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A SCIENCE INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
A. Overview
Doing a science investigatory project will allow you to experience the joy and thrill of
doing science, engage in critical thinking, exercise decision making and problem solving,organize and manage your time and resources, and execute the scientific method in action. In
addition, it will give you opportunities to develop scientific attitudes such as patience,
perseverance, resourcefulness, independent thinking, open mindedness, etc., as well as
improve your interpersonal skills as you work and communicate with others.
Kinds of researches
The main aim of research is to contribute new knowledge such as new facts,
generalizations, techniques, equipment, procedures, new substances or solutions to certain
problems. There are two types of research that one may undertake:
a) Pure research is conducted with no immediate objective in mind although the
results may lead to solutions of problems in other fields, which at that time has an immediate
purpose. Problems in pure science require more time and better qualities of the mind. Some
examples are researches on the structure of the nucleus, mass-energy relationship,
recombinant DNA, structure of the atom, etc.
b)Applied research is conducted with an immediate purpose in mind. The results will
have immediate applications. It requires less time and concentrates on a scientific problem.
Some examples are developing a new packaging material; studying the effect of temperature
on a certain process, developing a biodegradable plastic, etc.
Because of the limitations of time and available resources and the fact that. the level
of your knowledge and skills is not yet comparable to those of an experienced scientist, it is
advisable for you to work on very simple problems first. At the beginning, your teacher will
assign you to investigate a problem in a highly structured manner. Try to follow these and
learn from the experience. You will then be given a semi-structured problem, wherein you
are expected to make your own experimental design, execute the study, and make your final
report. At the end, given a problem situation, you are expected to be able to pose your own
research question(s), propose hypothesis(es), design and execute your experiments and make
your final report.
The scientific method (or scientific inquiry) - an exercise in doing science
The scientific method is a systematic thought and action process. There are five major
phases:
1. Formulating questions and hypotheses
2. Designing investigations
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3. Collecting and representing/organizing data
4. Analyzing and interpreting data
5. Drawing conclusions and developing explanations
Outline of a scientific investigation
Research cannot be planned in advance with great precision such as in mass
production of a tool. True scientists do not follow a prescribed set of laboratory procedures,
since it is an exploration to the unknown. General principles, techniques, and guides,
however, can be given in an attempt to minimize the mistakes and commit fewer wrong
decisions.
The following basic steps in conducting a research project serve only as guide. This
basic outline may be modified according to the innate wisdom of the experimenter. The
outline covers the major phases of the scientific method.
1. Select your topic
In choosing the topic, consider the following:
a. Degree of difficulty - Examine this carefully in relation to your skills,
knowledge, and experience level.
b. Time available - Estimate the time you need for planning, literature research,
setting up the project, executing it, assembling results, and drawing conclusions.
Allow for a margin of safety for possible errors.
c. Necessary resources and expense - These include manpower, equipment, and
materials needed. List them down and find out if these are all available.
d. Collateral readings and availability of advice - This may be necessary on
critical points in the experiments. You may consult knowledgeable people in your
community, including your own parents if you are working on a local problem.
2. Know your subject
Know the background of the problem, how it arose, why it is important and
what will be done with the results. The best source of information is the library.
Nowadays, a virtual library exists in the INTERNET. You can also ask the
persons who have done related work on that problem and are recognized
authorities on the subject.
At this stage, establish the theoretical background of the problem. Know what
has been done before by other investigators in the same area and what new
findings you can contribute.
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3. Define/identify your problem
State your problem with care, defining your objectives and expressing its
limits. A careful statement of the problem will minimize waste and points the way
to its solutions. What are the questions you are trying to answer in your
investigation?
4. Plan your project
This step covers hypothesis building and experimental design. What are your
hypotheses or what are your expected outcomes of the investigation, based on the
theoretical background that you have established? Start with a well-thought-out
hypothesis.
Decide on the place, time, equipment, materials, and procedures you will use.
Try to foresee problems that may occur and be ready with possible solutions.
Make your experiments as quantitative as possible. Make a judgment on theaccuracy that you want and design your experiments accordingly.
5. Keep a complete notebook
Meticulously record all your observations, data, procedures, setups, and
questions. Even mistakes or failed experiments are very important. Negative
results do not mean failed experiments. They have as much value as positive
results. Often, what are considered as failures can lead to experiments of
considerable importance.
