ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

COLLEGE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

Causes of Water Supply Shortage in Arba Minch Town

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for

Degree of Master of Arts in Environment and Development

By

Zegeye Zagie

Advisor: Yohannes Abera (PhD)

June, 2010

Addis Ababa

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

COLLEGE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

Causes of Water Supply Shortage in Arba Minch Town

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for

Degree of Master of Arts in Environment and Development

By Zegeye Zagie

Advisor: Yohannes Abera (PhD)

June, 2010

Addis Ababa

i

Acknowledgement Acknowledgement is due for almighty God without his assistance every thing is

impossible. With great pleasure and deep sense of indebtedness, I express my gratitude to

my research advisor Dr. Yohannes Abera for his masterly guidance, constructive

comments, deep rooted concern for the qualitative outcome and perspective suggestions

without which the study would not have been positive. I thank him once again for his

concern. I am also thankful to Dr. Mulugeta Feseha for his valuable comments during my

proposal promotion.

I am thankful to all the staff members of Gamo Gofa Zone water, Mines and Energy

Department for their happily and constant encouragement, financial and material

assistance. I also appreciate the Zonal Administration office for making possible the full

time learning condition. I am also grateful to all my friends for their long lasting and

invariable encouragement.

Words can not express my heart felt appreciation to my mother for her unending support

and encouragement. Last but not least I shall remain grateful to my dear wife Aster

Abduruf who stood by me and extended all possible support to complete this work. With

out her assistance and encouragement, all I always do would have been incomplete.

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Table of Contents

Page Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. i

Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. ii

Page .................................................................................................................................... ii

List of Tables .................................................................................................................... iv

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... v

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... vi

Operational Definitions .................................................................................................. vii

Abstract ............................................................................................................................. ix

Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................... 1

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the problem .......................................................................................... 3 1.3 Objective ................................................................................................................... 4

1.3.1 General Objective .............................................................................................. 4 1.3.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................ 5 1.3.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................ 5

1.4. Significance of the research ..................................................................................... 5 1.5. Scope of the study .................................................................................................... 6 1.6 Limitation of the Study ............................................................................................. 6 1.7 Related Literature...................................................................................................... 7

1.7.1 Urban water supply shortage in developing countries ....................................... 7 1.7.2 Urban Water supply shortage in Ethiopian context ......................................... 10 1.7.3 Causes of water supply shortage ...................................................................... 12 1.7.4 Conceptual Frame Work .................................................................................. 16

1.8 Methodology and Materials .................................................................................... 18 1.8.1 Study Area description ..................................................................................... 18 1.8.2 Data sources and collection methods ............................................................... 19 1.8.3 Sampling techniques ........................................................................................ 20 1.8.4 Analysis of Data ............................................................................................... 21

Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................... 22

2. Water Resource of Arba Minch Area ....................................................................... 22

2.1 Controlling Factors ................................................................................................. 22 2.1.1 Geomorphology/Topography ........................................................................... 22 2.1.2 Geology ............................................................................................................ 23 2.1.3 Hydrology ........................................................................................................ 24

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2.1.4 Vegetation ........................................................................................................ 30 2.2. Water Resource ...................................................................................................... 30

2.2.1 Surface Water................................................................................................... 30 2.2.2 Ground water and springs ................................................................................ 31

2.3. Water Supply System of Arba Minch Town .......................................................... 32 2.3.1 Source .............................................................................................................. 32 2.3.2 Intake Structure ................................................................................................ 33 2.3.3 Wet Well .......................................................................................................... 34 2.3.4 Pumping Stations ............................................................................................. 34 2.3.5 Transmission Main........................................................................................... 35 2.3.6 Reservoirs ........................................................................................................ 35 2.3.7 Distribution Network ....................................................................................... 36

2.4 Water Consumption Pattern in Arba Minch Town ................................................. 37 Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................... 39

3. Manifestations of Water Supply Shortage in Arba Minch ..................................... 39

3.1 Health Problems Related to Water Supply ............................................................. 41 3.2 Water Cost and Consumption ................................................................................. 42 3.3 Burden on Water Collectors.................................................................................... 43

Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................... 45

4. Discussion and Results ................................................................................................ 45

4.1. Characteristics of the Sample Households ............................................................. 45 4.2. Causes of Water Supply Shortage in Arba Minch ................................................. 46

4.2.1 Environmental Factors ..................................................................................... 46 4.2.2 Socio-economic Factors ................................................................................... 53 4.2.3. Technical Factors ............................................................................................ 60 4.2.4 Institutional Factors ......................................................................................... 67

Chapter 5 ......................................................................................................................... 77

5. Conclusions and Recommendations .......................................................................... 77

5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 77 5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 79

References ........................................................................................................................ 80

ANNEXES ....................................................................................................................... 82

iv

List of Tables

Table 1 Monthly Maximum, Minimum and average temperature at Arba Minch (1997-

2006) ................................................................................................................................. 25

