Zionism in US – Haganah's Arms Procurement

ArmingDavid:TheHaganah'sillegalarmsprocurementnetworkintheUnitedStates19451949

ByRickyDaleCalhounJournalofPalestineStudiesVol.XXXVI,No.4(Summer2007),pp.2232

AnticipatinganarmedconictinPalestineafterWorldWarII,theHaganahembarkeduponalargescaleefforttobuyarmamentstobesenttoPalestine.Throughfrontcompanies,andwiththecooperationofcertainLatinAmericangovernments,armspurchasedprimarilythroughtheWarAssetsAdministration,whichsoldsurplusU.S.militaryequipmentinthewakeofWorldWarII,weretransferredillegallytoPalestine,oftenviaCzechoslovakia.Thisarticleplacesagroupofprominent,wealthy,andpoliticallyconnectedJewishAmericansreferredtohereastheSonneborngroup,areferencetotheinvolvementofRudolfSonnebornatthecenterofanetworkofHaganahoperativesinvolvedinthiseffort.

ON28MAY1947,UnitedStatesRearAdmiralR.H.Hillenkoetter,thedirectorofCentralIntelligence,addressedasecretmemorandumtothesecretaryofdefensetitledClandestineAirTransportOperations.InearlyApril,militaryauthoritiesinEuropehadbecomeconcernedthatseveralplanesownedbysmallU.S.charterairlineswereengagedinyingarmsandmunitionstoPalestine.HillenkoettercitedevidencethatServiceAirways,Inc.,aU.S.civilcargoairline,wasutilizingmilitarysurplusC46transportplanestocarryarmsfromCzechoslovakiatoPalestine.HewasespeciallyalarmedbyreportsthattheAmericanciviliancrewsyingtheplaneswereillegallywearingU.S.ArmyAirCorpsuniforms.HillenkoettercomplainedthatofcialsinItalyandSwitzerlandhadapparentlybeenmisled,believingthatthearmssmugglingightswerepartofasanctionedU.S.operation.HealsocitedtheactivitiesofOceanTradeAirways,Inc.,acharterfreightcarrierheadquarteredatLaurinburgMaxton,NorthCarolina.OceanTradeAirwayswasreportedlyownedbyRalphCoxofNewYorkandhadacontractualagreementtocarryfreightforAmericanAirlinesOceanTradesightcrewsworeAmericanAirlinesuniformswiththeAAlogoinsigniaremoved.OneofOceanTradesairplanes,afourengineC54Skymastertransport,wasengagedinregularightsbetweenPragueandBaytDaras,Palestine.OtherOceanTradeAirwaysplanes,mostlyDC3sandC46s,hadbeenspottedonCzechoslovakmilitaryairelds,whereCzechoslovaksecurityforcesstoodguardduringloadingandlayovers.HillenkoetterbelievedthattheseaerialgunrunningoperationsweresponsoredbythegovernmentofCzechoslovakia,and,byimplication,theSovietUnion.HillenkoetteralsonotedthatminorofcialsintheItaliangovernmentwereassistingZionistarmssmugglingights:LeftwingItaliansareactivelycollaboratingwiththeJewishmovementandfollowingthepartylinelaiddownbytheUSSRinsponsoringpartitionofPalestine.[1]Infact,theillicitactivitiesofServiceAirwaysandOceanTradeAirwaysthathadarousedAdmiralHillenkoetterssuspicionswerebutthetipofaniceberg,partofavastsecretprojectundertakenbytheZionistmovementtocircumventU.S.armsexportlaws.

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ZIONISMWereItosumuptheBaselCongressinaworditwouldbethis:AtBasel,IfoundedtheJewishState.IfIsaidthisoutloudtoday[1897]Iwouldbeansweredbyuniversallaughter.Ifnotin5years,thencertainlyin50.Everyonewillknowit.TheodorHerzlDiaries1897

Herzlmissedhisgoalbyonly1year.

ZionismemergedasanationalmovementinEasternEuropeinthe1880s.Itsfounder,TheodorHerzl(18601904),aHungarianJew,dreamedofestablishingaJewishStateinthelandofPalestine,adreamwhichwastoberealizedthroughcolonizationandlandacquisition.AccordingtoZionistarchives,theleadershipofearlyZionismbelievedthatthenativepopulationofPalestine,asaresultofthiscolonization,wouldsimplyfoldtheirtentsandslipawayor,iftheyresisted,theywouldbespiritedacrosstheborders.

