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CONFLICT THEORIES

SIGMUND FREUD Proponent of the Psychoanalytic theory He believed that all psychological issues were generated by repressed sexual feelings. Infants already have sexual conflicts, unconscious drives in personality development. He also emphasized the importance of childhood experiences in personality formation Psychoanalytic Method - designed to help patients resolve their conflicts by exploring unconscious thoughts, motivations, and conflicts through the use of free association and other techniques Free association –patient just thinks of whatever comes into mind without specific directives from the analyst so that patient may be able to resolve his conflicts by using his unconscious thoughts I. TOPOGRAPHICAL MODEL OF THE MIND

a. Conscious – the part of the mind in which perception from out and inner world are brought into awareness. Requires attention cathexis, in which a form of neutralized energy is invested by a person to make him or her aware of a certain idea or feeling.

b. Preconscious – includes the mental events processes and contents that can be brought into consciousness when attention is focused. Between unconscious and preconscious. Ex: Recalling name of seatmate in grade school, trying hard it is at the tip of the tongue and then you remember it. It emerges into the conscious

c. Unconscious – Mental processes or contents which are kept hidden from awareness via censorship or what we call repression. It is closely related to instinctual drives; it is limited to wishes seeking fulfillment which provide the motivation for dream and neurotic symptom formation. Also characterized by primary process thinking. For unconscious thoughts to become conscious, it should pass through preconscious and it should be able to overcome censorship, repression and verbalization

Primary process thinking - governed by pleasure principle (not logical connections), has no concept of time, represents wishes as fulfillments (to primarily gain satisfaction), permits contradictions to exist simultaneously and denies existence of negatives.

II. STRUCTURAL THEORY OF THE MIND

a. Id – reservoir of unorganized instinctual drives; seat of basic instincts; operates on the pleasure principle (tension reduction); utilizes primary process thinking which is primarily to gain satisfaction; lacks capacity to delay or modify wishes with which an infant is born with. It is not to be viewed as synonymous with the unconscious, because both the ego and the superego have unconscious components

b. Ego – executive organ of psyche; controls motility, mobility, perception , our contact with reality; operates on the reality principle; delays drive expression; utilizes secondary process thinking for problem solving; becomes the decision maker; negotiator; seeks to fulfill id’s needs which are

acceptable to the world. Ego spans all three topographical dimension of the conscious, preconscious and unconscious--verbal expression, logical and abstract thinking is associated with conscious and preconscious while defense mechanisms reside in the unconscious. (Note: Ego is free floating in all three levels)

Emphasis on the role of conflict within this model, wherein conflict occurs initially between the id and the outside world, only to be transformed later to conflict between the id and the ego c. Superego - ongoing scrutiny of person’s thoughts,

feelings and behavior; always compares with standards of behavior; it can offer approval or disapproval; moral conscience; usually established when a child (5-6 y.o.) is expected to have internalized from the parent’s ideals and values. It’s the agency that PROSCRIBES (dictates what a person should NOT do). However, ego ideal is regarded as a component of the superego that is an agency that PRESCRIBES what a person SHOULD do according to internalized standards and values. (Note: ego ideal is like the ideal self that you wanted to become) Two aspects of Superego:

i. Conscience: “should not’s” of a person’s world; the things which he can be punished for.

ii. Ego ideal: “should’s”; the positive morals the person has been taught.

It can play both punishing and rewarding roles. If you go against your moral values, conscience punishes with guilt, shame fear. If you abide by the moral values the ego reward with pride, self righteousness

Fig.1: The iceberg metaphor of the human psyche according to Freud

Personality is the result of negotiation of ego with id, environment, superego. The tripartite system is the ego, id, superego and the reality that makes up the personality system.

Ex. Spiderman and the 1st LE in July

Id: Watch the movie, enjoy! Superego: Study well if you don’t study you might fail Ego: compromise and seek a solution between the 3 - reality, Id and Superego.

If my Id predominates I watch the movie. If Superego predominates I will study, study, study. If ego predominates I will study and if I pass, I will reward myself by watching Spiderman.


II. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Shows the shifts in investment of drives associated with pleasure: mouth, anus, genitalia

1. Oral (birth to 1 year) early: sucking, swallowing late: biting, chewing

*Thumb sucking, pencil chewing, overeating, smoking 2. Anal (1-3)

early: delivering feces late: withholding feces

3. Phallic (3-6) 4. Latency (6-11) 5. Genital (adolescence)

Table.1. Psychosexual stages of development

Stage Focus Character traits

Oral

(0-18

months)

Pleasure centers on the

mouth-sucking, biting,

chewing

Capacity to give to and receive

from others without excessive

dependency

Anal

(18-36

months)

Pleasure focuses on

bowel and bladder

eliminations; coping

with demands for

control

Development of personal

autonomy, capacity for

independence and personal

initiative, capacity for self-

determination

Phallic

(3-6

years)

Pleasure zone is the

genitals: coping with

incestuous sexual

feelings

Sense of sexual identity;

mastery of objects and persons

in the environment and over

internal processes and

impulses

Latency

(6 to

puberty)

Dormant sexual feelings sense of industry and capacity

for mastery of objects and

concepts

Genital

(puberty

on)

Maturation of sexual

interests

Sense of identity and capacity

for meaningful participation

in love and work

CARL GUSTAV JUNG

He expanded Freud’s concept of unconscious. (Note: He was a close friend and collaborator of Freud until he went his own way because he disagreed with some of Freud’s assumptions such as the Oedipal complex. He was the proponent of the Analytical psychology or Jungian psychology. The movie that Dra mentioned is titled "A dangerous method" (2011). This is a story concering Freud's and Jung's theories with Keira Knightley as the actress who portrayed the patient.) Collective unconscious - all humankind’s common, shared mythologic and symbolic past. It includes archetypes which are representational images and configurations with universal symbolic meanings. Ex: The Self, persona, the shadow, anima, animus, great mother, wise old man (shaman), hero, the child, trickster.

Persona – The mask covering personality (the face that one presents to the world) Anima - man’s undeveloped femininity Animus - woman’s undeveloped masculinity

Complexes – are feeling-toned ideas that develop as a result of personal experience interacting with archetypal imagery Ex: mother complex is determined by interaction of a child with his/ her mother and its conflict with the child's archetypal expectation

Two types of personality organizations: (each person has a mixture of both)

1. Introvert- focus on their inner world of thoughts, intuitions, emotions and sensations

2. Extrovert- oriented toward the outer world, other persons and material goods

Individuation - ultimate goal for Jungian theory. It is the process throughout life whereby persons develop a unique sense of their own identity

Nice to know: “I had to abandon the idea of the superordinate position of

the ego... I saw that everything, all

paths I had been following, all steps I

had taken, were leading back to a

single point -- namely, to the mid-

point. It became increasingly plain to

me that the mandala is the centre. It is

the exponent of all paths. It is the path

to the centre, to individuation…I knew

that in finding the mandala as an expression of the self I had attained what

was for me the ultimate.” - C. G. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections.

HENRY MURRAY Proposed Personology as a theory of personality. It is focused on motivation which is a need aroused by both internal and external stimulation. A need may be primary (biological) or secondary (psychological). Once aroused, motivation produces continued activity until need is reduced or satisfied. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) — projective technique that reveals conscious & unconscious mental processes & problem areas.

Fig.2: Examples of TAT pictures used for patient’s storytelling

KAREN HORNEY Holistic psychology. It says that a person should be seen as a unitary whole who influences and is influenced by the environment Person’s current personality attributes result from interaction between the person & environment. Different with Freud’s tripartite system, a person's current personality attributes are not solely based on infantile libidinal strivings carried over from childhood. Self-realization explores distorting influences that prevent personality from growing. Therapeutic process aims for self-realization. Basic anxiety & basic trust. Basic anxiety is caused by emotional neglect in childhood whereby the child feels helpless and isolated in a hostile world. This prevents him or her from relating with others with the spontaneity of his or her real feelings and leads to development of defensive strategies. Three concepts of self

a. Actual self - sum total of a person’s experience b. Real self - harmonious, healthy person c. Idealized self - neurotic expectation or glorified self

image that a person feels he or she should be.