Table 2. Trends of water supply service connections in Arba Minch (2005/2006 –

2007/2008) ........................................................................................................................ 37

Table 3 Monthly Sectoral Water Consumption (Feb, 2010) ............................................. 38

Table 4 WHO Standards in Relation to Time, Distance, Quantity of Water and Health

Concern ............................................................................................................................. 40

Table 5 The Ten top diseases ............................................................................................ 41

Table 6 Water Consumption Difference in seasons .......................................................... 50

Table 7 Monthly Water Consumption (M3) of Arba Minch Town ................................... 51

Table 8 Occupants of houses for rent in Arba Minch ....................................................... 54

Table 9 Educational Institutions in Arba Minch Town .................................................... 55

Table 10 Water connection increase trend ........................................................................ 55

Table 11 Commercial investments in Arba Minch town, since 1992/93 .......................... 57

Table 12 Sectoral Water Consumption (%) of Arba Minch Town in 2009 ...................... 58

Table 13 Tourist visit to Arba Minch town (2003/2004-2007/2008) ............................... 58

Table 14 Water Production and Consumption in Arba minch Town (2003/2004-

2007/2008) ........................................................................................................................ 66

Table 15 Evaluation of technical capacity of technicians in the WSSO ........................... 71

Table 16 Manpower data of Arba Minch WSS enterprise by Education Level ............... 72

Table 17 List of office equipments in Arba Minch WSSO. ............................................ 73

Table 18 Annual Financial Record of Arba Minch WSSO .............................................. 75

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List of Figures

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of Urban Water Supply ................................................ 17

Figure 2 Monthly Average Rainfall of Arba Minch ......................................................... 25

Figure 3 The ridge between the lakes Abaya and Chamo ................................................ 26

Figure 4 The dense forest around Arba Minch Spring ..................................................... 27

Figure 5 Schematics of ground water flows around Arba Minch spring .......................... 29

Figure 6 Intake Structure of Arba Minch Water supply System ...................................... 33

Figure 7 Base and Booster pump Stations of Arba Minch Water supply system. ............ 35

Figure 8 The three reservoirs of Arba Minch water supply system .................................. 36

Figure 9 Long lines of containers waiting for water and a girl traveling back from

private sellers carrying water ............................................................................................ 44

Figure 10 A lodge at the top of the escarpment in the west of the spring ........................ 47

Figure 11 Annual Discharge of Arba Minch Spring ......................................................... 48

Figure 12 Existing organizational structure of Arba Minch WSSO ................................ 70

vi

Abbreviations

a.s.l. = above sea level

b.g.l. = below ground level

BOWRD = SNNPR Bureau of Water Resource Development

CSA = Central Statistical Agency

DCI = Ductile Cast Iron

DN = Nominal Diameter

EEPCO = Ethiopian Electrical Power Company

l/s = Liters per Second

l/c/d = Liters per Capita per Day

MDG = Millennium Development Goals

Mm3 = Million Meter cube

MOWR = Ministry of Water Resources

NGO = Non-Governmental Organization

SPSS = Statistical Program for Social Sciences

SNNPR = South Nations Nationalities and Peoples Region

TVET = Technical and Vocational Education and Training

TWB = Town Water Board

UAP = Universal Access Plan

UNICEF = United Nations Children’s Education Fund

WASH = Water Sanitation and Hygiene

WHO = World Health Organization

WSDP = Water Sector Development Program

WSSO = Water Supply Service Office

vii

Operational Definitions

Water Supply Service: Providing water for domestic, commercial, industrial and

institutional use.

Water supply system: all the components of water supply structure that enable to

convey water from the source to the users.

Consistent water supply: regular, steady or uninterrupted water supply.

Water supply Shortage: is used to describe a shortage where levels of water supply do

not meet certain defined minimum requirements. The actual quantity that determines a

per capita minimum may differ from place to place

Domestic Use: Water used for drinking, cooking, sanitation or for other similar purposes.

Industrial Use: Putting water to industrial uses and includes use of water for the

production of industrial inputs, making and assembly of products.

Commercial use: Putting water to business related activities such as hotels, bars,

recreational areas, markets, car washing, gardens and watering animals.

Institutional Use: Putting water to social purposes and includes the use of water in

hospitals, in religious institutions, educational institutions and government institutions.

Safe Water: the water protected from contamination.

Household: any unit of habitual residence where some consumption and/or production

may be undertaken in common and where some members may recognize culturally

defined relationships of kinship and/or affinity where the members are related in some

way.

Kebele: the smallest administrative unit under city or town administration.

Upstream management: Protecting the soil, vegetation, etc of the area which drains to a

certain water body.

Down stream: The environment and the ecosystem in the area to which water body

flows.

Rise in life standard: The change in the status of living due to economic step up.

Institutional coordination : Integrated involvement of the stakeholders of an institution.

viii

Long term investments: Investments on sustainable and adequate development

activities.