Record your data using proper number of significant figures depending on the
accuracy of the measuring instrument or device that you used.
6. Start your experiments.
All scientific studies must be systematic. The value of each experiment must
be carefully reviewed. Conditions for each experiment must be controlled to get
reproducible results. Experiments without controls, generally is not a scientific
study.
Do numerical calculations as you collect data. Apply the rules on significant
figures in your calculations.
7. End your experiments.
When do you end an experiment? Sometimes this can be a ticklish question.
In the course of your work, you may come up with questions other than the one
you have originally asked. A usual stopping point is when you realize you have
discovered something significant, not necessarily what you are seeking.
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Analyze and evaluate your results periodically. Recognize errors which may
have been committed. The teacher adviser can advise when to stop.
8. Write your report
The project ends with a report and/or an exhibit. There are accepted formats inreporting a science investigation, depending on the purpose of the report.
The discussion of results should cover not only what you have observed or the
data collected, but the most important part is your careful analysis of the data
gathered and observations made. Careful analysis requires prior organization ofdata collected into tables and/or graphs. Your analysis will lead you to
explanations, an understanding of cause and effect. From the analysis and
explanations, draw your generalizations and conclusions within the limitations of
the experiments done.
9. Prepare an exhibit (for science fair).
This is optional. An exhibit is a visual display that carefully presents
the scientific material. There are certain guidelines in representing the exhibit.
Abandoning a problem
There may come a point in the course of an experiment that further work with
existing techniques, tools, and ideas may yield less profitable results than the same effort
turned to other directions.It is a wise man who knows when to abandon a problem.
B. Designing Your Experiments
An investigatory project employing the scientific method would require careful and
meticulous planning of every step, recording and analysis of every observation. Conclusions
are drawn based only on reproducible results.
Preplanning
Before planning the actual experiments, you should have a clear understanding of the
nature of the problem and of any related theory. Start with a hypothesis or a working
theory and then design experiments based on this hypothesis.Even an imperfect theory isbetter than having no theory at all. It sets the limits of the experiments and providesdirection for the project. The hypothesis states what the project is expected to discover. It
is customary to start with a null or negative hypothesis and proceed to prove the opposite.
Not all projects though require a hypothesis at the outset. Hypothesis may be established
at the conclusions of the experiments.
Next analyze the problem and cast it into its simplest form. The way the problem is stated
can set its limits and points the way to its solutions. If the problem is too complex, it is
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advisable to approach it in stages. Start with the most idealized and simplified version
possible, before attacking the more general cases.
Before carrying out an experiment, have a clear-cut idea of what you want to test. There
may be occasions after you finish doing the experiments, when it becomes apparent that
the questions you asked are not those whose answers you are seeking. It is safest here to
go back to your original questions. Usually evidence, either for or against a theory, come from different sources at one time.
It is rather rare to have a crucial experiment or a single experiment which determines the
fate of hypothesis. Nevertheless, it is important to design an experiment that as far as
possible is crucial with respect to the hypothesis you want to test.
Variables
Results about similar events may be accepted as scientific truths, if they can be
reproduced under similar circumstances. This rests on the idea that similar events occur
under similar circumstances. One can identify similarities in events by focusing attention on
a small number of essential characteristics. These essential conditions which when fixed
ensure occurrence of a given event are calledvariables.
Example: What variables play in bringing a kettle of water to boil?
Answers: Amount of heat applied, atmospheric pressure, heat conductivity of the kettle, and
purity of water.
Kinds of variables
1. Independent or manipulated variables are what you change, reset directly duringexperiment, or whose values are at your disposal as the experimenter.
2. Dependent or criterion variables are what you watch to look for any effect of your
manipulated variables.
3. Controls or constants are any other potential variables that you keep from changing
during an experiment or you assume do not change. There are still two kinds -
(a) those whose values can be ascertained during the time of the experiment, and
(b) those which remain unknown, yet have some effect on the results.
The effect of each factor can be studied by holding all other factors constant, except the oneunder study. Only one variable should be changed (manipulated) at a time . In one set of
experiments, there can be several dependent variables but only one independent variable. The
ideal experiment is described as one in which all relevant variables are held constant except
the one under study, the effects of which on the dependent variable are then observed.
For example, an experimenter may be interested in studying the effect of the heat
conductivity of the kettle on the time it takes for water to boil. Different kinds of kettles (e.g.