~1948:LestWeForget(www.1948.org.uk)

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TheSonnebornGrougWellbeforetheendofWorldWarII,theZionistmovementhadformallydecidedtoestablishaJewishstateinPalestine(thesocalledBiltmoreProgramof1942).WithPalestinianArabscomprisingovertwothirdsofthecountryspopulation,anymovetoimplementthedecisionwascertaintoberesisted.BytheendofthewartherewasnolongeranyquestionthatanarmedconictwiththeArabswouldbreakoutimmediatelyuponBritainswithdrawalfromPalestine.TheHaganah,themilitaryarmoftheJewishAgency(thehighestpoliticalbodyoftheJewishpeople,bothinPalestineandworldwide[2])hadbeenbuildingupitsforcesandarmingfortheexpectedghtforsometime,butithadbeenhamperedbytheBritish,whorestricteditsaccesstoarms.TocircumventtheBritishblockade,theHaganahturnedtoSovietandAmericansourcesforweaponry.ThedemobilizationthatfollowedWorldWarIIaffordedtheZionistsenormousopportunitiestoprocureweaponsintheUnitedStates.Americanfactorieshadproducedmassiveamountsofweaponryduringthewar.Hundredsofthousandsoftonsofsurplusmilitaryequipment,frommesskitstotanks,airplanes,machineguns,artillery,andevenwarships,werenowbeingofferedforsaleasscrapbytheWarAssetsAdministration(WAA).Regulationsrequiredthatalltheweaponsberenderedinoperable,butinmanycasesthesoldiersawaitingdischargewhoperformedtheneutralizationdidafarfromthoroughjobthedamagedonetodisableweaponswasoftenonlysupercial.Moreover,asthematerialwasonlyjunk,anyonecouldbuyitlegally.However,on14December1947justweeksaftertheUNpassedthepartitionresolutionthatineffecttouchedoffthemilitaryconfrontationinPalestinePresidentTrumaninvokedtheNeutralityAct,imposingaunilateralembargoonweaponstobothsidesintheZionistArabconict.Fromthenon,exportingAmericanarmstoPalestinewasillegal.[3]Bythattime,however,ahighlysophisticatedarmssmugglingschemewasalreadyinplaceandwastakingfulladvantageoftheopportunitiesofferedbydemobilization.TheFBI,CIA,CustomsService,andotherU.S.authoritiesuncoveredpartsoftheoperationwhileitwasinprogress,asevidencedbyHillenkoettersmemorandum.Nonetheless,itisbynomeanscertainthatthedetailsofthecentrallyorchestratedplotwouldhaveeverfullyemergedhadtheparticipantsthemselvesnotlaterrevealedbitsandpiecesoftheoperation.Muchofitremainsshroudedinsecrecy.TheclosesttoacomprehensiveaccountexistingtodayisinvestigativejournalistLeonardSlatersbookThePledge,writtenasaheroictributetotheparticipantsandpublishedin1970.[4]AccordingtoSlater,whointerviewedmanyofthoseinvolved,theconspiracybeganwithameetingon1July1945intheNewYorkpenthouseapartmentofRudolfSonneborn,scionofawealthyAmericanJewishfamilythathadmadeitsfortuneintheoilandchemicalbusiness.BesidesSonneborn,thosepresentatthemeetingwereHenryMontor,directorofUnitedJewishAppeal,thefundraisingarmoftheJewishAgencyintheUnitedStatesDavidBenGurion,chairmanoftheExecutiveoftheJewishAgencyandessentiallytheheadoftheYishuv[5]andseventeenprominentAmericanJewswhomSlaterdidnotname.Slaterdid,however,statecryptically:Onewasarabbivewerelawyers.Theotherswerebusinessmen.Oneownedachainofdrugstoresonewasinjewelryanotherintheshoebusiness.[6]HewentontorevealthatthemenwereoneeachfromLosAngeles,CaliforniaBirmingham,AlabamaPhiladelphiaandPittsburgh,PennsylvaniaClevelandandColumbus,OhioMinneapolis,MinnesotaSt.Louis,MissouriNewark,NewJerseyandNewHaven,Connecticut.TherestwerefromNewYork.AllwereprominentmembersoftheJewishcommunityallwerewealthy.InhisautobiographyForJerusalem:ALife,TeddyKollek,whoworkedasanoperativefortheHaganahmissioninNewYorkandwholaterbecamethepopularlongtimemayorofJerusalem,neverspecicallyidentiedtheSonneborngroupassuchbuttoldessentiallythesamestory,puttingthenumberofmenatthecenteroftheHaganaheffortintheUnitedStatesataboutfortyAmericansutterlydevotedtotheJewishcause.[7]Kollek,whowasarelativelylowlevelHaganaheldoperativeatthetime,maynothavehaddetailedknowledgeofthehighlevelcirclearoundSonneborn,orhemayhavesoughttopreservethesecretofitsmembersidentitieswhenwritinghismemoirs.Sonnebornandhisassociateseventuallyadoptedthelegalcoverofacharity,theSonnebornInstitute,dedicatedtothereliefofEuropeanJews.Infact,thegroupbecamethefundraisers,facilitators,andbehindthescenesmastermindsoftheHaganahsillegalarmamentsprocurementeffortintheUnitedStates,operatingseparatelyfromtheJewishAgencyandtherebyshieldingitfromdirectinvolvementinunlawfulactivities.

