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What Are the Issues ?
Individuals develop socially. How do social relationships develop?
What factors drive social development? biological cultural cognitive
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Erikson’s Theory
Biological in belief that there are innate drives to develop social relationships and that these promote survival (Darwinism)
Divided life span into eight psychosocial stages, each associated with a different drive and a problem or crisis to resolve
Outcome of each stage varies along a continuum from positive to negative
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Stage 1 (birth - 1)Trust vs. Mistrust
Infants must rely on others for careConsistent and dependable caregiving
and meeting infant needs leads to a sense of trust
Infants who are not well cared for will develop mistrust
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Stage 2 (1-3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Children are discovering their own independence
Those given the opportunity to experience independence will gain a sense of autonomy
Children that are overly restrained or punished harshly will develop shame and doubt
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Stage 3 (3-5 years)Initiative vs. Guilt
Children are exposed to the wider social world and given greater responsibility
Sense of accomplishment leads to initiative, whereas feelings of guilt can emerge if the child is made to feel too anxious or irresponsible
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Stage 4 (5-12 years) Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage of life surrounding mastery of knowledge and intellectual skills
Sense of competence and achievement leads to industry
Feeling incompetent and unproductive leads to inferiority
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Stage 5 (adolescence)Identity vs. Confusion
Developing a sense of who one is and where s/he is going in life
Successful resolution leads to positive identity
Unsuccessful resolution leads to identity confusion or a negative identity
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Stage 6 (young adulthood)Intimacy vs. Isolation
Time for sharing oneself with another person
Capacity to hold commitments with others leads to intimacy
Failure to establish commitments leads to feelings of isolation
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Stage 7 (middle adulthood)Generativity vs. Stagnation
Caring for others in family, friends and work leads to sense of contribution to later generations
Stagnation comes from a sense of boredom and meaninglessness
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Stage 8 (late adulthood to death)Integrity vs. Despair
Successful resolutions of all previous crises leads to integrity and the ability to see broad truths and advise those in earlier stages
Despair arises from feelings of helplessness and the bitter sense that life has been incomplete
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Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecology Theory
Network of interactions and interdependencies among people, institutions and cultural context
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Harlow’s Study of Attachment
Infant rhesus monkeys were placed with two surrogate mothers, one made of wire and one covered with soft cloth
Milk-producing nipple was attached to either the wire or the cloth mother
Attachment was based on “contact comfort” rather than feeding
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Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
Mother-child dyads were observed in a playroom under four conditions: initial mother-child interaction mother leaves infant alone in playroom friendly stranger enters playroom mother returns and greets child
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Forms of Attachment
Securely attached - explores the room when mother is present, becomes upset and explores less when mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother returns
Avoidantly attached - a form of insecure attachment in which child avoids mother and act coldly to her
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Forms of Attachment
Anxious resistant attachment - a form of insecure attachment where the child remains close to mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort
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Hoffman’s Categories of Discipline
Power assertion - use of rewards and real or threatened punishments to control children’s behavior
Love withdrawal - expressing disapproval of child rather than action
Induction - verbal reasoning in which parent induces child to think about harmful consequences of actions
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Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
Authoritarian - value obedience and use a high degree of power assertion
Authoritative - less concerned with obedience, greater use of induction
Permissive - most tolerant, least likely to use discipline
Neglectful - completely uninvolved
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind people’s answers
Proposed five stages, each taking into account a broader portion of the social world
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Levels of Moral Reasoning
Preconventional - moral reasoning is based on external rewards and punishments
Conventional - laws and rules are upheld simply because they are laws and rules
Postconventional - reasoning based on personal moral standards
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Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
A focus on direct consequencesNegative actions will result in
punishmentsPositive actions will result in rewards
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Stage 2: Self-Interested Exchanges
Reflects the understanding that different people have different self-interests, which sometimes come in conflict
Getting what one wants often requires giving something up in return
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Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity
An attempt to live up to the expectations of important others
Positive actions will improve relations with significant others
Negative actions will harm those relationships
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Stage 4: Law-and-Order Morality
To maintain social order, people must resist personal pressures and follow the laws of the larger society