ERIK ERIKSON Epigenetic principle - development occurs in sequential clearly defined stages, and that each stage must be satisfactorily resolved for development to proceed smoothly. If successful resolution of a stage does not occur, all subsequent stages reflect failure in the form of physical, cognitive, social or emotional maladjustment. Psychosocial crisis - not a threat of catastrophe, but a turning point, a crucial period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential and therefore the ontogenetic source of generational strength and maladjustment Psychosocial virtue - inherent strength


PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Table.2: Stages of Psychosocial development

OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY A psychodynamic theory within psychoanalytic psychology that describes the process of developing a psyche as one grows in relation to others in the environment. One proponent under this is Margaret Mahler. MARGARET MAHLER

Separation-Individuation theory. It is interested in how children acquired identity separate from their mothers. She elaborated objects-relations approach (the main focus of contemporary psychoanalysis) Psychological Birth of Human Infant

a. Normal Autism – sleep outweighs periods of arousal, detached, self absorbed

b. Symbiosis (2-5mos) – increasing perceptual abilities, can distinguish form inner from outer world

c. Hatching/ Differentiation (5-10mos) – ignorant of differences between him and mother; rupture of shell; begin to be interested in the outside world, uses mother as point of orientation

d. Practicing (10-18mos) – crawling, moving, walking Checking – comparative scanning; checking back (most important normal pattern of cognitive and emotional development) Optimal distance – distance allow child to explore but safely with the mother Emotional refueling – explores and absorbed but perks up with mother contact

e. Rapprochement (18-24mos) – infant again becomes close to the mother

Beginning Crisis Resolution

f. Object constancy (2-5y)-can invoke a stable internal image of the mother even if she isn’t around

ATTACHMENT THEORIES JOHN BOWLBY

Father of attachment theory Attachment - the emotional tone between children and their caregivers. It occurs when there is a "warm, intimate and continuous relationship with the mother (or a surrogate) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment". Normal attachment in infancy is crucial to a person's healthy development. Readiness for attachment is biologically driven (towards attachment) and will result in the infant's inherent want to be with a preferred person which he or she perceives as stronger, wiser and able to reduce anxiety and thus able to make the infant secure.

Proximity - essence of attachment (i.e., tendency of a child to stay close to the mother or caregiver). Without this, the child does not develop a secure base Secure base - launching pad for independence. In its absence, the child feels frightened or threatened, and development is severely compromised Bonding - concerns the mother’s feelings for her infant. Differs from attachment where the infant seeks security from mother and the mother does not necessarily rely on infant for security. Phases of Attachment (not mentioned in the lecture)

1. Preattachment stage (birth to 8 or 12 weeks)- babies orient to their mothers, follow them with their eyes over a 180- degree range, and turn toward and move rhythmically with their mother's voice

2. Attachment in the making (8 to 12 weeks to 6 months)- infants become attached to other persons in the environment

3. Clear- cut attachment (6 through 24 months)- infants cry and show other signs of distress when separated from caretaker and on being returned stops crying and clings to gain further assurance of mother's return

4. 24 months and beyond- mother figure is seen as independent and a more complex relationship between mother and child develops

MARY AINSOWRTH

She confirmed that attachment reduces anxiety. Interaction between the mother and her baby during the attachment period significantly influences the baby's current and future behavior (ex: sensitive responsiveness of the mother and close bodily contact when the infant signals are associated with less crying and growth of self- reliance as baby grows older) Strange situation assessment - protocol that assesses the quality and security of an infant's attachment.

The infant is exposed to escalating amounts of stress: infant and parent enter an unfamiliar room- stranger enters- parent leaves. When the parent returns, the responses of the baby exhibit their attachment styles: Secure and Insecure (Avoidant, Ambivalent, Disorganized)

*About 65% of infants are securely attached by the age of 24 months

Secure base effect - enables children to move away from attachment figures and to explore the environment. It can be played by an inanimate object (AKA transitional object by Winnicott, ex: teddy bear and blanket) which will accompany the child during his or her exploration

FULFILLMENT THEORIES Emphasized people’s self-perceptions and their drive for self-actualization as determinants of personality People are innately inclined toward goodness, love, and creativity and that the primary natural motivation is the drive to fulfill one’s potential ALFRED ADLER Theory of Individual Psychology People’s perceptions of their own body and its shortcomings were a major factor in shaping their goals in life – ‘what we feel we lack determines what we will become in life’. Goal of treatment under this theory is to overcome feelings of inferiority by encouragement.