YetthemenbroughttogetherbySonnebornhadhighlevelconnectionswiththeJewishAgency.AbbaHillelSilver,chairmanoftheAmericansectionoftheJewishAgencyandoneofthemembersoftheSonneborngroupwhocanbeidentied,providedaliaisonbetweentheillegalarmssmugglingoperationandtheJewishAgency.[8]BeneathSilver,TeddyKollekrandaytodayoperationsfromarentedroomintheseedyHotelFourteenat14East60thStreet,NewYork.[9]Kolleksaidofhisresponsibilities:"Myworktouchedonweaponproduction...speculationsonshippurchasesdealingswithfactoriesandjunkyardsliaisonwithspies,mobsters,moviemoguls,statesmen,bankers,professors,industrialists,andnewspapermenandnolackofillegalities,frompettytointernational....DealsweremadewithSouthAmericangovernmentstobuytanksandinnumerableotherthingsandshipthemontoPalestine."[10]

Kollekdescribedhisjobasthatofaharriedorganizerandcoordinator.TheprincipaloratleastthemostaudaciousbuyeroperativeintheeldwasYehudaArazi,describedasaamboyantrisktakerwhousedmultiplealiases(YehudaAlon,JosephTannenbaum,JosedePaz,RabbiLefkowitch,Dr.Schwartz,Mr.Oppenheim,AlbertMiller)andwhohadbeenactivesmugglingarmsfortheHaganahintoPalestinefromEuropesince1938.[11]AlthoughArazimadeseveralmajorarmspurchases,hismainvaluetotheHotelFourteeneffortseemstohavebeenhisknowledgeoftheworldarmstradeandhiscontacts,oneofwhomwasCountStefanCzarnecki,aPolisharmsdealerwithwhomArazihaddonebusinessinEuropebeforeWorldWarII.[12]AnotherAraziassociatewasLeonardWeisman,whowasprobablyamemberoftheSonneborngroup.Weismanwasa34yearoldfromPittsburghwhohadmadeafortuneinscrapmetalsandconstructionmaterials.HisbusinessesincludedMaterialsRedistributionCompany,armthatdealtinscrapmachineryParagonDesignandDevelopmentCorporation,acompanythattradedinbuildingmaterialsandPrattSteamshipLines.AfourthWeismancompany,FoundryAssociates,Inc.,existedonlyonpaper.AllassistedinthepurchaseandillegalexportofarmsfromtheUnitedStates.[13]PerhapsthemanmostindispensabletotheHotelFourteenarmspurchasingoperationwasscrapmetaldealerSamSloan.Sloan,thewelloffAmericanbornsonofpoorJewishimmigrants,scannedthelistsofneutralizedwarmaterialofferedforsaleasjunkbytheWAA,identiedwhattheHaganahneeded,andthenutilizedanetworkofJewishAmericanscrapmetaldealersscatteredacrossthecontinenttoexaminedesiredweaponsandreportbacktohimthemannerinwhichtheyhadbeenrenderedinoperable.Notalldepotshadsabotagedidenticalweaponsinthesameway,andSloanusedthereportssentinbyhisjunkmentomixandmatchundamagedpartsfromdifferentlocationstodeterminewheretoobtainallthecomponentsnecessarytoassemblefullyoperableweapons.[14]

WhenarmsarrivedinNewYorktheybecametheresponsibilityofElieSchalit.Thoughonly22yearsold,SchalitwasanexperiencedHaganahoperativewhosejobwastomovethearmsfromtheUnitedStatestoPalestine.[15]SchalitreceivedbehindthescenesassistancefromprominentNewYorklawyerNahumBernstein,whosetupseveralfront