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aluminum, cast iron, Teflon-coated, glass) may be used. This will be the independent
variable. The time needed to bring the water to boil starting from room temperature will beobserved and recorded. This is the dependent variable. All other factors should be held
constant - amount of heat applied (regulated by setting the stove e.g., medium and using the
same stove for all three samples), atmospheric pressure (controlled by doing the experiment
in the same location e.g. sea level), purity of water (controlled by using the same sample ofwater) and amount of water.
In another instance, an experimenter may be interested in studying the effect of the
purity of water on the time needed to bring it to boil. This time he uses water samples of
different purity (e.g. distilled water, rainwater, tap water, river water). This is now the new
independent variable. The dependent variable is still the same - the time needed to bring
water to boil from room temperature. All other variables shall be held constant - amount of
heat applied, heat conductivity of the kettle material (using only one kind or one kettle)
atmospheric pressure (controlled by doing the experiment in the same location).
To assume that only a finite number of variables is sufficient to specify a given event is anidealization. In most circumstances, less significant variables are ignored and assumed not to
affect the experimental results. This is quite acceptable in comparative studies, where the
variable exerts a constant effect on all the experiments. But when distinctions between
similar events become better defined, the number of variables increases, as well as, the
precision with which each one is specified.
Steps in planning an experiment
No two scientists will follow exactly the same pattern of steps to arrive at the same
conclusions. This is where a scientific project vis--vis structured experiments differ. The
first will give you freedom of thought and action, while the latter gives you no choice.
You may use the following as guides:
1. Decide on the kind of event you want to study and the nature of the variables, which
you believe are the controlling factors based on prior observations.
2. Depending on your aim, choose the mode of measurements. If your main aim is
comparison, make direct comparative observations. Whenever possible put in
additional standards so that absolute measurements are obtained as well, for other
uses. Sometimes the extra cost of introducing standards does not appear worthwhile,being irrelevant to the immediate purpose but the greater usefulness of the data may
later show the necessity of having used standards. When science projects which
would lend to being quantified by accurate measurements were not done so, the
precision of the experiments is negatively affected.
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3. Quantify the experiments whenever possible by measuring, timing, determining mass,and recording changes. Use SI units.
Table 2. Some customary and non-SI practices
Observed practices SI conventionCentigrade
BTU
Weight
62 1/2 oC
50 oF
1 1/2 cm
cc or cu. cm.
761,632.06
21 ml
30 g.
5 l.
Celsius
Joule
Mass
62.5 oC
10 oC
1.5 cm
cm3
761 632.06
21 mL
30 g
5.0 L
4. Choose the sampling material.The sample must be representative of the group being
chosen. A wise choice of material may greatly reduce experimental difficulties. Mere
experimental convenience should not be allowed to outweigh more basic
considerations. The easy experiment may not answer the right questions.
5. Introduce control and standards. Some variables may have effects changing in an
unknown or uncontrollable way during the experiment. To correct for their effects,
some devices are needed. One solution is the introduction of controls.
Controls are similar test specimens, which are subjected to the sametreatment as the objects of the experiment in the closest possible way, except for the
change in the variable under study.
The use of controls is often difficult in experiments involving plants and animals because
of their natural variations. This is also true of experiments involving people.
Standards are something against which comparisons are made.
Controls may also serve as standards if they can be reproduced by others or perhaps
handed around to others, so as to enable different investigators to reach a common basis
for cross checking.
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The use of controls does not always ensure correct results. It is always necessary to
eliminate any question of bias. This can be accomplished by:
(a) Matching of controls
Subject-control pair must be carefully matched. They must be nearly alike in all pertinent
features as much as possible. The efficiency and sensitivity of the experiment are very
dependent on the success of matching. Biological research employs co-twin control, i.e.,
the use of identical twins.
(b) Randomization
The principle of randomization must be used in choosing which member of the pair is the
subject and which is the control. A coin should be tossed to decide this question. It should
never be left to human judgment.
Randomization is done to ensure the inevitable prejudices and preferences of the
investigator. It also provides for a mathematically sound basis for the calculations of the
approximate probability of error.
6. Decide on the number of experiments to be performed. Repetition of experimental
results points to a greater accuracy.
The other things to consider in experimental design are:
materials, method,
time for experiment and evaluation,
frequency of observations,
cost in terms of manpower, time and equipment.