Electro-mechanical equipments: Materials in the water supply system with both

electrical and mechanical characteristics like generators, pumps, etc

Pressure efficiency: The adequacy of pressure in the entire distribution network.

ix

Abstract

Urban population with access to potable water is relatively better as compared to rural

population. However, this does not imply sufficient consumption level, consistent

availability, and distribution of water for most households. In Arba Minch town

households are experiencing problem of adequate and consistent water supply. The water

supply system is unable to supply water to some parts of the town while others obtain the

service on a shift basis (four days a week) especially in the dry seasons. Of eleven

kebeles in the town eight are in critical water problem. This paper looks into the water

supply system of the town and investigates the causes of the water supply shortage in the

town. Primary data were collected from 100 sample households through household

survey, from experts in the town WSSO and in the zonal water office through key

informant interviews, and from town water board members and other officials through

focus group discussions. Secondary data were collected from written documents like

technical reports, official records, etc. The results were related to quantity and quality

trends of water at the source, water demand increase trends, production and distribution

nature of the water supply system, and institutional capacity of the water supply service

office. The causes of the water supply shortage in the town include declining of the flow

amount of the existing source and demand increase in the hot climate; the down stream

water demand; demand increase caused by population pressure and economic

development activities; mismatch between the capacity of the water supply system, the

water in the pipe line and the existing water demand; design problems in the distribution

network; and weak institutional capacity of the water supply service office.Integrated and

continuous management of the recharge areas of the water source, giving due attention

for long term investments on water supply, collecting and managing all important data for

water supply designs, capacitating the WSSO both by material and human resources can

correct the problem.

Chapter 1

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

One of the targets of MDG calls on countries to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people

without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation. The indicators

used in this document to assess the proportion of people with sustainable access to safe

drinking water and to basic sanitation are the official MDG indicators: the proportion of

population using an improved drinking-water source, urban and rural; and the proportion

of population using an improved sanitation facility, urban and rural.

The world as a whole can be said on track to meet the MDG drinking water target. As

UNICEF and WHO (2006) stated this good news masks two serious challenges: the

inequity in coverage between rural and urban areas; and accelerating urban population

growth in developing regions. And although the world is still on track for reaching the

target, the trend appears to be deteriorating.

UNICEF and WHO (2006) stated even though rural coverage increased from 64% in

1990 to 73% in 2004, some 900 million people still remain un-served world wide. And a

continuation of this trend would lead to coverage of 80% by 2015 and to about 300

million people gaining access. Yet, in 2015 about 700 million will still remain un-served.

Regarding Urban coverage UNICEF and WHO (2006) confirmed that people with

improved drinking water in urban areas has remained practically unchanged over the past

15 years at 95%. But this admirable achievement is threatened by predicted urban

population growth over 2005–2015 that is 755million more people in urban areas.

2

In Africa 602 million people had access to improved drinking water sources in 2006.

This shows coverage increased from 56% in 1990 to 64% in 2006. The rate at which

Africans gained access to improved drinking water sources, 245 million people since

1990, falls short of that required to meet the 2015 MDG drinking water target. In 9

countries in Africa (including Ethiopia) access to improved drinking water sources is less

than 50%. The African population without access to improved drinking water sources

increased by 61 million, from 280 million in 1990 to 341 million in 2006. Increases in

coverage are not keeping pace with population growth (UNICEF and WHO, 2008). By

taking only the urban condition UNICEF and WHO (2008) reported drinking water

coverage in urban Africa decreased from 86% in 1990 to 85% in 2006 though 134

million people in urban areas have gained access to an improved drinking water source

since 1990.

Of 73, 918, 505 populations in Ethiopia 83.9% are rural and the rest 16.1% is urban

(CSA, 2008). Ethiopia has adopted the international millennium declaration. And also the

water supply and sanitation UAP was ratified by the Ethiopian parliament in 2005 and is

the current guiding planning framework for WASH. The MDG target is to attain 70% of

national potable water access in 2015. UAP national targets are much more ambitious

than those set under MDG. It is to attain 98% of rural potable water access within 1.5km

(15 liters/capita/day) and 100% of urban potable water access within 0.5km (20

liters/capita/day) by the end of 2012. According to MoWR1 (2009) rural population with

access to potable water within 1.5km has reached 54% and urban population with the

service within 0.5km has reached 86% in 2008. And this gives 59% of national access.

Though the urban population with access to potable water is relatively better, it does not

imply sufficient consumption level; consistent availability and distribution of water for

most households. A range of factors can cause shortage of water supply. Wastes of

different sources can cause quality problems on the available water. Climate change can

affect the availability of water. Similarly water system failures cause irregular

distribution. Rapid population growth and expanding global economies have exacerbated

3

the problem. In this regard Christopher (2006) stated that shortage of water supply is

often caused by contamination, drought, or a disruption in distribution.