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companiestoprovidelegalcoverfortheillegalarmsexports.Oneofthesefalsefronts,MachineryProcessingandConvertingCompany,armthatsupposedlyconvertednonlethalmilitaryequipmenttrucks,jeeps,andothermachineryforcivilianuse,providedcoverforthepurchaseandillegalexportofarmsmakingmachinesaswellasarmaments.Anotherrm,OvedTradingCompany,whichostensiblyexportedequipmentandsuppliesusedinmining,providedlegalcoverforbuyingandtransportingexplosives.NewEnglandPlasticNoveltyCompanyandShermanMetropolitanCompanyweredummycorporationsthatownedseveralwarehousesusedtocollect,store,andconcealillicitgoods.Bernsteinalsosetupacharity,MaterialsforPalestine,anditstwosubsidiaries,EasternDevelopmentCorporation,whichexportedlegalnonmilitarygoodsandmachinerytoPalestineasreliefsupplies,andInlandMachineryandMetalCompany,armthatexportedweaponscomponentsandweaponmakingmachinerydisguisedaslegitimatemachinetools.[16]AdolfC.Robison,awealthytextilemanufacturer,wasthechairmanofMaterialsforPalestine(renamedMaterialsforIsraelafterMay1948)from1947until1949.[17]Anothercompany,LandandLaborforPalestine,wascharteredasaJewishyouthgroup,butitsrealfunctionwastorecruit(illegally)Jewish(andsomenonJewish)combatveteransoftheU.S.armedforcestoghtinPalestine.[18]

Attimes,theHaganahseldmenstolewhattheycouldnotbuy.Ononeoccasion,NathanLiff,owneroftheUniversalAirplaneSalvageCompany,abusinessengagedinthescrappingofsurpluswarplanesataWAAdepotinHawaii,waiteduntilthenightguardatthefacilitylefthispostforsupperandthenusedaforklifttoswapvehundredirreparable.50calibermachinegunsthathehadboughtasscrapironforvehundredidenticalmachinegunsthathadnotyetbeenrenderedinoperable.LiffthenshippedthegunstoCalifornia,wheretheHaganahsWestCoastcoordinator,HankGreenspun,sentthemontoPalestineviaMexico.[19]

FromNicaraguatoNewarkTheHaganahfoundLatinAmericascorruptdictatorscongenialtoassistinginthetransportschemeparticularlyNicaraguanstrongmanGeneralAnastasioTacoSomoza.AfterinitialcontactsthroughanumberofJewishintermediaries,TeddyKollekandYehudaArazitraveledtoNicaraguaandmetwithSomoza,whoprovidedthemwithNicaraguandiplomaticpassportsandofcialauthorizationtopurchaseweaponsintheUnitedStatesandEuropeforNicaraguasNationalGuard.SomozaalsosuppliedlettersofcreditdrawnagainsttheNicaraguangovernmentsaccountintheamountof$3million,andheinstructedNicaraguanconsulatesinEuropetoarrangetransportofweaponspurchasedtheretoMarseilles,Trieste,andGenoa,ostensiblyforshipmenttoNicaragua.InactualitythearmamentswouldbeloadedaboardHaganahownedshipsanddivertedtoPalestine.AccordingtoKollek:Somoza,aswellastheforeignministerandthepresident,hadtosigntheletters.Itwasaperfectlyhonorabledeal,perfectlyproper.Theycouldntimagineanyonedoingotherwise,andtheycooperatedbecauseoftheirstrongbasicsympathyforourcause.[20]

HistorianAmitzurIlanindicatesthatSomozassympathyfortheZionistcausewasbolsteredbymoney.AccordingtoIlan,Somozareceiveda3.5percentcommissiononallarmspurchasesmadefortheHaganahunderNicaraguanaegis.SomozawasnotuniqueamongLatinAmericanleadersinthisregard.BritishintelligencesourcesaccusedthepresidentofMexicooftakinga$1millionbribefromtheHaganahforsimilararmsbuyingandtransportconsiderations.Panamaspresidentreceiveda$100,000paymentforestablishingLneasAereasdePanamaSociedadAnonima(LAPSA),ofciallyPanamasnationalairline,andpermittingittobeusedasalegalfrontthatallowedtheHaganahtopurchaseaircraftintheUnitedStatesandtakethemoutofthecountryunderPanamanianregistry.[21]

SourcesdifferastotheexactoriginsoftheHaganahsLatinAmericanconnections.KollekindicatedthattheintermediarieswhoarrangedthemeetingwithSomozawereLazloWeiss,aJewishbusinessmanwithNicaraguanconnections,andaMr.Pataky,whowasoneofWeisssassociates.[22]SlaterpointstoCountStefanCzarneckiasthekeygurewhoalertedYehudaArazitothepossibilityofopeningaLatinAmericanarmsconduitincooperationwithLarryIves,aretiredU.S.MarineCorpscolonelandarmsdealerwhodidaconsiderableamountoflegitimatebusinesssupplyingweaponsandsurplusU.S.militaryequipmenttogovernmentsinMexicoandCentralAmerica.[23]Ina1988articlepublishedintheJournalofLatinAmericanStudies,IgnacioKlichindicatesthatSamuelZemurray,awealthyandpoliticallywellconnectedRussianAmericanJewwhoownedthesinglelargestblockofsharesinthepowerfulUnitedFruitCompany,wastheprimemoverexertingbehindthescenespressureandinuenceonbehalfoftheZionistsinCentralAmerica.[24]TelAvivUniversityhistorianRobertRockawaypointstoamoresinisterandunsavoryconnection.AccordingtoRockaway,HaganahoperativeReuvenDafni,amemberofKolleksHotelFourteengroup,traveledtoMiamiandmetJewishgangsterbossSamKay,whohadconnectionswithcorruptofcialsinCubaandPanama.[25]