Inferiority complex - sense of inadequacy and weakness that is universal and inborn Organ inferiority - phenomenon in which self esteem is compromised by a physical defect

He sees aggression, specifically its manifestation as a striving for power, as more important and not Freud's overemphasis on sexual theory of neurosis.

Masculine protest - tendency to move from a passive, feminine role to a masculine, active role

He recognized importance of birth order on character:


First born - usually natural leaders. But when a sibling comes in, there is anger toward the sibling who tried to displace them. They are more compliant, follows the rules set by parents.

Middle child - highly competitive. They want to assert their position in the world.

Last born - spoiled but highly independent, more likely to rebel against the natural order of things

CARL ROGERS Person-centered or client-centered psychotherapy - patients guide the direction of the process.

Primary therapeutic approach - encouragement He said that persons are born with a capacity to direct themselves in the healthiest way, toward a level of completeness called self-actualization. He viewed authentic experience of one’s self as the basic component of growth and well-being. He says that a genuine relationship or interaction is one in which you are comfortable to be yourself, and in which the other person clearly sees your potential. For him, personality is a dynamic phenomenon involving ever- changing communications, relationships and self- concepts. Unconditional positive regard - outlook of therapists that is the total non- judgmental acceptance of clients as they are. ABRAHAM MASLOW

Self-actualization theory. Human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs. As the more primitive needs such as hunger and thirst are satisfied, more advanced psychological needs such as affection and self- esteem become the primary motivators. Self-actualization is the highest need. Peak experience - episodic brief occurence in which a person suddenly experiences a powerful transcendental state of consciousness frequently occuring in self- actualizers.

He also believed that we are aware of our motives and drives for the most part and that without the obstacles of life, we would all become psychologically healthy individuals with a deep understanding of ourselves and an acceptance of the world around us.

Fig.3: Hierarchy of needs

1. Physiological Needs These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, including the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met.

2. Security Needs These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health insurance, safe neighborhoods, and shelter from the environment.

3. Social Needs These include needs for belonging, love, and affection. Maslow considered these needs to be less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments and families help fulfill this need for companionship and acceptance, as do involvement in social, community or religious groups.

4. Esteem Needs After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasingly important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.

5. Self-actualizing Needs This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their potential.

LEARNING THEORIES

Traditional behavioral theories only look at behaviors which are observable and measurable in understanding personality. It does not recognize the role of internal motivations in the development of personality. ¨Traditional behavioral theories view personality as a pattern of learned behaviors acquired through classical or operant conditioning and shaped by reinforcement in the form of rewards or punishment. This suggests that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Social-cognitive approach emphasizes the role cognition plays in the learning process. Focuses on learning that takes place in social situations through observation and reinforcement IVAN PAVLOV

Classical conditioning aka respondent conditioning Repeated pairing of neutral stimulus (ex. bell) with another stimulus (ex. food) that evokes a response (ex. salivation) -> Eventually, the neutral stimulus (bell) comes to evoke the response (salivation) even without the stimulus that naturally produces the response (food) Unconditioned stimulus -> unconditioned response

Neutral stimulus + Unconditioned stimulus -> unconditioned response

Conditioned stimulus -> conditioned response

We make associations which cause us to generalize our response to one stimuli onto a neutral stimuli it is paired with BF SKINNER Operant conditioning. Behavior is maintained or strengthened by a reward or reinforcement and suppresses or weakened by an aversive stimulus called punishment. "Operant" refers to how an organism operates on the environment. Operant conditioning comes from how we respond to what is presented to us in our environment. Learning is due to the natural consequences of our actions. Personality is the set of responses to the world of stimuli a person experiences that is acquired, maintained, and strengthened or weakened according to the same rules of reward and punishment that alter any other form of behavior ALBERT BANDURA Social learning theory. Demonstrated that it is through modeling (imitation or observational learning) that a person learns. Person’s choice of model is influenced by age, sex, status & similarity. If chosen model reflects healthy norms & values, person develops self-efficacy (capacity to adapt to normal everyday life as well as to threatening situations).

Application: demonstrating a fearless approach to a phobic sitation may be useful to motivate a patient's approach to the feared object or situation; group therapy in weight education and smoking cessation

Reciprocal determinism - behavior results from interplay between cognitive & environmental factors

Ex: Baby claps hands after mother does so; Child angrily hits playmate in same way as punished at home; Teenager wears same clothes & hairstyle as friends in school.

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