Improving water and sanitation programs is crucial to spurring growth and sustaining

economic development. Incorporating water improvements into economic developments

is necessary to end the severe problems caused by water supply shortage and to improve

public health and advance the economic stability of urban areas. As a result it has brought

into focus the need for planned action to manage water resources and water systems

effectively.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Arba Minch area is known by its surface and ground water resource. The two rift valley

lakes (Abaya and Chamo), the streams descending down to the rift from the western

escarpment and the springs as ground water discharges are considerable. The water

source of the town is spring, namely Arba Minch (forty springs), with minimum to

maximum yield of 110 to 350l/sec respectively which is designed to be sufficient for the

projected population of the town into the year 2015 (MOWR, 2002).

Despite these conditions the people in Arba Minch town are experiencing problem of

adequate water supply. The water system is unable to supply water to some parts of the

town while others obtain the service on a shift basis (four days a week) especially in the

dry seasons. Of eleven kebeles in the town eight are in critical water problem. About

88.65% of the town population access to pipe system through different mode of

connection (House, yard and public taps) even though there are private or shared dry

pipes due to pressure inefficiency and distribution disruptions. The remaining 11.35 %

depend on other traditional source mainly river (BOWRD, 2009).

Households either do not have water in their pipe system the whole day or water in their pipe

system is not adequate to meet their daily demand. In the year 2007 the total amount of water

4

consumed by the town residents was 727,393,000liters (BOWRD, 2009). This shows a per

capita per day water amount of 26.6liters for 74,843 town population leaving aside the

institutional, commercial and industrial water demand. However, according to the design

criteria prepared by Ministry of Water Resources the amount for institutional, commercial

and industrial demands in towns reaches 5-15%, 10% and 5% of domestic demand

respectively (MOWR2, 2009).The domestic demand itself ranges from 20liters per capita per

day for public tap cases to 50l/c/d for house tap connection cases according to the design

criteria prepared by ministry of water resources. Therefore the amount of water consumed in

the year taken is far below the amount demanded according to the design criteria of water for

different purposes.

Water as a vital resource for household, agricultural and industrial use can evidently slow

down the economic and social advancement of a society. In the same manner insufficient

water supply is being raised as a considerable problem in economic and social activities

in Arba Minch town. Women and girls are facing work loads in fetching water from

streams of longer distance and from areas of the town with better supply. Water born

diseases prevail in water-short areas of the town. Low water supply is being reported as a

big problem in constructions and educational institutions.

There have been technical studies on water supply of Arba Minch town which

concentrate only on identifying technical problems with out giving due attention to

environmental, institutional, social, etc causes of the problems. Therefore this study will

make an effort to start from showing the water supply shortage in Arba Minch town

giving due attention to the different causes of the shortage.

1.3 Objective

1.3.1 General Objective The general objective of this study is to identify the major causes of inadequate and

inconsistent water supply in Arba Minch town.

5

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

� To look into the water supply system of Arba Minch town.

� To investigate the major causes of water supply shortage in Arba Minch town.

1.3.3 Research Questions

� What is the status of major components of the water supply system?

� What are the factors that cause quality and quantity problems in the water source

of the town?

� Is a demand increase a cause for the water shortage in the town?

� How does the technical performance of the water supply system affect the town

water supply?

� Is the water supply service office of the town capable to manage the water supply

problems of the town?

� Do the stakeholders of the town water supply coordinate in water supply problems

of the town?

1.4. Significance of the research

Most kebeles of Arba Minch town get water on a shift basis (four days in a week). The

pressure in the water system fails to reach to some other kebeles of relatively high

elevation and results in dry pipes for long dry times. There are repeated electro-

mechanical failures in the water system. The town inhabitants, Construction firms,

educational institutions frequently ask for water supply step up. Though quality problems

are not being reported, the upstream conditions are not given due attention. This study

may publicize the state of the problem, inform the major causes of the problem to the

users and policy makers so that:

• The users will be aware of their part in the problem and show attitudinal changes

• The policy makers take sustainable corrective measures that can also be applied

for other similar cases.

• The water experts give better attention on the design of urban water systems

especially make careful estimates and projections of water demand.

6

1.5. Scope of the study

Water sector comprises sub sectors like irrigation, water supply and sewerage, and

hydropower. The scope of this study is limited to water supply. Of course the need for

water has not been met for other purposes also. Again this study focuses on water for

domestic or household use though in the urban setting water is supplied for both domestic

and non-domestic consumption (commercial and institutional, industrial). This is to

manage the issues of focus in a bit deeper manner rather than considering a number of

wide issues together.

Similarly the study is about the problem of water supply in Arba Minch town. Water

supply problems are country wide both rural and urban. But water supply problems in

rural areas differ from urban areas. Even within urban areas water supply shortages are

caused by different factors. The problem also affects a different amount of population.

Arba Minch is a zonal center with considerable population as compared to other urban

centers in the area considered. And also the water supply service of Arba Minch town is

led by a structured office under the town administration which others lack. This

simplifies the data management.

1.6 Limitation of the Study

The problems encountered in the course of this research include finance and time

constraints that hindered looking at the issues in more detail. There was also data

adequacy and reliability problem. For instance to see trends of water production and

consumption long years’ data is important. However, the available data for water

production and consumption is of three or four years. The water loss data is also not

reliable because the water produced has not been measured for some years. Some

households also give unreliable data regarding their income and time spent to collect

water.

