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INTRODUCTION TO MORAL PHILOSOPHY
By:
Dr. Mamman Sunusi
Defining Philosophy
Philosophy comes from the Greek for "love of wisdom," giving us two important
starting points: passion and wisdom (knowledge, understanding). Philosophy
sometimes seems to be pursued without passion as if it were a technical subject like
engineering or mathematics. Although there is a role for dispassionate research,
philosophy must derive from some passion for the ultimate goal: a reliable, accurate
understanding ourselves and our world. Philosophy is the study of general problems
concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity,
mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing
these questions (such as mysticism or mythology) by its critical, generally systematic
approach and its reliance on reasoned argument.
Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other
individuals and other cultures; it enhances one's ability to perceive the relationships
among the various fields of study; and it deepens one's sense of the meaning and
variety of human experience. Most people are aware that the term is derived from
two Greek words: philo (love) and sophia (wisdom). Philosophy, then, literally means
"the love of wisdom." We each have a sense of what love means, but what exactly is
wisdom? Although there are many different ideas about what wisdom is, we can
define it as "the proper understanding about the nature of reality." The wise person,
then, has a correct understanding about his own nature, the nature of the universe
and the nature of God. A person is wise, in other words, if he has a correct
understanding about how things actually are and lives his life accordingly.
Philosophy has also been connected with the quest for the truth. The Greek
philosopher Pythagoras, for example, maintained that unlike the other human beings
who are concerned with the hustle and bustle of life, "the philosopher seeks for
truth." The aim of philosophy, however, is not this truth or that truth, my truth or
your truth, but "The Truth". The truth that philosophy searches for is a truth that
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applies to all people at all times. This truth has been referred to as an inspirational
truth, because it is not restricted to individual perceptions of what is true or false.
According to Socrates, philosophy involves a critical examination of reality that is
characterized by rational inquiry. A rational form of inquiry is one that is based
exclusively on sound arguments and not on opinions, feelings or beliefs. Of course,
there is nothing wrong with having opinions, feeling or beliefs about important
matters, but the discipline of philosophy asks us to be in the position to justify why
we hold these opinions, feelings or beliefs. If we want to be engaged in
philosophical discourse, therefore, we need to support our views using logic rather
than emotions. Based upon what has been described above, our working definition
of philosophy will look something like the following: A critical examination of reality
characterized by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the sake of attaining
wisdom.
Subfields of Philosophy
The broadest subfields of philosophy are most commonly taken to be logic, ethics,
metaphysics, epistemology and the history of philosophy
.
Here is a brief sketch of each one of them.
Logic is concerned with providing sound methods for distinguishing well from
bad reasoning. It is the study of the principles of right reasoning. Logic is the
basic tool that philosophers use to investigate reality. Among the questions
raised by Logic are: (1) What makes an argument valid or invalid (2) What is a
sound argument? It helps us assess how well our premises support our
conclusions, to see what we are committed to accepting when we take a view,
and to avoid adopting beliefs for which we lack adequate reasons. Logic also
helps us to find arguments where we might otherwise simply see a set of
loosely related statements, to discover assumptions we did not know we were
making, and to formulate the minimum claims we must establish if we are to
prove (or inductively support) our point.
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Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts such as right action,
obligation and justice and formulates principles to guide moral decisions,
whether in private or public life. What are our moral obligations to others?
How can moral disagreements be rationally settled? What rights must a just
society accord its citizens? What constitutes a valid excuse for wrong-doing?
Metaphysics (or ontology) is the study of reality. Some of the questions that
Metaphysics deals with are: (1) what is ultimate reality? (2) Is it one thing or is
it many different things? (3) Can reality be grasped by the senses or is it
transcendent? (3) What is the mind and what is its relation to the body? It
seeks basic criteria for determining what sorts of things are real. Are there
mental, physical, and abstract things (such as numbers), for instance, or is
there just the physical and the spiritual, or merely matter and energy? Are
persons highly complex physical systems, or do they have properties not
reducible to anything physical?
Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Among the questions that
Epistemology deals with are: (1) what is knowledge? (2) Is knowledge
acquired exclusively through the senses or by some other means? (3) How
do we know that what we perceive through our senses is correct? (4) what
does it mean to know (the truth), and what is the nature of truth? (5) What
sorts of things can be known, and can we be justified in our beliefs about
what goes beyond the evidence of our senses, such as the inner lives of others
or events of the distant past? Is there knowledge beyond the reach of science?
What are the limits of self-knowledge? Epistemology is the investigation into
the grounds and nature of knowledge itself. The study of epistemology
focuses on our means for acquiring knowledge and how we can differentiate
between truth and falsehood.
Aesthetics is the study of beauty. Among the questions Aesthetics deals with
are: (1) What makes a thing beautiful? (2) Are there any objective standards
of beauty?
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The History of Philosophy studies both major philosophers and entire
periods in the development of philosophy such as the Ancient, Medieval,
Modern, Nineteenth Century, and Twentieth Century periods. It seeks to
understand great figures, their influence on others, and their importance for
contemporary issues. The history of philosophy in a single nation is often
separately studied, as in the case of American Philosophy. So are major
movements within a nation, such as British Empiricism and German Idealism,
as well as international movements with a substantial history, such as
existentialism and phenomenology.