AllthersthandaccountsopenlyacknowledgethatlinksexistedbetweentheJewishAgencysclandestineU.S.armsprocurementnetworkandorganizedcrime.Indeed,connectionstotheJewishmaamayhavebeenmorecriticaltotheoperationssuccessthantheoperationslinkstocorruptLatinAmericanofcials.Inthe1940s,theportsoftheNewYorkareawerethoroughlycorruptedandunderthecontroloforganizedcrime.ThiswasparticularlytrueinthecaseofthefreightdocksatNewark,NewJersey,whereJewishmobsterAbnerLongyZwillmanhadnotonlyestablishedcontrolofthelongshoremensunionsandstevedorecompaniesbut,duringprohibition,gainedtremendouspowerandinuencewithpublicofcials,thepolice,andjudges.[26]Duringtheprohibitionera,NewarkspolicedepartmenthadbeenanaccessorytoZwillmansmassiveillegalliquorimportingoperationsNewarkpolicehadnotmerelylookedtheotherwaybuthadactivelyassistedtheZwillmanmob,escortingtruckloadsofbootlegliquortopreventhijackingsbyrivalgangsters,andguardingthewarehousesthatservedasliquordistributioncenters.[27]ElieSchalitcooptedNewarkspreexistingcultureofJewishmobinltrationandofcialcorruptionandusedittofacilitateandprotectHaganaharmsshipments.[28]

TheHaganahalsofoundahospitableenvironmentontheNewYorksideoftheHudsonRiver.IntheNewYorkportitself,theorganizedcrimesyndicaterunbyMeyerLanskyandAlbertAnastasiacontrolledthedocks.LanskyidentiedstronglywiththeZionistcause.Inaddition,theNewYorklongshoremenweremostlyIrishAmericanswhosebitterantiBritishsentiments,combinedwiththepostwarrevelationsofthefullhorroroftheHolocaust,ledtosympathyforZionismthesameheldtrueforNewYorksIrishAmericanpolicemenanditsmayor,WilliamODwyer.[29]Suchconnectionsprovedinvaluablewhenthingswentwrong,astheydidon3June1948.Onthatday,adocksidecraneonNewarksPierFmalfunctionedwhileliftingalargewoodencratelabeledfertilizerintotheholdofthefreighterExecutorboundforPalestine.Thecratefelltothedock,shattered,andseveralcasesmarkedDanger!HighExplosive!spilledout.AlarmeddockworkerscalledpoliceandtheU.S.CustomsService,whoeventuallyfoundandconscated250tonsofTNTthathadbeenpurchasedandillegallydivertedbyoneoftheHaganahsfrontcompanies.Theincidentmadeheadlines,andthetruckdriverswhohadhauledthecontrabandTNTtotheportwerearrestedalongwiththeiremployers.Justaswithsimilarincidentsinvolvingliquorduringprohibition,however,allpotentialleadswentnowhere.[30]

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SlateralsoreportsunsubstantiatedclaimsmadebyHaganahoperativesthatZionisteffortstosubvertU.S.lawenforcementreachedallthewaytoFBIDirectorJ.EdgarHoover.AccordingtoSlatersinformants,economistandinuentialWashingtonpoliticalinsiderRobertNathanarrangedasecretmeetingbetweenHooverandunnamedrepresentativesoftheJewishAgency.NathanreportedlysaidthatHooverwassympathetic.[31]WhetherornotSlatersclaimconcerningHooverandtheHaganahhadmerit,therecanbenodoubtthattheAmericanZionistshadexcellentpoliticalconnections.Onthemorningof24February1947,forexample,agroupofeighteendignitariesrepresentingtheUnitedJewishAppeal,includingSonnebornandMontor,metforfteenminuteswithPresidentHarryTruman.[32]HenryMorgenthau,Jr.,whowasalsopresent,hadrequestedtheappointment.ThereisnoevidencethatTrumanwasawarethatSonneborn,Montor,andpossiblyotherspresentatthemeetingwereengagedinaconspiracytoviolateU.S.law,buttherosterofthoseinvitedtotheWhiteHouseclearlyillustratestheinterconnectednessoftheAmericanZionistmovementslegalandillegalactivitiesevenattheveryhighestlevelsofitsleadership.