7

There was also data accessibility problem. Some employees of the WSSO take academic

researches as insignificant and are not willing to provide data. Others take the study

documents and records in the WSSO as secrete and do not allow reading them for long

hours.

1.7 Related Literature

1.7.1 Urban water supply shortage in developing countries

1.7.1.1 Urban population and water supply in developing countries

This part of the review looks into relevant works with findings on urbanization and water

supply shortage in developing countries. The documents reviewed include three articles

and a report on urban water supply.

Though urbanization and urban population growth are worldwide phenomena, they are

significant in developing countries. This is confirmed by some writers in the documents

reviewed. UN (1995) in Khan and Siddique (2000) revealed that urban population of

developing countries increased from 50% in 1970 to 66% in 1994 and predicted to be

80% by 2020. The rate at which urban population of developing countries grows is higher

as compared to developed countries. Brockchoff (2000) in Kharti and Vairavamoorthy

(2007) estimated a 2.3% average growth rate in less developed countries while it will be

1% in developed countries in the years from 2000 to 2030.

However, the common shortfall in official statistics of urban population is excluding

slum populations. This brings about mismatch between demand estimations and

projections in water supply designs of urban areas with the actual demand.

The problem of water supply in urban areas of developing countries is a major concern. It

will be severe in populous countries. Findings in the reviewed documents show the

8

problem in some populous Asian countries and Africa. According to UN_HABITAT

(2003) in Dzikus (2006) 171 million urban dwellers in developing regions are without

improved provision of water and those without safe and adequate provision of water are

680-980 million. Singh (2000) in Kharti and Vairavamoorthy (2007) showed the estimate

that half of India’s population will be living in urban areas and will face acute water

problems by 2050. Similarly as UNICEF/WHO (2004) in Kharti and Vairavamoorthy

(2007) the number of people without improved water sources in China alone is equal to

the number of un-served in all of Africa. The quality of water that people receive is also

questionable. Singh (2000) in Kharti and Vairavamoorthy (2007) indicated though

eighty-five per cent of urban population in India has access to drinking water, only 20 per

cent of the available drinking water meets the health and quality standards set by the

world health organization.

Urban drinking water coverage in Africa is 85%. 134 million people in urban Africa have

gained access to an improved drinking water source since 1990. However, since the same

year the total urban population without access to an improved drinking water source

increased by 28 million people to 57 million people in 2006. Of the 366 million people in

urban Africa only 47% has a piped connection on premises, down from 56% in 1990

(UNICEF/WHO, 2008)

The daily water supply rate in the developing countries is very low compared to the

industrial world. Regarding this, findings in the reviewed document compared the daily

water supply rate in India to developed countries. Singh (2000) in Kharti and

Vairavamoorthy (2007) pointed it ranges from 16 to 300 liters per day depending on the

locality and the economic strata in India, whereas this figure ranges from 100 to 600 liters

per day in the developed countries. The populations that are not served by piped water

supply receive even smaller amount of water.

Access to water supply in urban areas mostly refers to pipes leading to houses without

considering the adequacy and regularity of water in the pipe. In addition; statistics

provided by governments and intergovernmental bodies such as the WHO, which relies

primarily on member governments for their statistics, is inadequate. This is because

9

governments may overstate the extent to which they supply people with water by

defining the boundaries of the city as those areas which are supplied with water and other

municipal services or they may under-estimate actual levels of supply because they do

not recognize as legitimate the informal sector entrepreneurs who supply water.

Therefore researches have to look into common problems like demand estimation and

projection shortcomings in urban water supply designs, and water supply data

management problems at different levels in the urban areas.

1.7.1.2 Urban Water supply systems in Developing Countries

This part of the review points to water supply system problems which bring about water

supply shortages. The reviewed document in this part is an article on urban water supply.

.

Delivering effective urban water service needs to be supported by appropriate and good

working condition of the water supply system. Urban water supply systems typically

includes water collection and storage facilities at source sites, water transport via

pipelines from source sites to water treatment facilities; water treatment, storage and

distribution systems. Problems in these components importantly affect the urban water

service. Kharti and Vairavamoorthy (2007) specified regional and global pressures that

drive the design and management processes of urban water systems and Misiunas (2005)

in Kharti and Vairamoorthy (2007) explained why urban water supply systems

deteriorate. Kharti and Vairavamoorthy (2007) identified deterioration of infrastructure

as one of the major global change drivers of urban water system and it is more severe in

developing countries. Misiunas (2005) in Kharti and Vairavamoorthy (2007) listed

ageing of the systems, poor construction practices, little or no maintenance and

rehabilitation activities due to the limited financial resource, operation at higher

capacities than design, little knowledge about specific classes of assets deterioration, the

technical service life and insufficient database to know the extent and/or the value of their

infrastructure assets and inefficient decision support tools available to infrastructure

10

managers and decision makers as the factors contributing for urban water supply system

deterioration in developing countries.