Doing Philosophy
The study of philosophy is usually approached in one of two different ways: the
systematic or topical method and the historical or biographical method. Both have
their strengths and weaknesses and it is often beneficial to avoid focusing on one to
the exclusions of the other, at least whenever possible. For irreligious atheists,
though, the focus should probably be more on the topical than on the biographical
method because that will provide clear overviews of relevant issues. What is
morality? How can one behave in a moral manner? These are among the most
difficult and most interesting questions which face people of any age. Today,
however, with advancing technology, difficult moral situations come upon us faster
than we can even create the questions, much less find the answers.
What are Ethics and Morality?
Ethics is the formal study of moral standards and conduct. For this reason, the study
of ethics is also often called "moral philosophy." What is good? What is evil? How
should I behave and why? How should I balance my needs against the needs of
others? These are some of the questions asked in the field of ethics, a branch of
philosophy which has some of the most immediate and obvious consequences for
how we live our lives.
Ethics, Morals, and Values
There are three principle types of values which humans can have: preferential values,
instrumental values and intrinsic values. Each plays an important role in our lives, but
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they do not all play equal roles in the formation of moral standards and moral
norms.
Why be concerned with moral theories and distinctions between different types of
moral theories? Why bother with some of the difficult questions which are raised in
meta-ethics? Everyone is brought up with some sort of moral system, and it usually
works out fairly well - isn't that enough? What's the point of bothering further?
Anthropologists and sociologists can provide us with all sorts of information about
how societies past and present have structured moral standards and how they have
expected people to behave. Psychologists can study how a person's conscience
develops and how that person goes about actually making moral choices in real or
hypothetical situations. Descriptive ethics also studies the codes of conduct created
by professional organizations to regulate the conduct of members.
What then is Morality?
Morality is a sense of behavioural conduct that differentiates intentions, decisions,
and actions between those that are good (or right) and bad (or wrong). A moral code
is a system of morality (for example, according to a particular philosophy, religion,
culture, etc.) and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code.
Immorality is the active opposition to morality, while amorality is variously defined
as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any set of moral standards
or principles
Morality is about mentoring the society on good and bad actions. It is exhibiting
goodness or correctness of character and behaviour. However, let us examine
morality based on its relative nature
a) Morality is concerned with the judgment of the goodness or badness of
human action and character: moral scrutiny; a moral quandary.
b) Morality is about principles of right and wrong or conforming to standards of
behaviour and character based on those principles
c) Morality is adhering to ethical and moral principles
d) Morality is arising from the sense of right and wrong
e) Morality is psychological rather than physical or tangible in effect and
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f) Morality is based on strong likelihood or firm conviction rather than actual
evidence.
Exhibiting goodness or correctness of character and behaviour: a moral lesson,
conforming to standards of what is right in behaviour is virtuous hence a moral life;
which arises from conscience or the sense of right and wrong: a moral obligation;
having psychological rather than physical or tangible effects: a moral victory; moral
support which should be based on strong likelihood or firm conviction, rather than
on the actual evidence.
Objectives of teaching morality
Based on the need to have a sound society which accepts and tolerate everyone
without prejudice, morality aspires to achieve the following objectives:
1) to guide the individual to the perfection of personality through improvement
and maintenance of discipline among youth in higher institutions
2) to guide youth towards developing good character necessary for becoming
sound and responsible citizens for the development of their nation.
3) to serve as a preventive measure from all acts of immorality in higher
institutions of learning
4) to guide youth to learn to live in an immoral environment should they find
themselves in any society
5) to guide the individual to the perfection of family life.
6) to establish norms or standards of conduct or right and wrong actions
7) to enshrine in the youth the spirit of understanding and exercising their rights,
duties and values in the society
8) to learn their responsibility as citizens as well as government‘s moral
functions.
9) To guide youth towards attaining decent dressing and acceptable behaviour.
10) Morality emphasizes on right conduct in the world of work especially as it
relates to the way the society can develop and become viable.
Agents of Morality
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In most societies, morality is the structures and mechanisms of social order and
cooperation governing the behaviour of individuals within a given human society.
Societies are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending
individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules
governing cooperative human behaviour so that no one is made to suffer for
belonging to any social group. Subsequently, the following are agents of morality:
a) The first place where the child begins to relate with other human beings is the
family. It is the primary place where culture is taught and way of life is
demonstrated to the child. A morally sound family will ultimately breed a
morally sound child. In the family, there is the father, mother, brothers and
sisters who behave in accordance with the leadership demands in that family.
Sound family upbringing brings about well-behaved offspring which parents
are often considered responsible for the behaviour of their children.
The family serves as the first place where children are brought up based on
the way parents treat them. Parenting is about discipline and how best
children are guided towards becoming acceptable to the societal norms.
How well parents interact with their child affects the child‘s behaviour at home
as well as how the child will regard the parents when he/she becomes an
adult. A child needs to accept …a certain code of behaviour, parental
commands, traditional rules etc.‘ Of course, all children have their own
interpretations of moral concepts, and obeying these different rules in
different situations is the first clue that they were flexible and that they
depended on different factors. The child must come to feel himself what there
is in a rule which determines that he should abide by it willingly. In other
words he must sense the moral authority in the rule, which renders it worthy
of respect.
Authoritative parenting is characterized by high expectations of compliance
to parental rules and directions, an open dialogue about those rules and
behaviours, and a child-centred approach characterized by warm, positive
affect. The system is characterized by high expectations of conformity and
compliance to parental rules and directions. It involves the use of more
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coercive techniques to gain compliance. Baumrind 1978). Permissive parenting
is characterized as having few behavioural expectations for the child and is
characterized by warm affect. Parents are nurturing and accepting, but non-
demanding.