TransatlanticsmugglingTheHaganahsoperativeswerenothingifnotaudacious.YehudaArazievenmanagedtobuytheUSSAttu,a10,400tonaircraftcarrier.AlthoughshornofherwoodenightdeckbytheNavyandthusnolongerabletolaunchandrecoverairplanes,thenearlynewshipwasabargainat$125,000,andAraziplannedtouseherforarmstransport.MorepracticalandcautiousmindsdecidedthattryingtosendanarmsladenshipthesizeoftheAttuthroughtheBritishnavalblockadeofPalestinewastooriskyandimpracticalandeventuallysoldtheshipforscrap.[33]Purchasesofsmaller,morepracticalshipswentsmoothlyandunnoticedbyU.S.authorities.DuringthewartheU.S.NavyhadbuilthundredsofamphibiousassaultshipsoftheLandingShipTank,LandingCraftTank,andLandingShipInfantrytypes,aswellasothersmallcargotypes.Thesesmall,shallowdraft,dieselpoweredrollon/rolloffcargoshipswereidealfortheHaganahspurposes,anditsagentsboughttwelveofthematsalvagepricesfromtheWAAusingfrontcompaniestohidethetrueidentitiesofthebuyers.AlltheseshipsweresenttoItalian,French,andYugoslavportstoawaittheBritishwithdrawalfromPalestine,atwhichtimetheywouldsailwithweaponsobtainedandcachedinEurope.[34]

ProbablythebestknownaspectcertainlythemostglamorousoftheHaganahsillegalAmericanarmssupplynetworkwasitsaircraftprocurementoperationsandaerialgunrunning.ThepersoninchargeoftheseoperationswasAlSchwimmer,aformerTWAightengineerwhohadownwiththecivilianmannedAirTransportCommandduringthewar,mostlyinthePacicandChinaIndiaBurmatheatresofoperations.(HelaterbecameheadofIsraelAerospaceIndustriesLtd.,Israelsaircraftandarmsmanufacturer.)AswithmuchabouttheHaganahsAmericanarmsoperations,thestoryofAlSchwimmersactivitiesmustbepiecedtogetherfromseveralsourcesthatsometimesdifferonthedetails.ServiceAirways,Inc.,thecorporateentitythathadattractedtheinterestofAdmiralHillenkoettersCIAeldagents,beganasalegitimatechartercargoairlineincorporatedbyIrvinSwiftySchindlershortlyaftertheendofWorldWarII.Schindlersairfreightbusinessnevergotofftheground,andheoffereditscorporatefacadetotheHaganah.Schwimmer,usingfundssuppliedinsmallinstallmentsbyseveralHaganahfrontcompaniesinNewYork,movedServiceAirtoCaliforniaandbeganbuyingsurplusairplanesfromtheWAAunderitsname.AmongtheplanespurchasedwerethreeLockheedConstellationtransportsandtwelveC46s.AfterdifcultiesinmeetingnewCivilAeronauticsAdministrationairworthinessrequirements,andwheninvestigationbytheFBIpreventedSchwimmerfromgettingU.S.licensestooperatetheplanes,legalownershipoftheairplaneswastransferredtothenewlyestablishedPanamaniannationalairlineLAPSA,allowingtheaircrafttobelegallyowntoPanamaandfromtheretoEurope.OneC46crashedinMexicoCity,killingthecrew,butaConstellationandnineC46sarrivedsafelyatZatecairbaseinCzechoslovakiaon16May1948,justafterIsraelsdeclarationofstatehoodandtheentryoftheArabarmiesintoPalestinetodefendthepartsofthecountryassignedtothePalestiniansundertheNovember1947UNpartitionplan.SoontheseplanesbeganferryingarmsanddisassembledMesserschmittBf109ghterplanestoPalestine.[35]