This list of factors covers detail problems which are common. Age of a water supply

system is controlled by its design period, however many water supply systems are

functioning out of their design period. Poor construction practices on storage facilities,

collection structures, and distribution systems cause water losses. The mismatch between

demand and supply forces operating the system at higher capacities than design, and this

is not accompanied by maintenances and rehabilitation due to limited financial resources.

The technicians in the water supply service are not equipped with knowledge of system

details, technical service life, and database of specific classes of the system. Therefore

water service managers and other decision makers do not depend on sufficient system

information for their decision. What is not included in the list but can deteriorate water

supply system is poor management of catchments. The entire area from which a source

receives its water is called catchments. It is a natural drainage area, bounded by sloping

ground, hills or mountains, from which water flows to a low point. The water that comes

out of a tap once flowed across a catchment and that is why catchments are a crucial part

of urban water systems. The quality of the catchment determines the quality of the water

harvested from it. Therefore urban water supply studies should include catchments as a

component of water supply system.

1.7.2 Urban Water supply shortage in Ethiopian context

1.7.2.1 Urban population and water supply in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia 83.9 percent of the total population was found in rural areas, while the

remaining 16.1 percent lived in urban areas. Yet regional data indicate that more than half

of the population in Dire Dawa (67.5%) and Harari (50.5%) were urban residents. In

addition, the proportions of urban residents in Tigray (19.5%) and Gambella (25.2%)

regions are relatively larger than the proportion within the total national population

(CSA, 2008).

11

However, summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census of

Ethiopia does not show the inter-censual growth rate by place of residence. The inter-

censual growth rate by place of residence would have shown urbanization and urban

population increase in the three census years (1984, 1994, and 2007).

According to WSDP (2002) in 2001 urban water coverage of Ethiopia is 74.4%, and

population served reaches 9,886,000.The water coverage ranges from 25% in Harar to

96% in Amhara region. However there are discrepancies among different documents

regarding urban water coverage. For instance WSDP (2002) in Assefa (2006) indicated

the urban water coverage of Ethiopia is 81% in 1994 and increased to 86% in 1998.

Though the decrease in urban water coverage in 2001 can be explained by an increase in

urban population in the years from 1998-2002, it is significant and seems unreasonable.

This shows there is a data management problem which starts at the water supply service

offices of urban centers.

1.7.2.2 Urban water supply systems in Ethiopia

The components of urban water supply system in Ethiopia face a number of problems

like those in other developing countries. Yimer (1992) assessed major components of

water supply system of Nazareth town. He classified the components into source,

production and distribution. The issues given attention under source are water

availability, quantity and quality of water. Since water sources for Nazareth are

boreholes, availability of water refers to the depth at which water is stroke; quantity

refers to the discharge of the borehole and quality refers to fluoride concentration. The

concerns seen under production are capacity of the borehole and the actual production,

irregular operation of the borehole, seasonal yield variation of the borehole, power supply

inconsistencies and water losses. The distribution component is subdivided into reservoir,

pipeline network, meter connection and public stand pipes. The number and capacity of

the reservoir and the relative ground elevation where it is situated influence its function.

Density or spatial extension of pipe lines, pressure with in and size of pipe, regularity of

water supply and relief are issues treated under pipeline network. Meter connection is

12

seen to be influenced by relief, distance from the reservoir, and financial constraints of

the users. The efficiency of public stand pipes is taken to be influenced by the number

and rational distribution, adequate and continuous supply of water.

Assefa (2006) also described the components of urban water supply system in his way to

illustrate the state of existing water supply in Assosa town. He classified the components

into the same classes as Yimer (1992) did. The issues explored under each class are also

similar except that Assefa (2006) took a look at number of boreholes, their time of

construction, functionality and working hours under the class water source while Yimer

(1992) included water availability, quality and quantity of water under the same class.

Although not described in detail Alaci and Esubalew (2009) gave an idea about water

supply system of Dessie town. They indicated that water supply source of Dessie town is

interplay of traditional and modern water sources in which case pipe water from

boreholes and springs takes the lead.

It can be seen that although there are differences in source type and complexity among

water supply systems of different urban centers, they are thwarted by similar problems.

However, the documents reviewed for Ethiopian situation paid no attention to the

upstream condition of the urban water sources which importantly influence the quality

and quantity of water at the source. Besides technical problems like breaking the design

period of the system, poor construction practices, weak maintenance and rehabilitation

activities due to financial problems, competence of the water supply service technicians

are overlooked. Therefore water supply related studies should include these problems on

top of other problems.

1.7.3 Causes of water supply shortage

A number of factors for urban water supply shortage are indicated in different literatures.

Those which focus on the problem in developing countries point out the common factors

like weak actions to reduce environmental degradation, economic development,

13

distribution inefficiency of the water supply system, inconsistency of the system, climatic

changes (temperature and rainfall variability), topography of the area, population growth

and urbanization, water loss in the system, capacity of towns to manage the water system.