The experimenter must question if the procedure being planned is workable with the kinds of
resources available and the conditions during the experiments.
Campbell and Stanley experimental design for research
1. One shot pretest/posttest
One group is tested, exposed to a treatment and then tested again.
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Experimental design
T = one test x = a treatment
T1 X T2
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This is a poor design for the life and social sciences, but may be meaningful for the
physical sciences. It has no control. Observations on one organism cannot be generalized
to others.
This can be done with relative accuracy by interfacing laboratory equipment during
experiment, but this design is limited. It can be quantified but usually only with a
histogram. The key danger is over confidence. The students soon recognize that one trial
is seldom enough to draw any sort of conclusion in science.
Some examples of questions which can be tested by this design:
How does blanching affect the activity of enzymes in vegetables?
How does stress affect the strength of PVC?
What is the effect of a mordant on the action of a fabric dye?
How would adding a barrier of foliage affect sound transmission?
2. Randomized control group design
This is a standard design for biology projects. Students compare the pretest (or initial
condition) and the posttest (or final condition) with a control group.
In its simplest form, this design provides data for the student's t-test(to determine the
difference between sample means) or for chi-square analysis (for data in frequency
form). The distinction between discrete and continuous data (and between histograms and
line graphs) requires a great deal of class time. Students however, can easily figure out
that the reliability of randomized control group test depends on the number of subjects in
the experiment.
Some examples of questions which can be tested by this design:
How does electromagnetic radiation affect the flight of honeybees?
How does calcium affect the geotropism in plants?
How does noise (interference) affect short term memory?
How does zinc affect the growth of rice?
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Experimental design:
T1 X T2 Experimental
T1 T2 Control
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3. Variable in series
The variable is applied in a series of strength, duration or form. This strengthens the
experimental design, such as the first two types.
Before computers, these designs were hard to analyze. Today most microcomputers can
perform straightforward statistical technique called analysis of variance, which can beused for data evaluation of this kind.
Some examples of questions which can be tested by this design:
What is the relationship between the concentration of fertilizer and the growth
of plants?
What is the relationship between the type of metal bowl and the stiffness ofegg whites beaten in it?
How does the wavelength of light affect seed germination?
How does relative humidity affect plant growth or the sex ratios of
invertebrate offspring?
What is the effect of solution pH on the color imparted by a dye?
4. Observations over time
This design is often more valuable than a single test.
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Experimental design:
T1 Xa T2T1 Xb T2T1 T2
Varying Varying Varying
Strengths treatment strengths
Experimental design:
T1 T2 T3 T4 X T5 T6 T7 T8At different times At different times
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Sample studies:
Investigating the changes in the pH of the egg white as an egg ages
Investigating the changes in the reflex rate of animals as they age
Investigating the changes in the resistance of mango tree to certain disease as
a result of irradiation
Investigating the changes in the oxygen production of algae over time
This design may require the use of a computer for curve fitting and extrapolation.
5. Progressive change
This design compares progressive changes in a subject over time to a control.
Sample questions:
Do neuroinhibitors affect metamorphosis in insects?
Can variations in the growth rings in fish scales (or trees) be corrected with
specific environmental events?
Not all ideas will fit into one or more of the given designs. You may improvise your own
symbols and designs.
C. Guidelines in Keeping Notes
A good rule to follow when doing a science investigatory project is to write
everything down, not on a piece of paper but in a notebook kept specifically for this purpose.
Your notebook should be as detailed and complete as possible containing all readings,
observations, questions, data, plans, errors, etc.
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Experimental design:
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Exptl.
X
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 Control
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The following are some guidelines in keeping notes in your lab notebook:
1. Choose a permanently bound notebook, of sufficient size with numbered pages.
2. On the fly page, write the notebook number (if more than one), your name, the title of theresearch, the initial date (when work started) and later, the final date (when work is
completed).
3. Assign several pages for table of contents. Make up the table of contents as you proceed
with your investigation.
4. State the objective of the entire project as clearly as possible. Record any changes as your
work progresses.
5. For each experiment, the following should be included:
a.objective
b. equipment and procedures
c.all new data written directly in the notebook
d. calculations with legend for all symbols and nomenclaturee.findings and conclusions
f. suggestions for future work
6. All original data must be entered directly into the notebook at the time of observation. If
data are to be taken on special forms, these must be pre-inserted into the notebook. Never
write your data on loose paper.