Neglectful parenting is similar to permissive parenting but is a parent-
centered approach characterized by cold affect. It is less passive and more
controlling than permissive. These parents usually pay no attention to their
children's actions. Outcomes: Research into the child behavior outcomes
associated with each type of parenting has traditionally shown a strong
benefit to authoritative parenting. These children have been shown to have
more self-discipline, emotional self-control, more friends and better school
performance. However, recent research has identified a number of caveats.
First, authoritarian parenting may be more effective in certain contexts and in
social groups other than those studied in early research. Secondly, little
research has examined the genetic influences that may underlie the findings.
For instance, harsh parenting may produce harsher children through the
mechanism of genetic transmission of these traits. Behaviour genetics
research is currently examining the influence of genes as they pertain to
parenting styles and how children copy some genes in their body system to
become intelligent or idiots, to think critically or be just followers.
b) School serve as an agent of morality, a disciplined school trains students to
behave according to set down rules and regulations with minimal rebellion. It
serves as an agent of negative or positive morality. If the school instruct
negatively, the end result will be learners will learn to act in a negative way.
Most schools encourage positive morality so that their products will meet
every societal demand without reservations. Schools assist the process of
learning what an appropriate behaviour so that learners in the smaller group
within the larger society behave in an act acceptable to all. It is usually
associated with children and adults involved in academic activities meant to
train everyone admitted so that he/she can learn to behave acceptable and
train proficiently in the occupation that will best suit them.
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Schools serve a social agent of morality in that learner is trained the daily
routine of observing and respecting time for all activities. It shows learners
how best they can succeed and become employable which in a way removes
any burden on the society.
In recent times, much attention has been devoted to the roles the school is
expected to play in the training of good citizens in Nigeria. The emphasis
placed on education is borne out of the fact, as stated by Federal Government
of Nigeria (2004), that education is considered a potent instrument for change
and development. Probably, that is why lyewarun (1989) asserts that
education is an instrument by which young members are brought up and
morally socialized so as to become useful and active members of the society.
However, the role of education differs from culture to culture. In support of
this view, Metzieobi, Domike and Osakwe (1996) notes that the emphasis
placed on the goals of education ranges from culture to culture and society to
society. To him, while some people see education as an instrument for
achieving a specific objective, others; see it as a means of training the mind
and intellect. Schools should serve as instruments for achieving a specific
objective such as moral training and socialization as well as means of social
mobility while others see education as a means of inculcating a particular
ideology aimed at making life better for those who receive it.
From a different perspective, Yusuf (2005) observes that the school should not
be used as an instrument for training in citizenship only, rather it should be
directed at the training of the mind and the development of the intellect.
c) Peer-groups: after the parents, when a child is taken to school, the first
people they learn to relate with are the peer groups who gradually influence
the child towards a set of behaviours depending on how they were brought
up. Research finds that children learn how to behave appropriately by
observing their peers. Children are motivated to be similar to their peers and
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at the same time to be better than them. They compare themselves to their
peers to understand their strength and weaknesses.
It is as well appropriate to understand that peer group greatly influences the
behaviour of children, those who relate with serious ones, will compete
among themselves and those who associate with those with poor moral
disposition in families end up poor in their behaviour and actions. It is in this
wise, that it is appropriate for parents to determine who the friends of their
children are so that at the end of it all, their children will be morally sound.
d) Religious Institutions: Religious institutions play a vital role in teaching
followers the best moral behaviour by giving examples from the past to
ensure compliance to religious doctrines. Most religious institutions followers
on many aspects of morality including, behaviour, family life, fight against
corrupt behaviours and aim at overall development of the individual so that
the individual will behave in ways that encourage tolerance and love for one
another. The two major religious in Nigeria have been very relevant in guiding
faithful to the correct and right conduct so that no one is left ignorant of what
they should know to attain religious acceptance. In all the religions however,
rational people are guided on rational activities based on divine teachings.
They both preach working hard to live, they discourage laziness and all forms
of evil. The Islamic religious teaching guides followers on how to marry,
transact business, and conduct activities in the God‘s earth as well as how to
ensure a viable upbringing. The religion further teaches followers to seek for
knowledge and learn from the Quran, Hadith and teachings of learned
Mallams so that all will be knowledgeable in every area of human endeavour
without any glitch. The Ten Commandments of the bible teaches followers of
that religion the dos and don‘ts so that all will be morally sound.
Nowhere was it stated that people should be lazy or cheats, all religions
preach hard work and earning ones‘ sweat so as to attain God‘s acceptance
and blessings. As moral teaching, the believers were taught the best way of
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worship and what should be done to ensure that the society is morally sound
to execute its function as a place for God‘s worship.
e) Media: this serve as an important, significant and moving force in the
twentieth century as a social force that can teach norms and values by way of
symbolic reward and punishment for different kinds of behaviour as
represented in the media. An alternative view is that it is a learning process
whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations and the expectations
which go with a given role or status in society. Thus the media are continually
offering pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance of actual
experience.—McQuail 2005: 494)
The media serve as an avenue to reshape human behaviour either positively
or negatively. Media include, the TV, Satellite, Internet, Social Networks as
facebook, twitter, podcast, 2go etc. They great serve as an agent of morality if
used appropriately. However, with the information epoch, today‘s a medium
often serve as a disadvantage source of diverting youth attention to their
primary responsibilities giving room to failure in all spheres of students‘ life.
Most youth today could spend hours on 2go and Facebook chatting while
forgetting about their primary responsibility of hard work to attain success.