TheHaganahsoperationatZatecwascertainlyamongthestrangestepisodesofthecoldwarera:U.S.militarysurplusplanesoperatedbyAmericancrews(whomayhavebeenwearingU.S.militaryuniforms)ewcapturedNaziweapons,purchasedfromabankruptcommunistregimewithprivatelydonatedAmericanmoney,fromahighsecuritymilitaryaireldinSovietcontrolledCzechoslovakiatoZionistJewsinPalestine.Asifthiswerenotenough,theoperationswerecarriedoutinagrantviolationofAmericanlaw,atatimewhenStalinsblockadeofBerlinhadbroughttheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUniontothebrinkofwar.ThedangertoAmericasstandingintheArabworldwasobvious:ShouldoneofthetransportplanesoperatingfromZateccrashorbeforceddowninArabterritoryanditsAmericancrewcaptured,theArabswouldblametheUnitedStatesforsecretlyarmingtheZionists.HadU.S.authoritiesknownwhatwasabouttohappen,theywouldhavebeenevenmorealarmed.SchwimmersgunrunnersweresoonjoinedatZatecbythreeB17FlyingFortressheavybombers.ThesehadbeenboughtfromtheWAAbyaHaganahfrontcompanyintheUnitedStatesandownviaPuertoRicoandtheAzorestoCzechoslovakia.SchwimmersPanamaniantransportplaneshadownthroughaloopholeinU.S.lawthebombers,stillunderU.S.civilregistry,ewtoZatecinoutrightviolationofit.FederalagentsatTulsa,Oklahoma,actuallyseizedoneoftheZatecB17s,butaHaganahcrewstoleitfromtheunguardedairportandewitoutofthecountrybeforeofcialsknewthatitwasmissing.AfourthB17wasdelayedintheAzoreswithenginetroubleandasaresultwasseizedbyPortugueseauthoritiesalertedbytheU.S.StateDepartment.On14July1948,thethreeB17satZatec,stilllegallyU.S.civilaircraft,tookoffforIsraelwithfullbombloads,bombingCairoontheway.TheB17ssubsequentlyewseveralbombingmissionsinsupportofIDFgroundoperationsduringthesummerandfallof1948.[36]

TheHaganahwasnottheonlyZionistorganizationengagedinarmssmugglingintheUnitedStates.Inthelateautumnof1944,theOfceofStrategicServices(OSS)compiledareportentitledTheObjectivesandActivitiesoftheIrgunZvaiLeumi.Init,theOSSidentiedfourorganizationsintheUnitedStatesassociatedwiththeIrgun:theAmericanFriendsofaJewishPalestine,theAmericanLeagueforaFreePalestine,theCommitteeforanArmyofStatelessandPalestinianJews,andtheEmergencyCommitteetoSavetheJewishPeopleofEurope.[37]WestCoastcrimebossMickeyCohenboastedthathehadraisednearly$1millionfortheIrgun.PartofthatmoneywasreportedlyusedtobuyaNavysurplusamphibiousassaultshiptheAltalenafortransportingarmsboughtinEuropetoPalestine.AccordingtoRobertRockaway,YitzhakBenAmi,whowasheadoftheIrgunsEuropeanoperations,conrmedpartofCohensstory,puttingtheamountthatCohencontributedtotheIrgunat$120,000.[38]

ConclusionOntheeveoftheirdeclarationoftheJewishState,theZionistsfacedadifcultandcomplicatedproblem.WhiletheBritishwereincontrol,theycouldnotgetenoughweaponsintoPalestinetoghtthewarwiththeArabsthattheyexpectedwouldstartimmediatelyuponBritishwithdrawal.TheirmajorsourceofmonetarysupportwasthelargeAmericanJewishcommunity,buttheU.S.armsembargopreventedthemfromsimplybuyingAmericanweaponry,

stockpilingitinAmericanports,andshippingittoPalestinethemomentthattheBritishdeparted.RudolfSonnebornandthesmallgroupofwealthy,inuentialmenthatheassembledthreeyearsearlierovercametheproblembymoldingasolutionthattookmaximumadvantageofanumberofconditions:solidaritywithintheAmericanJewishcommunitySovietwillingnesstotakeadvantageofthesituationtodamageU.S.relationswiththeArabworldwidespreadsympathyfortheJewsinspiredbytheHolocaustcorruption,malfeasance,andderelictionofdutyonthepartoflocalofcialsconnectionswiththeAmericancriminalunderworldandlegalexpertisetoexploittheweaknessesandloopholesinU.S.law.TeddyKollek,ElieSchalit,andtheircohortsimplementedthesolutionbycreatinganorganizationthatwascentrallycontrolledbutsufcientlycompartmentalizedtoassureitssecurity.AmericanintelligenceofcersnotedtheHaganahssteadybuildupofarmsinPalestineandtheFBIuncoveredbitsandpiecesofthesmugglingoperation,butU.S.authoritiesevidentlyneverobtainedaclearpictureoftheZionistarmssmugglingorganizationsstructureandtheycertainlynevergainedanunderstandingofhowitfunctionedorwhomastermindedit.Becauseofthatfailure,theyneverseriouslyhindereditsoperationandneverhadanychanceofstoppingit.Despitetheheroicmythinwhichithaspreviouslybeencloaked,theJewishAgencysU.S.armsprocurementeffortamountedtoahighlyeffectivecriminalconspiracy.