Environmental degradation affects both the quantity and quality of water resources.

World Water Week synthesis report (2008) indicated that many of the actions for

reducing environmental degradation are focused at the local level and scaling-up these to

the river basin and regional levels, and the ability to tailor solutions are major challenges.

The report also showed that primary threats to water resources and ecosystems emerge

from greater wealth and consumption and increasing populations. These threats will be

exacerbated by climate change and must be addressed together.

Asian Development Bank (2007) stated water should be earmarked for environment and

ecosystem use. This shows water development activities should consider the down stream

environment and ecosystem indicating that the environment is a legitimate user of water.

Developing large water schemes for urban areas require relatively huge investments.

Governments of developing countries fail to finance these investments. Montegomery et

al (2007) pointed out that in many developing countries lack of financial resources and

low prioritization of water and sanitation constrain both the maintenance and expansion

of water and sanitation services. However, using efficiently the available finance is

another challenge.

Institutional issues of urban water supply are raised by WSP (2009) in such a way that

the poor performance of water supply and sanitation (WSS) services is often due to an

inappropriate institutional framework, lack of regulatory mechanisms, an absence of

appropriate attitudes and skills, and a lack of explicit directives and incentives to serve

the poor.

According to UN-HABITAT (1999) in Kharti and Vairavamoorthy (2007) the prevailing

water supply shortage in many developing countries is not only due to source limitation

14

but other factors such as poor distribution efficiency through city networks and

inequalities in service provision between the rich and the poor.

On the other hand Oybandie (2001) stated Africa's water problems are many and varied

in that a number of socio-economic factors such as poverty, the population explosion and

the lack of hydrological and ancillary data, are at the root of these problems and also

droughts and climatic variability aggravate the vulnerability of the continent and make

sustainable water resources development a real challenge.

Yimer (1992) pointed out the pressure maintained in pipe lines is essential character of

water supply which influences the efficiency of the distribution system and quality of

water in a pipe line. In this respect Hofkes (1986) in Yimer (1992) stated that it is

necessary to maintain sufficient pressure in the distribution system in order to protect it

against contamination by the ingress of polluted seepage water; adequate pressure in the

pipe system ensures the distribution of water to all parts of a community or a city at a

time and hence increases the amount of household water use.

Inconsistency of water supply is another factor that causes water supply shortage. In

most of the developing countries, the water supply system is not continuous but

intermittent. As reported by Asian Development Bank (2004) in Kharti and Vairamoorthy

(2007) ten of the eighteen Asian cities studied supplied water for less than twenty four

hours a day in 2001.According to Vairavamoorthy and Mansoor (2006) in Kharti and

Vairamoorthy (2007) intermittent supply leads to many problems including severe supply

pressure losses, great inequalities in the distribution of water and contamination.

However, water supply interruptions may last for longer than hours in a day in some

other developing countries in which case causes water famine and followed by shifting to

unprotected sources.

Temperature increase can also cause water supply shortage by causing water demand

increase. As Yimer (1992) indicated the amount of water used for drinking and bathing

15

increases with an increase in temperature that in turn increases water consumption per

head and this may be over and above that is required for normal physiological process. In

this respect Hofkes (1986) in Yimer(1992) stated that the daily water demand in a

community area will vary during the year due to seasonal patterns of climate, work

situation and other factors.

Topography and/or relief also affect the transmission or conveyance of water and the

pressure maintained in pipe lines which determines the efficiency of the distribution

system.

Urbanization and/or rise in living standard as a factor for water supply shortage increases

urban population and water consumption. As stated by Yimer (1992) the problem of

adequate and potable water supply for urban communities is intimately related to the

growth of urban centers, mainly in respect to rapid population growth and people’s

changing sense of urbanism which implies having water using appliances/fixtures,

frequency of bathing, using water for house/floor washing, etc. Regarding this

Magnogoyz et al (1972) in Yimer(1992) confirmed the urbanization process gives rise to

a new urbanized environment, involving both settlement forms and an altered physical

environment, the water needs of which may exceed the supply capacity of the existing

system. Concerning the impact of urban growth on water supply Pereira (1974) in

Yimer (1992) stated the combination of rising population, rising water consumption per

head and rising volume of domestic industrial wastes for disposal is out stripping the

geographical resources of the environments of major cities.

Extensive difference between the water amount produced and consumed, that is water

loss, also contributes for water supply shortage. As Arlosoroff (1999) in Kharti and

Vairamoorthy (2007) stated many studies revealed that water losses in cities of

developing countries are at levels of between 40-60% of water supplied. According to

Universal Access Program document of Ministry of Water Resources (2006) a study of

water production and usage conducted in 87 towns of Ethiopia, shows that the amount of

water production per person per day reaches 20.7 liters. Data gathered during Master Plan

16

study by Ministry of Water Resources indicates that 30.1% is wasted due to various

reasons and only 48% of the total amount that can be produced is actually produced and

distributed. As stated by Universal Access Program document of Ministry of Water

Resources (2006) among the factors that contribute to this are:-

• High wastage of water (failure to replace old or damaged pipes).

