Pre-Raphaelite and the Victorian Literary Imagination- Assessment 1: Art
Catalogue
Ekphrastic Fantastic
Lord Alfred Tennyson 1809-1892
‘Mariana’ 1830
John Everett Millais 1829-1896
Mariana 1851
Oil on Mahogany 59.7 x 49.5
Allocated by HM Government in lieu of tax to the Tate Gallery 1999.1
The poem ‘Mariana’ by Sir Alfred Tennyson is a singularly ekphrastic piece that
expands upon Shakespeare’s figure Mariana in Measure for Measure. Millais’
painting of the same name, which used Tennyson’s as a starting point, and therefore
Shakespeare, is more ekphrastic through the incorporation of elements of his own
work, as well as his surroundings at the time. As this essay shall highlight, the use of
ekphrasis adds to the creation of the figure of Mariana, but their individual skill as
artists can also be seen where they have expanded upon, or created new aspects,
from their ekphrastic inspiration. Together, the ekphrasis and personal ability of
Tennyson and Millais create two “Ekphrastic Fantastic” works.
Tennyson explores Mariana’s time in social and romantic exile in his poem using
three poetic devices, the semantic field of neglect, imagery, and repetition. Of these,
the last uses Mariana’s own voice for effect. Throughout the poem she states ‘he 1 Frances Fowle, ‘Sir John Everett Millais, Bt: Mariana, 1851’, Tate, (2000) <http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/millais-mariana-t07553 > [accessed 25 October 2017].
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cometh not’2 highlighting her isolation. The change in tense in the final verse from
present, ‘he cometh not’,3 to future, ‘he will not come’,4 show Mariana’s acceptance
of Angelo’s, her ex-fiancé and Measure for Measure’s antagonist, abandonment of
her by recognising its continuation. Moreover, Mariana’s repetition demonstrates her
desire and longing for him. Her acknowledgement of his absence reveals that she is
hoping he will return. This contrast between her desire and her reality heightens the
emotion in the phrase ‘he will not come’,5 as it is not merely an acknowledgement of
her abandonment, but also an understanding of her longing being unfulfilled.
Furthermore, Tennyson uses imagery to parallel her condition. The semantic field of
neglect is foregrounded from the outset by adjectives like ‘rusted’,6 ‘broken’7 and
‘lonely’.8 Just like Mariana, the objects have been abandoned and left to decay. A
particularly poignant image is of the ‘unlifted latch’.9 It tells us that no one has been
to visit Mariana. She has been orphaned, her brother dying at sea in the play, then
exiled by society to ‘the lonely moated grange’.10 Through the description of her
landscape, Tennyson creates ‘a strong state of emotion’11that corresponds to
Mariana’s psychology. She is not simply ‘dejected’,12 but mentally decaying and
emotionally desperate as a result of her exile.
2 Lord Alfred Tennyson, ‘Mariana’, in The Norton Anthology of Poetry , ed. by Margaret Ferguson, Mary Jo Salter, Jon Stallworthy, 5 th edn (New York and London, W. W. Norton and Company, 2005), pp 982- 983, (p. 982), l. 10.3 Ibid. 4 Ibid, l. 82.5 Ibid.6 Ibid, l. 3.7 Ibid, l. 5.8 Ibid, p. 982, l. 8.9 Ibid, l. 6.10 Ibid, l. 8.11 The Poetry Foundation, ‘Alfred, Lord Tennyson: 1809-1892’, Poetry Foundation.org, (2017) <https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/alfred-tennyson> [accessed 7 November 2017].12 William Shakespeare, ‘Measure for Measure’, The Complete Works of Shakespeare, ed. by Peter Alexander (London and Glasgow, Collins, 1951), iii. 1. 255.
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Moving onto Millais’ Mariana, the ekphrastic Pre-Raphaelite aim to sympathise with
the emotional in former art is achieved through his replication of Tennyson in
portraying the theme of abandonment. Nevertheless, Millais does not limit his
ekphrasis to Tennyson or even Shakespeare. To do so, Barthes writes, would mean
‘to impose upon that text a stop clause, to furnish it with a final signification. To close
the writing.’13 Rather than ‘impose’14on his creativity by remaining true to the texts,
Millais paints Mariana carrying out a probable, although unmentioned, task of
embroidering in her chamber. Mariana is stretching out her back from the work, her
face and posture suggest a physical and a mental weariness. By not working on her
embroidery, we can infer that she is beginning to recognise the totality of her
desertion and thus the futility in continuing it. However, she has not yet fully walked
away from it. She is transitioning from the hope hinted at in ‘he cometh not’15 into the
realisation and consequent depression that ‘he will not come’.16 It is only with the
knowledge of Tennyson and Shakespeare’s texts that the viewer would fully
appreciate Mariana’s abandonment and resultant mental state. In spite of this,
Millais’ deviation means that an ‘unknowing’17 viewer can also recognise the
emotional distress Mariana is going through. Indeed, William Michael Rossetti
records ‘[Mariana] appeared to be a great favourite with women, one of whom said it
was the best thing in the exhibition’.18 The ekphrasis that is present does not
complete the work, it is a successful, separate entity, undeniably though, it adds
another layer of meaning that helps Mariana continue to be intriguing.