Gradually, such avenues are doing more harm than good to youth especially
in colleges and Universities. The more all raise to their responsibilities, the
better tomorrow
Citizenship right and duties
A citizen is the member of a community, whether that community is a town or a
great country: and as the member of a community he has both privileges and duties.
Citizenship is defined as a relationship between the individual and the state in
relation to mutual rights, duties and obligations. Citizenship is also a form of
participation in the running of the state and society, and in this sense an agency and
subject. As spelt out in the 1999 constitution, one is a citizen of Nigeria provided
such as person:
Was born in Nigeria before the date of independence either of whose parents
or any of grandparents belong or belonged to a community indigenous to
Nigeria. Provided a person shall not become a citizen of Nigeria by virtue of
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this section if neither of his parents nor any of his grandparents was born in
Nigeria
Every person born in Nigeria after the date of independence either of whose
parents or any of grandparents is a citizen of Nigeria
Every person born outside Nigeria either of whose parents is a citizen of
Nigeria (Chapter 3, section 1)
There are also provisions for naturalization and for foreigners to apply for
Nigerian citizenship.
Nigeria takes time to grant citizenship to foreigners that meet certain requirements.
A main way for foreigners to obtain Nigerian citizenship is via 'naturalization', which
requires the following - an individual must be at least 17 years that resided in Nigeria
for at least 15 years, is of good character, plans to remain in Nigeria, is familiar with
Nigerian language and customs, has a viable means of support, and has renounced
previous citizenship. Another way is through 'registration' and this mostly applies to
women (not men) married to a Nigerian citizenship. Of course, individuals with at
least one Nigerian citizen for a parent can also become Nigerian citizens themselves.
The constitutional provision also spells out rights and privileges in a fairly
comprehensive manner as to ensure rights of all citizens. The problem is not
however, the constitution but the translation of its provisions to reality. Part of this
complication is the division of Nigerian citizens –in daily experiences—into indigenes
and settlers. As used in common parlance, an indigene is synonymous with native,
autochthon and ―son/daughter -of-the soil‖, and refers to ascribed identity of being
born in a particular location into a specific ethnic group considered to have a
―homeland‖ within the locality. To be an indigene of a place therefore means that
the ethnic group can point to a territory as ―native land‖ where such native land is in
a local council or state. The Federal Character Commission has defined indegeneity
in the local council and states. It accepts people whose parents and/or grandparents
were indigenes and/or people accepted as indigenes by the council. When one is an
indigene of a local council in a state s/he is automatically an indigene of that State
(Federal Character Commission ND: 16). This position is more trenchantly expressed
by Sam Egwu who asserts that ―Indegeneity‖ of a state is conferred on a person
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whose parents or grandparents were members of a community indigenous to a
particular state‖ (Egwu 2003:37; 2009). Thus Nigerians, who have their ethnic
genealogy elsewhere, even if they were born in a particular state or lived all their
lives there, are regarded as ―settlers‖ (Alubo 2006; Ibrahim 2006). A settler is
regarded as a stranger, a sojourner who may have been born in a location but is
regarded as a bird of passage who would ultimately go ―home‖. Indigenes insist
sojourners have a home where they periodically visit for celebration and where
prominent members of the former are conveyed for burial. Herein lies an illustration
of the nature of identity as both self defined and other imposed. Most of the people
defined and treated as settlers do not regard themselves as such. In the Nigerian
experience, being an indigene or a settler is a permanent identity, as there is no
provision for the latter to convert to the former.
An identity is a distinguishing label that objectively exists, is subjectively felt, and
enables its bearers to experience individually and collectively a sense of solidarity . As a
label, it can be assumed by, or imposed on bearers. It is also a prism by which
objects, people, and collectivities are sorted, organized, mapped and ordered into
meaningful [and] understandable units. Identities are socially constructed, dynamic
and multifaceted. Subjectively, identification with a category is simultaneously a
definition of self, so that groups come to identify themselves as ethnic, religious,
occupational, national and other terms. Objectively, individuals do not identify in
general, but do so in relation to others’ definitions of themselves and the boundaries
implied in such definitions.
The Source of Rights and Obligations:
God, praise be to His name, is the source of all rights and obligations. According to
the Sharia, right and obligation are among the essential elements of the dignity of
man granted to him by God, the most high. The dignity of man is the yardstick of the
validity and uprightness of observing rights and duties in accordance with God‘s will.
But according to the Sharia, right and obligation are restricted to realizing the will
and the satisfaction of God. They are also restricted by the public interest, and by not
doing harm to the others. People have to identify and agree upon rights and duties
concerning new development in their lives, but, in a manner not at variance with the
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will and laws of God, and in a way that insures the dignity and interest of man and
setting forth justice among men
Duties of a Citizen
The first obvious duty of a citizen is loyalty to the country of his birth or adoption.
Patriotism does not mean ―My country, right or wrong‖; but it does mean that in a
national crisis or danger, a citizen must be prepared to support and defend his
country even, if necessary, with his life. Secondly, it is the duty of a citizen to obey his
country‘s laws. He must have no sympathy with crime, which is a breach of law. He
may consider some laws imperfect, unwise and even unjust; and he may, and should,
use all constitutional means in his power, such as public speaking, writing to the
press, organization, and the use of his vote, to get such laws reformed or abolished.
But so long as a law is a law, he must obey it. Thirdly, he must do more than keep
the law himself, he must, as occasion arises, actively assist the guardians of the law in
the performance of their duty in putting down crimes and arresting criminals.