7. Never postpone any necessary calculations. You will save time later in case you need to
repeat experiments.
8. Place your notebook in a good position while doing your experiments. If your work is
particularly dirty, cover the page with a plastic sheet. A dirty notebook is far preferable to
lost data or spending time transferring them.
9. Enter all necessary information in your notebook. These include the raw data, time of
day, purpose of the experiment, pertinent diagrams or setups, serial number of samples
used and manufacturer, unusual observations, etc. Some of the information may not seem
important at the time but may be significant later.
10. List decisions that affect the course of the project and the reasons behind these decisions.
11. Include any standard operating procedures developed for the equipment you are using.
Record and date any change.
12. Never tear a page from the lab notebook. To make an erasure, draw a heavy line over the
notes or number being erased. Give reasons for the erasures.
13. Enter all data, observations, notes, tables, etc. on the right-hand page and all calculationson the left-hand page of your notebook.
14. Take snapshots of the setups (optional).
15. Do not omit what you might consider a failed experiment at a given moment. This can
save time by not being repeated and/or provide direction for new experiments.
16. Record full reference citations for any book or article used as source of information.
17. Sign your name and the date at the end of each working day. If your work is patentable,
have a witness sign with the note "Read and understood by"
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D. Analyzing Your Data
The ultimate goal of an investigation is to express the magnitude of the variables in
the experiments in meaningful quantitative terms. The investigator may not be satisfied with
the expression that one variable is larger or smaller than another, but rather he/she may want
to express precisely how much larger or smaller it is. If two variables are functionally related,
merely describing that they are positively or negatively related may not be sufficient. The
specific degree of relationship in terms of some numerical values may be sought. Statistics
provide the tools for the investigator to quantitatively analyze experimental data.
A. Average value or Mean ( x )
The mean or arithmetic or arithmetic average is used to represent a set of data byusing a single numeral. When the term average is used in statements such as average grade
in school, average mass of experimental sample, average rainfall for the month of July,
batting average of a baseball player, and average monthly food expenses, it is likely that the
mean is referred to.
The mean ( x ) is the summation ( ) of the individual observation (x1, x2, x3, x4 xn)
divided by the number of observations (n).
( )
n
xxxxx
n++++
=...
321
or in mathematical shorthand,
n
x
x
n
i
i== 1
where xi is the sum of the individual measurements; i takes on all integral (whole number)
values from, 1, 2, 3, n. For example, xiwould represent the sum of six measurements,
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6.
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For instance, a class of 30 students used an improvised volumeter to study the
difference in respiration rate between germinating seeds of pea and corn plants. The volume
in mL of oxygen used by germinating seeds per hour at 25oC were measured and recorded asshown in Table 3. Ten readings were made for each sample.
Table 3. Amount of oxygen used by germinating seeds of corn and pea plants
Reading
Number
Corn (xi)
(mL oxygen per hour)
Pea (xi)
(mL oxygen per hour)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.20
0.24
0.22
0.21
0.25
0.24
0.23
0.20
0.21
0.20
0.25
0.23
0.31
0.27
0.23
0.33
0.25
0.28
0.25
0.20
Total
xi
2.20 2.60
Mean x 0.22 0.26
The individual readings for each sample of corn and pea tend to cluster on either sideof a particular value. The mean is the estimate of this value.
B. Variance (s2)
The data in Table 3 show that the results vary for different readings. Readings
number 3 and 6 for pea show a large variation in the amount of oxygen consumed. To
express these variations, a value called variance is determined. Variance (s2) is a measure of
the individual values from the mean. A large variance indicates that the individual values
deviate considerably from the mean, whereas a small variance indicates that the individual
values deviate little from the mean.
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The variance can be calculated from the formula:
1
)(12
2
= =n
xx
s
n
ii
wherexi represents individual readings; x is the mean; n is the number of readings.
(xi - x )2 means that each reading must be subtracted from the mean to compute the
quantity (xi - x )2 and add all these quantities to get their sum.
Using the data in Table 3, the variance of the readings for the pea can be calculated as
shown in the next table.
