrated’, 8.04
DOOR & DOOR FRAME
TERMINILOGY
Fixed 0% ventilating
Casement 100% ventilating
Awning & Hopper
100% ventilating
Sliding 50% ventilating
Double-hung 50%
ventilating
Jalousie 100% ventilating
Pivoting 100% ventilating
Swinging
Exterior and interior use
Bypass sliding
Exterior and interior use
Surface sliding
Exterior and interior use
Pocket sliding
Interior use
Folding
Interior use
Activity: “In details”
The part assigned only can be observed inside the building because this corner of the function room roof
is covered by the tall structure.
W09
Construction
detailing
Movement
joints
Health and
safety
Ageing
gracefully
Repairable
surfaces &
resistance to
damage Cleanable
surfaces
Maintenance
access
Constructability
Materials
Monolithic
Composite
A single
material
Material combined
so that components
are indistinguishable
Two or more materials
are combined in such a
way that the individual
materials remain easily
distinguishable
Types
Fibrous
Laminar
Particulate
Hybrid
Fibre
reinforced
cement
Fibreglass
Aluminum
sheet
composites
Timber
composites
Fibre
reinforced
polymers
Glossary : • Sandwich panel: a type of flat panel that consists of two thin
aluminium sheets bonded to a non-aluminium
core.
• Composite beam: a structural member composed of two or more
dissimilar materials joined together to act as a
unit.
• Bending: the behaviour of a slender structural element subjected to
an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal
axis of the element.
• Shirting: elements that covers the crawl space under a mobile
home.
• Cornice: horizontal decorative molding that crowns a building or
furniture element.
ACTIVITY: ‘OFF CAMPUS’ This apartment building is a typical concrete construction. There are 6 stories above the ground and one
basement used as garage.
Drain pipe is used to drain the stormwater down then flow into the
gutter(drain system). It is not an efficient way to deal with
stormwater. Stormwater can be stored into the water tank and
reuse for flushing, gardening, etc.
There are two types of utilizing of concrete in
the basement plan: precast concrete panels
and concrete. It is clearly shown on the
right via colors. Pad footings are employed in
the basement with concrete columns
Steel plate weld up to connect
two precast panels together
Middle studs had installed for 3 weeks. To build the wall, these studs
will be installed in the first to connect two plasterboards.
Cables can be placed into the wall through these holes in studs. One of
the advantages for plaster stud walls.
The base between living room and balcony is to prevent water to come into the
apartment. This element, which belongs to enclosure system, plays an important role
in waterproofing of the building.
Temporary power box
Formwork of the waterproofing base. Strong steel bars reinforce these bases.
Steel beam connection method is shown on the left; steel column base connection method is shown on the right.
The material ‘concrete’ is strong in compression and weak in tension. Strong steel bars are put into concrete slabs to increase the stiffness in tension. There is basically 100 mm extension of steel bars in the section. The rest will be cut out. Then, concrete will fill the section like the photo shown on the right above.
W10
Timber fascia Collapses
and failures
Material selection,
too wide Exposure to hot
north sun
Painted black on
outside only
Fasteners
Defectives
Flat steel
sheeting on
plywood
Timber plywood
glued to timber
stud walls
Flat steel sheet
glued to plywood
Thermal
differences
Blistering
& peeling
sheets
Cut
edges
Materials
selection
Suitability of
material for the
application
Long term
performance
Maintenance Construction &
detailing
Exposure
Compatibility
Strength and
deflection
Considerations
Health and IEQ
Waste/recycling/
recycled Energy use
Pollution
Life cycle
Reduce VOCs,
reduce
particles/ dust,
green cleaning
practices
Renewable/
abundant
resources Recycled/
plantation/RFA
timber
Reduce/reuse
recycle waste,
minimise use of
composites
Issues: climate
change,
greenhouse effect,
global warming
Smog, ozone layer
depletion, acid
rain, toxicity, radio
activity, dioxins
Glossary :
• Shear wall: a structural system composed of braced panels (also
known as shear panels) to counter the effects of lateral
load acting on a structure.
• Braced frame: a structural system which is designed primarily to
resist wind and earthquake forces.
• Corrosion: the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by
chemical reaction with its environment.
• Soft storey: level is less than 70% as stiff as the floor immediately
above it, or less than 80% as stiff as the average
stiffness of the three floors above it (Wai-Fah Chen, E.
M. Lui, 2005)
• Fascia: an architectural term for a frieze or band running horizontally
and situated vertically under a roof edge, or which forms the
outer surface of a cornice, visible to an observer.
• IEQ: indoor environment quality.
•Aluminum fascia: Al will not corrode in the high moisture condition; the fascia was placed in a small angle, that’s to drain water down to the roof, drips on the two sides also play an important role to break water flowing. •Thermal/Acoustic insulation: important elements in the modern construction. The reduction of heat transfer and sound transfer is quite necessary for a frequent-use public space. •Impact & fire resistant plasterboard: the element is quite useful to control the fire spreading. These two plasterboards were designed to install between interior and thermal insulation wall because the main material of thermal insulation-foam is combustible, it will contribute to the fire spreading.