Criminals must be made to feel that they have, not only the police, but also all
respectable citizens against them. Fourthly, he ought to take an intelligent interest in
politics; for as a citizen he has a vote, and he is responsible for using that vote for
the good of his country as a whole. He must form definite opinions as to what is best
for his country, and what men are the best to rule it, and what new laws and reforms
it needs, and then actively use such influence as he has to forward such measures.
Lastly, a citizen must be ready, if he has the ability and is called upon to do so, to
render active voluntary service to his city or country, by serving on municipalities,
education committees, and other public bodies, or even in the central legislature.
Good citizens have no right to leave the management of local or national institutions
to professional politicians.
Citizenship education is vital in this respect as it trains the mind of people in the
direction of what is required for a stable and enduring democracy. Citizenship
education analyses man in all aspects of environments like social studies. It considers
social, economic, political, religious, cultural and technological aspects of life.
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The teaching of citizenship education enables learners to think beyond their
individual and ethnic interests; thereby making them to tolerate and respect the
views of others. It is citizenship education that will enhance unity and stability and
human right. According to Yusuf(2005), citizenship education which has as important
components of value education could serve as an instrument for bringing about
desirable positive change in the Nigerian value orientation. It determines action and
shapes the direction in which an individual operates in a given situation. Obike
(1993) states that, the people's value orientation and their social attitude expressed
through services rendered to one another constitute the bedrock upon which
members of the society depend for their survival.
Government and Moral functions
The main duty of Government is to protect lives and properties of its citizens and it
must therefore ensure that fundamental human right is acknowledged, respected,
coordinated with other rights, defended and promoted, so that in this way each one
may more easily carry out his duties. For "to safeguard the inviolable rights of the
human person, and to facilitate the fulfillment of his duties, should be the chief duty
of every public authority."
Society as a whole, acting through public and private institutions, has the moral
responsibility to enhance human dignity and protect human rights. In addition to the
clear responsibility of private institutions, government has an essential responsibility
in this area. This does not mean that government has the primary or exclusive role,
but it does have a positive moral responsibility in safeguarding human rights and
ensuring that the minimum conditions of human dignity are met for all. In a
democracy, government is a means by which we can act together to protect what is
important to us and to promote our common values.
It is also demanded by the common good that civil authorities should make earnest
efforts to bring about a situation in which individual citizens can easily exercise their
rights and fulfill their duties as well. For experience has taught us that, unless these
authorities take suitable action with regard to economic, political and cultural
matters, inequalities between the citizens tend to become more and more
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widespread, especially in the modern world, and as a result human rights are
rendered totally ineffective and the fulfillment of duties is compromised.
Just freedom of action must, of course, be left both to individual citizens and to
families, yet only on condition that the common good is preserved and wrong to any
individual is abolished. The function of the rulers of the State, moreover, is to watch
over the community and its parts; but in protecting private individuals in their rights,
chief consideration ought to be given to the weak and the poor.
The complex circumstances of our day make it necessary for public authority to
intervene more often in social, economic and cultural matters in order to bring about
favourable conditions which will give more effective help to citizens and groups in
their free pursuit of man's total well-being. The state has the duty to prevent people
from abusing their private property to the detriment of the common good. By its
nature private property has a social dimension which is based on the law of the
common destination of earthly goods. Whenever the social aspect is forgotten,
ownership can often become the object of greed and a source of serious disorder,
and its opponents easily find a pretext for calling the right itself into question.
The teachings of morality insist that government has a moral function: protecting
human rights and securing basic justice for all members of the commonwealth.
Society as a whole and in all its diversity is responsible for building up the common
good. But it is the government's role to guarantee the minimum conditions that
make this rich social activity possible, namely, human rights and justice. This
obligation also falls on individual citizens as they choose their representatives and
participate in shaping public opinion. It is clearly laid down that the paramount task
assigned to government officials is that of recognizing, respecting, reconciling,
protecting and promoting the rights and duties of citizens.
Governments must provide regulations and a system of taxation which encourage
firms to preserve the environment, employ disadvantaged workers, and create jobs
in depressed areas. Managers and stockholders should not be torn between their
responsibilities to their organizations and their responsibilities toward society as a
whole. Where, on the other hand, the good offices of the State are lacking or
deficient, incurable disorder ensues: in particular, the unscrupulous exploitation of
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the weak by the strong. The economy cannot be run in an institutional, juridical, or
political vacuum: the state has its role to play, guaranteeing personal freedom, a
stable currency, and efficient public services.
Discipline and the Nigerian Youth
The Nigerian Youth are challenged to work towards earning their sweat by
respecting moral virtues as citizens of a sovereign nation. One of the fundamental
issues of being a man is to be disciplined so that one defines his role in the society
by pursuing a common goal of self development and achievement of success
through hardwork, no success come from laziness. Youth must learn, respect and
protect their country through hardwork, loyalty sincerity and dedication to their
duties. Nothing comes by chance, therefore youth must work towards learning to:
a) Obey all the set rules and regulations
b) Work for the development of their society through dedication
c) Cooperate with one another to achieve a common goal: Nigeria‘s progress,
development and peace
d) Enjoy success through appreciation of efficient and viable duties to the nation
e) Avoid all forms of activities that will not encourage the development of their
society
f) Keep to their focus and avoid all forms of indecency at home, school and work
place so that we have a society that aims to make life better for the coming
generation
g) Respect their elders and constituted authority
h) Be just, honest and transparent in the discharge of their responsibilities as
citizens of a free nation
i) Be hospitable, accommodating, tolerant of people‘s feelings and preferences
j) Love one another and imbibe the spirit of fulfilling promises when taken
k) Ensure that criminals and corrupt people are reported appropriately to the
constituted authority so as to remedy the society of all evils.