Notes:

[1]CentralIntelligenceAgency,ClandestineAirTransportOperations:MemorandumfortheSecretaryofDefense(28May1948).Declassieddocument,casenr.EO200100059,released27September2001.CIAFOIAElectronicReadingRoom,http://www.cia.gov(accessed26January2007).

[2]TheJewishAgencywasrecognizedundertheLeagueNationsMandateforPalestineasapublicbodyforthepurposeofadvisingandcooperatingwiththeBritishMandateauthorityinmattersasmayaffecttheestablishmentoftheJewishNationalHomeinPalestine....SeeASurveyofPalestine,vol.2(Washington,DC:InstituteforPalestineStudies,1991),p.909.

[3]LeonardSlater,ThePledge(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1970),p.45.

[4]Slater,ThePledge.

[5]BenGurionremainedheadoftheJewishAgencyExecutivefromitsformalestablishmentin1929untilhebecame

Israelsrstprimeministerin1948.

[6]Slater,ThePledge,p.24.

[7]TeddyKollek,ForJerusalem:ALife(NewYork:RandomHouse,1978),p.67.

[8]Kollek,ForJerusalem,p.70.

[9]Slater,ThePledge,pp.8197.

[10]Kollek,ForJerusalem,pp.6869.

[11]AmitzurIlan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace:Arms,Embargo,MilitaryPowerandDecisioninthe1948

PalestineWar(NewYork:NewYorkUniversityPress,1996),pp.6566.

[12]Ilan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace,p.133.




[16]Ilan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace,pp.9192.

[17]GuidetothePapersofRobisonFamily(19041995).AmericanJewishHistoricalSociety,CenterforJewish

History,NewYork.http://ndingaids.cjh.org/?fnm=RobisonFamily&pnm=AJHS#a1(accessed29April2007).

[18]Ilan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace,pp.9192DavidJ.Bercusson,TheSecretArmy(Toronto:LesterandOrpenDennys,1983),p.146.

[19]Slater,ThePledge,pp.198204GiveonCorneld,HawaiiResidentsAidedUnderdogIsraelsStruggleNathanLiff,HonoluluStarBulletin11,no.288(15October2006).





[24]IgnacioKlich,LatinAmerica,theUnitedStates,andtheBirthofIsrael:TheCaseofSomozasNicaragua,JournalofLatinAmericanStudies20,no.2(November1988),pp.389432.

[25]RobertA.Rockaway,ButHeWasGoodtoHisMother:TheLivesandCrimesofJewishGangsters(Jerusalem:

GefenPublishingHouse,2000),p.247.

[26]SeeMarkA.Stuart,Gangster#2LongyZwillman,theManwhoInventedOrganizedCrime(Secaucus,NJ:

LyleStuart,1985).

[27]Rockaway,ButHeWasGoodtoHisMother,pp.3536Kollek,ForJerusalem,pp.7476.

[28]Ilan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace,pp.6365.SeealsoStuart,Gangster#2.

[29]Kollek,ForJerusalem,pp.7587Ilan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace,p.85Rockaway,ButHeWasGoodtoHisMother,pp.24546.



[32]PresidentialAppointmentsCalendar,Monday,24February1947.TrumanLibrary,Independence,MO.

[33]Ilan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace,pp.9596.


[35]Kollek,ForJerusalem,pp.7678Ilan,TheOriginoftheArabIsraeliArmsRace,pp.90100Slater,ThePledge,

pp.14147.


[37]CentralIntelligenceAgency(OfceofStrategicServices),TheObjectivesandActivitiesoftheIrgunZvaiLeumi(23October1944).Declassieddocument,casenr.F200501205,CIAFOIAElectronicReadingRoom,http://www.cia.gov(accessed2February2007).

[38]MickeyCohen,InMyOwnWords(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1975)Rockaway,ButHeWasGoodtoHis

Mother,p.251.

RICKYDALECALHOUNspent22yearsengagedinthepurchase,processing,andexportofleaftobaccobeforecomingtoacademiain2000.HeholdsaB.I.S.degreeinarchaeologyandanM.A.inhistoryfromMurrayStateUniversity,andheispresentlyworkingtowardaPh.D.inhistoryatKansasStateUniversity.Hisareaofinterestistwentiethcenturyforeignaffairsandtheroleofintelligenceindecisionmaking,withaspecialfocusontheMiddleEast.HisarticleTheMusketeersCloak:StrategicDeceptionduringtheSuezCrisisof1956appearedinStudiesinIntelligence51,no.2(June2007),publishedbytheCIAsCenterfortheStudyofIntelligence.

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