Table 4. Variance of volume readings for pea sample
Reading
Number
Pea (xi)(mL oxygen per
hour)
(xi - x ) (xi - x )2
1
2
3
45
6
7
8
9
10
0.25
0.23
0.31
0.270.23
0.33
0.25
0.28
0.25
0.20
-0.01
-0.02
+0.05
+0.01-0.03
+0.07
-0.01
+0.02
-0.01
-0.06
0.0001
0.0004
0.0025
0.00010.0009
0.0049
0.0001
0.0004
0.0001
0.0036
Mean x 0.26
(xi - x
)20.0131
s2
0.0015
C. Standard deviation (s)
Similar to variance, standard deviation of a group of scores is a number which
tells the investigator whether most of the individual readings cluster closely around their
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mean or are spread out along the scale. The standard deviation is also useful not only for
describing distributions, but also for comparing group of samples.
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The standard deviation (s) is calculated by taking the positive square root of thevariance.
1
)(1
2
=
=
n
xx
s
n
i
i
Thus, the standard deviation of the volume readings for pea (Table 3) is the square root of
0.0015 or 0.039.
Problem: Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the volume readings of oxygen
consumed by germinating corn.
E. Writing Your Report
There are essential parts of a scientific report. The following guidelines are given in
writing your report of the science investigatory project that you have completed.
General format of a scientific report
A. Title
The title should identify the specific nature of the research and the broader area
within which your work has occurred. The wording of the title can influence the paper's
usefulness. Keep your title length to a minimum, preferably less than a dozen words. Avoidusing nonessential words or phrases, such as "Studies on", "Some Aspects of ." and "An
Investigation Into"
B. Author's Name(s)
If there are several authors, the first name is the "senior author". This means that he or
she has made the most contribution, followed by the second and so on. In judging relative
contributions, ideas and writing ability are traditionally given more weight than funds,
equipment, and labor.
C. Abstract
You may write the abstract before the introduction or after the conclusions. It usually
consists of a single detailed paragraph, unless the report is quite long. Describe briefly but
concisely your topic, experimental design, basic results and theoretical implications of the
results.
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D. Introduction
Your introduction must form a bridge between the past work and the present one. It
must do so in a stimulating manner within a few paragraphs. A good introduction starts with
a broad base and ends with a specific point. It first considers the importance of the major area
being investigated. Then it identifies a gap in our knowledge, a precise question or aparticular controversy within a chosen area. Finally, it pinpoints the intended value of the
present research.
E. Statement of the Problem
This includes discussion of the problem and the hypothesis(es) tested. The problem
may be stated in the form of questions, whose answers you sought in the course of the
investigation.
F. Methodology
This consists of three sets of descriptions - procedures, subjects, and equipment used
during the study. Describe these in detail to enable any experienced experimenter to duplicate
the whole study. To simplify the task, do the following:
1. Simply name commercially available equipment and well known procedures. If
you have specially built equipment, describe it in detail.
2. Focus on the subjects or objects of study, not on the researcher.
3. Use tables and figures to succinctly describe long and complex procedures.
4. When using any kind of organism, describe it by giving the following
information:
a. the species (if not yet identified in the introduction),
b. the number of individuals tested or observed,
c. the age and sex of samples,
d. how they are selected,
e. if captive or cultivated, how they were maintained when not being
observed or selected, and
f. for free living organism, e.g., birds, give the climate of the region,
weather conditions during the study and types of habitats in which they were
observed.
G. Results
Direct observations and raw data collected directly from experiments seldom make
sense unless summarized and/or organized. In choosing summary techniques, you should
watch out for the danger of loss of precision and being subjective.
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There are cases when data are excluded for certain reason(s). A good result section
should contain data that have been selected for relevance, summarized but not overly
simplified, and presented with as little interpretation as practicable.
Organize results section into discrete sub-units and present them in some logical or
obvious pattern, e.g., chronological or from the most general to the most specific. For
example, behavioral study could start with the simplest analysis and proceed with morecomplex analyses of each behavior.
Tables and figures summarizing data within sub-units require less space and are, in
general, easier to follow than the written text.
H. Discussion
This section discusses the data presented in the result section. Patterns are identified
among the different results and related to results of previous studies and the proposed
hypothesis(es), if there is any. Interpretations of results must be supported by logical
arguments that are firmly based on facts.
The five major elements of a good discussion are:
1. an introductory paragraph that refers to the problem raised in the introduction and
states how the results will be discussed,
2. consideration of all sub-units of the results,
3. full recognition of the relevant findings and hypotheses of other researchers,
4. possible applications and speculations as suggested by testable hypotheses of other
researchers.