Measures taken to Unite Nigerians
The following measures were taken by the Federal Government to unite Nigerians
and ensure moral rectitude. The rationale was to ensure unity in diversity:
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a) The introduction of the national pledge and national anthem…this is recited in
all Government functions especially at assembly congregation in schools and
colleges to imbibe the spirit of making Nigeria one nation through daily
commit to protect and uphold its glory.
b) The introduction of Federal Schools all over the country with a view to ensure
that youth from all nooks and crannies of the country are educated in any
school with a view to learning different cultures and moral teachings.
c) The introduction of the National Youth Service Corps in 1976 with the aim of
uniting Nigerian Youth to learn to tolerate and live with one another so that
the country will be a single entity with all having the zeal to support and
develop it.
d) The establishment of the National Orientation Agency which aims at meeting
people at the grassroots to enlighten them on their duties and duties of the
Government so that a common ground is held by all.
e) Mass mobilization programmes were introduced to enlighten citizens on the
importance of self-reliance and societal progress.
f) The introduction of teaching of moral philosophy in colleges and universities
with the aim of re-orienting youth towards understanding their
responsibilities and how best to resolve to contribute for the betterment of
the society that must be united, morally sound to progress.
g) The introduction of Betterlife for rural women to unite women towards
understanding their life worth and how best to rely on themselves for the
betterment of their society.
h) The introduction of unity schools in the country so that children from all parts
of the nation could receive education.
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i) The observance of national sanitation day throughout the country to ensure
that at one day all the citizens are engaged at a spontaneous activity from
every part of the country.
Cultism, its causes, effect and remedies
Odubunmi (1998) sees gangsterism as Secret Cult in our campuses. Gangsterism is
seen as a group of criminals especially those who are armed and use guns or group
of students acting as terrorists within the school system. He further asserts that once
the group holds their meeting in secret, they are Secret Cults. The word Cultism may
be referred to as the formation of a group of initiates or adherent round the figure
of a god, a saint or even a living being. It may involve the practice of a particular
doctrine within the body of religious belief.
Ogunbameru and Daodu (2003) defined Secret Cult to be any form of organization
whose activities are not only exclusively kept away from the knowledge of others but
such activities are carried out at odd hours of the day and they often clash with
accepted norms and values of everyday life. Cultism started in Nigerian institutions
of higher learning with the founding in 1952 of the Pirate Confraternity at the
university college of Ibadan. The common ideology which the founding fathers held
in allegiance to was the promotion of the dignity of the black man, which was then
seriously threatened by the discriminatory and oppressive practices of the Colonial
government and expatriates. Lasisi and Edun (1999) asserted that Pirate
Confraternity commanded the respect and admiration of many people. Some years
after the graduation of the founding fathers, internal wrangling and power tussle
began to rent the organization as other similar organizations were formed such as
Buccaneers, Eiye confraternity in 1968, Black Axe 1970 and others.
Aje (2001) identifies the factors that caused secret cult which include economic
handicap of some students in school, ticket to abuse education that is, abuse of
quota system, examination malpractices and others, students‘ politics, social
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recognition, unfettered heartlessness and group protection. As from 1990s, the
activities of Secret Cult has taken a horrorful and worrisome dimension which many
criminal activities including murder arson, armed robbery and rape are frequently
linked to their members, and lack of discipline. To that extent therefore, many of the
purported Cultists are actually Gangsters or members of crime syndicates hiding
under the umbrella of certain Secret Cults or societies. Holloway (1989) examined
the proposition that human aggression can only be explained in terms of the
capacity of human species to develop complex social communities on the basis of
abstract idea. According to such view, he explained that violence springs from logic
of the human condition. It represents typical and pathological response to
frustration which are nevertheless endemic in human society and human mind.
Conflict, he said begets frustration and in certain circumstances frustration begets
violence. As a result of this, the study on Cultism and Gansterism as the causes of
current eruption, aggressive behaviors and violence in Nigerian tertiary institutions
as they affect the learners‘ moral development is worth pursuing. It is therefore
hoped that the result of this study will provide solution if not total as to the activities
of the cultists and gangsters on campus. And in a short while sensitize the public and
Nigerian schools to the evil of secret cult activities while the public would see the
need to eradicate them within its rank and file in and outside Nigerian school
system.
Remedial suggestions
Despite the fact that cultism and gangsterism have posted some threat to the
survival of education in Nigeria in the past and present, the future of Nigerian
education can still be redirected to profitable activities, it would help in no small
measure in assuaging the dangerous situation. It is recommended that the
photograph and bio-data of the rusticated students should be communicated to the
press and other colleges and universities. Matriculation oath should be designated
and contain a portion that would state the penalty for members discovered to be a
member of campus cult. Parents should be made to sign a deed of undertaking
affirming their commitment to discourage their wards from all forms of cultism
before admitting their wards to school. The school security department should be
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equipped with modern and sophisticated security gadgets, such as patrol vehicle,
walkie-talkie, metal detector est. Universities and colleges should establish a well
equipped guidance and counselling unit that would be headed by professional and
competent counsellor.