13 Roland Barthes, The Death of the Author, trans. Richard Howard.14 Ibid.15 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 10.16 Ibid, l. 82.17 Frances Bonner, Jason Jacobs, ‘The first encounter: Observations on the chronology of encounter with some adaptations of Lewis Carroll’s Alice books’, Convergence, 17.1 (2011), pp. 37-48 (p. 39) < http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1354856510383361#articleCitationDownloadContainer> [accessed 9 November 2017]. 18 William Michael Rossetti, quoted in Elizabeth Hawksley, ‘John Everett Millais and The Seductive Mariana’, Celebrating the Arts, Writing, (2016) < http://elizabethhawksley.com/john-everett-millais-and- the-seductive-mariana/ > [accessed 1 November 2017].
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Additionally, Millais inclusion of leaves over Mariana’s work, and in her chambers, as
well as the free roaming mouse, suggest that Mariana has abandoned her societal
duty of carrying out domestic tasks, just as Angelo abandoned his in not marrying
her. Although her surroundings have hitherto avoided the stage of decay that
Tennyson’s poem begins with, Millais’ Mariana is mentally and physically
progressing towards that total mental dejection. One example of faithful ekphrasis is
in the contrast of abandonment with longing shown with Mariana gazing out the
window. Interestingly, the window is a doubly ekphrastic feature having been
adapted from one of Merton College Chapel’s own stained glass windows.19 It is
possible that Millais is drawing on Tennyson’s depiction of Mariana looking ‘athwart
the glooming flats’20 searching for her lover. But Marek Zasempa argues that her
longing is not merely for economic and social security through marriage, it is a
sexual longing; ‘Mariana’s awaiting is sexual; it even verges on some bodily
impatience’.21Mariana’s contorted pose is easily read as barely suppressed sexual
desire when considered with Shakespeare. In Measure for Measure, the Duke
informs Isabella that despite Angelo’s ‘unjust kindness, that in all reason should have
quenched her love’,22 his spurning of her has been ‘like an impediment in the current,
made it more violent and unruly.’23 Mariana’s passionate and all-consuming love for
Angelo is one more ekphrastic feature. Shakespeare’s description of Mariana as
‘unruly’24 supports Zasempa’s reading because it suggests a transgression, namely
she has developed a sexual appetite unfitting of her class and gender. Millais’
composition of Mariana looking out a window is key in showing this one-sided,
19 Alastair Grieve, ‘The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the Anglican High Church, The Burlington Magazine, 111.794 (1969), pp. 292+292-295 (p. 259) <http://www.jstor.org.oxfordbrookes.idm.oclc.org/stable/pdf/875938.pdf > [accessed 3 November 2017] .20 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 20.21 Marek Zasempa, The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: Painting versus poetry, (doctoral dissertation, Katowice, University of Silesia, 2008), p. 112 <https://depot.ceon.pl/bitstream/handle/123456789/693/pre-raphaelite+brotherhood_MZ.pdf?sequence=1 > [accessed 1 November 2017]. 22 Shakespeare, 233.23 Ibid, 234.24 Ibid.
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socially inappropriate longing. The window is closed and therefore creates a barrier
to the outside world, so too are her inner desires stopped by this external, social
barrier. The Pre-Raphaelites regularly made their figures sexually alluring and even
seem to convey personal desire, as shown with Mariana, contrary to the accepted
views of the time. When it was done, it was ‘only alluded to, concealed, unattainable
for visual perception without the textual explanation’.25 It is only in collaboration with
the texts that the concealed emotion of Millais’ Mariana can be fully understood.
After the first wave of Pre-Raphaelitism, the painters moved away from literature and
began to pursue the forming Aesthetic movement, however, these earlier pictures,
arguably, contain a much greater impact in their conscious rebellion against
academic teaching and use of ekphrasis.