You may point out faults in research design but do not gloss over contradictory or results
which can not be interpreted.
(Note: the results and discussion may be combined in a single section.)
I. Conclusions
Highlight the significant findings, interpretations and generalizations you can make
based on the results of the study. Implications and/or applications of the theoretical
findings may also be included.
J. Recommendations for future study
The results of your study may open up new questions which may be the subject of a new
study. This section may include variations of the present study which may be investigated
by other researchers.
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K. References
It is important to cite the various reference materials that you have used in your study.Standard format is required for each kind of publication and for information retrieved
from the INTERNET. Some examples are given in the next section.
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f. Listing Your References
Follow standard formats when listing your references. The following are based on
standard formats of the American Association of Psychologists (APA).
1. Books
a. Reference to an entire book
Roy Singh, R. (1991). Education for the twenty first century: Asia-pacific
perspectives. Bangkok: UNESCO-PROAP.
If the book has no author, place the title in the author's position.
b. Group or corporate author as publisher
Presidential Commission on Educational Reform. (2000 ). Philippine agenda for
educational reform: The PCER Report. Pasig City: Author.
When the author and publisher are identical, use the word Author as the name
of the publisher.
c. Edited book
Gibbs, J. T. & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (1991). Children of color: Psychologicalinterventions with minority youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
d. Article in an edited book
Golla, E. F,. & de Guzman, E. (1998). Teacher preparation in science and
mathematics education: A situational analysis. In E. Ogena & F. Brawner
(Eds.), Science Education in the Philippines. Technical papers. Vol. 1Taguig, Metro Manila: National Academy of Science and technology.
2. Encyclopedia or dictionary
Sadie, S. (ed.). (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (6th ed.,
Vols. 1-20). London: Macmillan.
Bergmann, P. G. (1993) Relativity. The new encyclopaedia Britannica (vol. 26,
pp.501 - 508). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.
If an entry has no byline, place the title in the author's position.
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3. Journals
Ogawa, M. (1995). Science education in a multi-science perspectives. Science
Education. 79:5, 583 - 593.
4. Magazine article
Kandel, E. R. & Squire, L. R. (2000, November 10). Neuroscience: Breaking down
scientific barriers to the study of brain and mind. Science, 290, 1113-1120.
5. Newspaper article
New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from heart failure. (1993, July 15). TheWashington Post. p. A12.
World's richest man Gates also the most generous. (2002, November 25). ThePhilippine Star. P. 12.
If an article appears on discontinuous pages, give all page numbers, and
separate the numbers with a comma.
6. Abstract as original source
Woolf, N. J., Young, S. L. , & Butcher, L.L. (1991. MAP-2 expression in
cholinoceptive pyramidal cells of rodent cortex and hippocampus is altered by
Pavlovian conditioning [Abstract]. Society of Neuroscience Abstracts, 17, 480.
7. Technical and research reports
Mead, J.V. (1992).Looking at old photographs: Investigating the teacher tales that
novice teachers bring with them (Report No. NCRTL-RR-924). East Lansing,
MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED346082).
8. Unpublished work & paper
Meneleo, C. (1997, January).Reengineering education. Paper presented at UPNISMED Colloquium. University of the Philippines, National Institute for
Science and Mathematics Education Development.
University of the Philippines. Institute for Science and Mathematics Education
Development. (1990).Research study on three rural communities: Needs-
based curriculum project. Unpublished project report.
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9. Theses
Basco, E. L. (1996).High school students' misconceptions in science. Unpublished
master's thesis, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City.
10. Internet Source
Stronge, J. H. (2001). Teacher effectiveness: Improving schools one classroom at a
time. Retrieved May 23, 2002 from
http://www.wm.edu/education/HOPE/Infobiref/Etoverview.pdf
NCATE-National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (2001). Summary
data on teacher effectiveness, teacher quality, and Teacher qualifications.
Retrieved May 23, 2002 from http://www.ncate.org/resources/factsheettq.htm.
http://www.wm.edu/education/HOPE/Infobiref/Etoverview.pdfhttp://www.ncate.org/resources/factsheettq.htmhttp://www.wm.edu/education/HOPE/Infobiref/Etoverview.pdfhttp://www.ncate.org/resources/factsheettq.htm