Life of Prophet Muhammad (SAW)
The character of the Messenger of Allah is the Quran. His conduct is expressed in the
following verse:
a) Take to pardon, enjoin good and turn away from the illiterate.
b) Allah says: Allah enjoins justice, kindness, giving charity to the relatives and
prohibits indecencies, evils and rebellion -16:90.
c) Have patience at the disasters that befall on you. It is a difficult task. It is
difficult to have patience and to forgive.
d) Allah says: Pardon and forgive them. Allah loves the doers of good. Allah says:
Don't you like that Allah should forgive you?
e) Allah says: Remove evil with what is good, as a result the enmity that exists
between you and him will be removed and he will become your friend.
f) Allah says: Those who appease their wrath, those who pardon people, Allah
loves the doers of good.
g) Allah says: Give up conjectures in most cases, as some conjecture is sin. Don't
spy and don't back-bite one another.
The seal of Prophethood conducted his life in a transparent manner emphasizing on
helping the poor and the needy and working very efficiently and effectively to make
life better for every human being. During his life time he preaches piety, adherence
to God‘s command and being very morally sound. In one of his teachings, he
brought the chick of a bird to the gathering of the Prophet and his companions, and
they noticed that the parent of the chick was following it, flapping around it .When
he sat down its parent threw itself upon its chick, and did not concern itself with the
danger, out of care towards its chick. This astonished the companions. The Prophet
Muhammad then turned to his companions and said: ‗Are you amazed at this bird?
You have taken its chick and it threw itself into danger out of mercy for the chick! I
swear by God, your Lord is more merciful to you than this bird is to its chick.
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The prophet emphasized on being merciful to colleagues, brothers, and even
animals, he taught the people to respect their elders and warn against any form of
rebellion to parents and elders, he in essence made it mandatory that we should
teach our children to worship the Creator thereby dressing decently, behaving in an
acceptable manner to the people. He warns against all forms of cheating the people
and led his companions by example, to the extent, he empowered them to be united
and speak in one voice.
The prophet lead a life that was full of emulative things to the extent that even his
enemies enjoyed favour from him everyday praying that God the almighty guide
them to understand his teachings so that they could achieve greatness in the
hereafter. The prophet warns against cheating and any form of behaviour that gives
undue advantage to others so that people where taught morality and moral conduct
at home, in the mosque, in the market, at work place and other places.
There is a lot to learn from Prophet Muhammad‘s humility and readiness to assist
the poor and those in need whom he was reported to have said are those whom
God loves and in many prophetic sayings, he was reported to have requested people
to love the poor and the needy whereby, he emphasized that charity should be given
to those in need and enjoin faithfulls to be giving rather than collecting where he
said the hand that gives is better than one that receives.
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
"It was by the mercy of Allah that you were gentle with them (O, Mohammad) for if
you had been harsh and hard of heart they would of dispersed from around you. So
pardon them and pray forgiveness for them and consult with them in the affair"
(Quran 3:159). This verse from the Holy Quran indicates that Prophet Mohammad's
(P) attitude was a factor in attracting people to Islam. Any leader who wants to
summon people to God should also be gentle and lenient in his personal attitude.
The importance of this verse is that one should be lenient as an individual, but not in
principles.
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The Holy Prophet (P) was very firm when it came to principles and showed no
flexibility or softness. If someone insulted him, he would forgive them kindly,
because that was something related to himself. But if anyone violated Islamic laws
and rulings, the Holy Prophet would treat them with severity and justice. Once
someone stopped the Holy Prophet (P) and claimed that the prophet owed him
some money and that he would not let him go unless he received the amount
immediately. The Holy Prophet said: "I don't owe anything, but even if I do, let me
go home to get you your money". The man said that he would not let the Prophet
take another step. Ignoring how gently the Prophet (P) had behaved, the man acted
fiercely and rudely, to the point that he took the Holy Prophets gown off and
wrapped it around his neck and pulled it, until it became bruised.
The Holy Prophet (P) had been on his way to the Mosque and when people noticed
that he was late, they went in search of him and found a Jew obstructing in the way.
At that point the Muslims wanted to slap and punish this rude fellow, but the Holy
Prophet (P) said: "No, you people do not interfere; I know what to do with my
friend". Observing this humble attitude and leniency, the Jew embraced Islam right
there and said: "You are so powerful yet you are so lenient, and this is not possible
for an ordinary man. I bear witness there is no God except Allah and that you
Mohammad are the messenger of Allah."
When the Holy Prophet (P) entered Mecca after the city had been conquered, a
woman from amongst the wealthy Quraish aristocrats had stolen something
important and and according to Islamic rules, her hand had to be cut off. The
women was a popular influential figure of Quraish, and her relatives tried to save her
by persuading the Prophet not to go ahead with the ruling because the women was
the daughter of such a wealthy and upperclass family and if her hand was to be cut
off the whole family would be disgraced.
The Prophet said: "Impossible, I cannot suspend the ruling. If this women was not a
member of the aristocracy (rich & famous) you would all agree that she must be
punished, but now you say she should not be punished because she would be
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disgraced. How can I forgive her? Never. The laws of Allah will never be suspended
and no excuses will be accepted".
From the two incidents we see that the Holy Prophet (P) never compromised in
matters regarding principles, but when his own interests were in question, he was
extremely lenient and generous. Some of the reasons behind the progress of Islam
were because of his excellent conduct, attitude and characteristics displayed by the
Prophet (P) and the way he lived. His great role as a Prophet, Messenger, guide,
leader and all the great characteristics of different personalities combined into one
man excelled him over all other men in history, and also because of the Holy Quran,
which was a miracle given to the Holy Prophet (P) from Allah. The unique beauty,
depth, elegance and attraction of the Holy Quran left a great impact in the spread of
Islam.