The passage of time is another theme that is present in Tennyson’s ‘Mariana’ which
he creates through a regular rhyme scheme which mirrors the unceasing flow of
time. The change of noun in the phrase ‘my life is dreary’26 between ‘the day’,27 ‘the
night’28 and ‘my life’29 suggest that, although the time passes, everything is so similar
and monotonous to Mariana that the only discernible qualities are that it is either
‘day’30 or ‘night’,31 or even more ambiguously, her ‘life’32 that is ongoing, nothing
more. Her disinterest in the passing of time, and lack of enjoyment in general,
characterise her as a heavily depressed figure.33 For the reader, the ambiguity of the
nouns mean that the details that do occur are more noticeable. As discussed above,
the imagery Tennyson creates is one of abandonment and exile, so, with the
characterisation of Mariana as depressed, the tone ensures that by the end of the
25 Zasempa, p. 23. 26 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 9.27 Ibid, l. 33. 28 Ibid, l. 21.29 Ibid, l. 9.30 Ibid, l. 33.31 Ibid, l. 21.32 Ibid, l. 9.33 NHS, ‘Clinical Depression’, NHS.UK, (2016) <https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/clinical-depression/symptoms/ > [accessed 8 November 2017].
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poem, the reader similarly feels despair, longing, and depression towards the
situation and as such empathises with Mariana.
Secondly, the passing of time is shown in the contrast between Mariana’s life and
nature. Tennyson depicts Nature as moving, showing how time is passing regardless
of Mariana’s inability to move on from Angelo. Bats flit, ‘night-fowl crow’,34 even the
‘rusted nails’35 falling show how life goes on. Yet, Mariana is stagnant in comparison.
Although time is passing and things are decaying, including Mariana herself as this
essay will explore later, she insists on remaining passive. Despite her passionate, all
consuming love, she does not seek out Angelo, instead she waits in the grange
longingly. Mariana is acting out the stereotypical female role of ‘the Angel in the
house’.36 She is still hopeful of being married, and so insists on remaining the
‘passive, submissive, unawakened’37 domestic figure that patriarchal society
demands good women be while she, and everything around her, is slowly degrading.
Although trying to be the ‘angel’,38 her longing is in conflict with the social demand to
have ‘no self-assertive consciousness, no desire for self-gratification’39giving her little
option than to remain, indefinitely, in the grange. It should be of little surprise then
that Tennyson’s Mariana is ‘aweary’40 and wishing for death, not just with awaiting
someone who may never come, but with the mental turmoil of having to suppress
her true desires knowing that time is slipping away from her and she will eventually
be too far gone to be rescued or redeemed in marriage.
Likewise, Time is shown as progressing in Millais’ painting through the
aforementioned leaves and mouse in Mariana’s room, as well as in the landscape
34 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 26.35 Ibid, l. 3.36 Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination, (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2000), p. 615 <https://ia801709.us.archive.org/30/items/TheMadwomanInTheAttic/The%20Madwoman%20in%20the%20Attic_text.pdf> [accessed 3 November 2017]. 37Ibid. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 Tennyson, p. 982, l. 11.
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outside her window, which depicts the Combe’s garden, Millais patrons at the time.41
Symbolically, Nature stands for life and fertility, thus the autumnal leaves suggest not
just the literal passing of time as Tennyson does, but also Mariana’s loss of
desirability, fertility, and youth. As Meaghan Kelly summarises, ‘It is evident that the
days of summer, fertility, and purity are at an end. Winter, desolation and solitude
begin to close in on Mariana.’42 As discussed earlier, Millais presents Mariana as
transitioning emotionally from hope into hopelessness, therefore the physical
depiction of autumn provides a realistic indicator of her transition. Her ‘violent and
unruly’43 feelings haver so far, not been fully quenched by time and abandonment,
and so are not yet wintery, resultantly, Millais’ Mariana has a little more hope left.
Considering the ekphrasis behind Mariana as well, Measure for Measure does
conclude with Angelo and Mariana married, although unwillingly on his part, which
supports Millais’ decision to maintain a sense of hope in his interpretation.
Both Tennyson’s and Millais’ ‘Mariana’ are “Ekphrastic Fantastic” in their creation
and depiction of the abandonment and longing of Mariana. Their combination of
realism in landscape, but also their use of symbolism, convey the social constraints
she is under, the conflict between her emotions and reality, and the passage of time.
When considered with the texts and works that have inspired them, such as
Shakespeare, both Mariana’s display the advantages of ekphrasis which helps their
works achieve the great psychological and emotional depth present. Additionally,
because of the ekphrasis that occurs, where there is diversions and additions, this
showcases Tennyson and Millais’ individual skill in being able to comprehend and
translate a state of being into word or image. In short, both Tennyson and Millais’
Mariana most definitely deserve their place in this ‘Ekphrastic Fantastic’ exhibition.
41 Grieve, p. 259.42 Meaghan Kelly, ‘Mariana and Angelo or Mary and the Angel’, The Victorian Web, (2004) < http://www.victorianweb.org/painting/millais/paintings/kelly3.html > [accessed 1 November 2017]. 43 Shakespeare, 234.
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Word Count- 1,814
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