This is why Allah mentions in the Holy Quran in regards to the greatness of the Holy
Prophet.
(Quran 68:4) "And surely you are of an exalted character". Thus a man who talks or
preaches from his heart, will win the hearts of others, and whoever talks and
preaches from his mouth, his words will not penetrate hearts. In the messages
delivered by men of God, this point is clearly observed but not in the messages of
other leaders of the world. The Holy Prophet Mohammad (P) transformed the world
from its ignorance and idol worship to that of monotheism and salvation. He carried
out the most remarkable tasks under unbelievable hardships but always maintained
his kindness, generosity and forgiveness, which truly characterises the messenger of
God. In him the highest perfections were assembled. He was in reality that perfect
infallible man before whom the angels were ordered to prostrate. That is why Allah
and his angels praise and bless him and those who are faithful are commanded to
also praise and bless him and are required to learn, follow and benefit from the life
and teachings of the Prophet Mohammad.
DRESSING AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
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Decency entails suitable in words, behaviour, dress, becoming; fit; decorous; proper;
seemly; as, decent conduct; decent language. Decent dressing is an important
component of that first impression. People make assumptions about professional
credibility and potential performance based upon appearance during a first meeting,
and it is difficult to overcome a first impression.
Trust is a fragile and complex thing. It‘s made up of our thoughts, beliefs, values,
feelings and most important – our actions. It is often indefinable, highly personal and
mostly an unconscious process that governs the why and how of what we do.
Although trust, at all levels, appears to be at an all time low – we still desire it and
mostly understand that we need it to achieve success in our professional and
personal lives. First impressions are of significance when it comes to relationship
between people. What people wear helps create a powerful first impression for new
associates. Powerful dressing could achieve this sought after first impression with
ease.
Thorndike therein defined the halo effect as "a problem that arises in data collection
when there is carry-over from one judgment to another." He further expanded that it
is "...an extension of an overall impression of a person (or one particular outstanding
trait) to influence the total judgment of that person. The effect is to evaluate an
individual high on many traits because of a belief that the individual is high on one
trait. Similar to this is the 'devil effect,' whereby a person evaluates another as low on
many traits because of a belief that the individual is low on one trait which is
assumed to be critical." So, to clarify, if possible, when an individual is found to
possess one desirable trait, then that individual is automatically assumed to have
many other desirable traits as well. A kind of an "angelic halo" surrounds the person,
in the eyes of the beholder, and they can do no wrong. If a person is bestowed with
good physical beauty, then this person is also presumed to possess a host of other
positive attributes as well, such as social competence, intellectual competence, and
personal adjustment.
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The inverse phenomenon called the "Devil Effect," and sometimes the "Horn Effect",
does not seem to get as much attention, even though its impact is just as prevalent
in society. Here, if a person seems particularly deficient in a critical trait, then that
person is automatically assumed to be deficient in many other traits as well, related
or otherwise. For example, an employee who is constantly "late" to work (perhaps
due to other non-work responsibilities in the morning) is assumed to be negligent in
their work-related duties, not committed to the job/company/project, and perhaps
even lazy overall.
Ultimately, these faulty biases may prove to become factual due to the Pygmalion
effect, or "self-fulfilling prophecy ", further reinforcing future errors in perception
due to bias and predisposition by the observer. The person working long hours
(perhaps compensating for technical incompetence), assumed to be a good worker
is given greater opportunity and thus attains greater, albeit undue, career
advancement. Conversely, the worker who dresses shabbily is assumed to care little
about their job, and therefore bypassed for greater opportunity when the situation
arises, regardless of suitability or capacity otherwise. Essentially, is phenomenon is a
psycho-social application of the Law of Proximity, whereby certain unrelated
observations, found in the comparable subjects in a narrow sample set, are assumed
to have a high correlation, when, in fact, no such correlation exists.
Morally, it is charming and pleasant to dress decently whenever you are coming in
contact with people. It is against every sense of belonging to dress in an indecent
manner that could not only discourage people to relate with you but will have a
negative effect on the way they will trust you. In higher institutions, most students
are influenced by their peers to dress in an immoral manner so that they appeal to
the opposite sex. It is pertinent to state that the more a girl hides her body the more
attractive she is and the more she is considered decent and vice versa. The end of
every human endeavour is morality; therefore it is vital that girls try to protect
themselves from societal hazards of rape, sorting and societal exploitation through
decent dressing which has lasting impact on the life of the people.
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References
Aje, S.A (2001). Problems of Cultism in Nigerian Schools. Ilorin Afri-focus Publishing
Company Limited. Pp 1-35.
Baumrind, D. (1978). Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children.Youth and Society , 9, 238-276.
Daodu, M.A (2003). Student cultism in Nigerian Secondary Schools. Nigerian
Education reviews, 8 (1) Pp. 186-194.
Edun, T. (1999) Cultism or gangsterism? Reflection on contemporary violence in
Nigerian Institution of Higher learning. Paper presented at Olabisi Onabanjo
University, Ago-Iwoye. Pp. 1-12
Holloway, (1989). Individual aggression and social conflict. The individual and society.
Great Britain. The Open University. Pp. 47-82.
Odubunmi, .O. (1998). Occultism in schools: An overview. A paper presented at a
seminar on towards total eradication of Occultism and Examination
Malpractices in schools. Pp.1-11.