• Absence of capacity in towns that can fully utilize the entire amount of water

available.

• Failure to work based on a business plan.

• Rapid population growth (migration to towns and establishment of new

settlements).

• Small towns mostly get water from distribution points and these points render

service only for a limited time per day.

1.7.4 Conceptual Frame Work

Urban areas are facing a range of dynamic global and regional pressures. They are facing

difficulty in efficiently and transparently managing ever scarcer water resources,

delivering water supply services. In order to develop solutions to manage urban water

more effectively, these global and regional pressures must be recognized and used to

drive the design and management processes of urban water systems and hence reduce

negative socio-economic impacts.

17

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of Urban Water Supply

(Developed by summarizing points from the literature)

4. Technical Factors -Design of the water supply system: demand analysis, distribution system design -Water loss Management - Functionality of the electro- mechanical equipments -pressure efficiency of the water supply system problems - Development of other infrastructures

1. Environmental Factors -Management of upstream of the water source -Downstream water demand -Climate change in the area -Topography

2. Socio-economic Factors -Population pressure - Rise in life standard -Economic activities -Behavior of the public in using water -Willingness of the residents to pay for water

3. Institutional Factors

-Human and Material capacity of the

WSSO

-Financial management of the WSSO

- Institutional coordination of stakeholders

- Long Term investments on water supply

-Technical and financial data management

Adequacy, consistency and accessibility of

urban water supply system

18

1.8 Methodology and Materials

1.8.1 Study Area description 1.8.1.1 Location, climate, and population

Arba Minch is one of the major zonal towns in SNNPR. It is located at 505km south of

Addis Ababa and at 278km from the regional center, Awassa. The area is lowland in

southern part of Ethiopian main rift. Its elevation ranges from 1200m a.s.l at the northern

end to 1320m a.s.l at the southern end. The town is enclosed by the two rift lakes, Abaya

and Chamo in the east and south east respectively. As a rift valley area it is at the foot of

the western escarpment. The Gamo highland starts from the top of the escarpment. The

ground water forest in the east of the town is notable. The area receives bimodal rainfall

that takes its peak in April and September.

Administratively the town encompasses four sub-towns that are answerable to the town

administration. There are 11 kebeles in the town. The town municipality also coordinates

town planning works under the town administration. The town’s total population is

74,843 in 2007 (CSA, 2008) and is notably destination of tourists from home and abroad.

Moreover, social and economic activities are developing inline with developing

educational institutions and investments.

1.8.1.2 Physical and social infrastructures

A two way asphalt road crosses the town in the north-south direction. The other asphalt

road in the town is only a 2.1km long connecting the sub-towns to the hospital. Water

supply to the town is from the ‘forty springs’ in the western edge of the ground water

forest. There is one zonal hospital, one health center, 2 health posts and 16 private clinics

in the town. Arba Minch University with three of its faculties at the corners of the town is

the biggest educational institution in considering its population. Teachers training

college, TVET, and nursing colleges are other government educational institutions. There

19

are also four private colleges in the town. Arba Minch textile factory, the fish packing

company, the two crocodile farms, hotels and other investments are also considerable in

hosting workers. The town electric power source is connected to the national grid system

and has no special capacity constraints. Arba Minch has air & road transport

accessibility. Air transport service operates 2-3 days in a week to the town. With regards

to road transport, Arba Minch is connected to regional & national capital by asphalt road

and also serves as transportation terminals to other woredas and South Omo Zones, which

is one of the major tourist arrivals and destination. There are three banks and two micro

finance institutions operating in the town.

1.8.2 Data sources and collection methods

Both primary and secondary data were collected from different sources. For primary data

acquisition questionnaire/household survey method was employed to collect information

from selected water users. Technical and opinion related information was collected from

the water service, the zonal water office, the town water board and community

representatives through key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Key

informant interview was held to collect technical data from experts in the water service

and zonal water office; Focus group discussion was held to gather institutional and some

socio-economic information from the representatives of the users, the water service, the

water board and the zonal water office. Physical observation was also used to ensure

office works.

Information on the upstream and down stream conditions, the spring yield and quality,

population and economic activities of the town, financial records, organizational structure

and man power situation of the water supply service enterprise, the design and water

system details were reviewed from study and design documents, business plan

documents, program manuals, strategy documents, standards and regulations related with

water supply and sanitation as secondary data.

20

1.8.3 Sampling techniques

To collect primary information like water consumption variation due to temperature

increase, the behavior of the public in using water, water consumption rate per life style

change, willingness to pay for water, incidence of water borne diseases and related losses,

work load on women and girls, school enrollment and attendance from water users, it

needs examining the households.

Arba Minch town has four sub-towns namely Sikela, secha,Abaya and Nechsar. Each

sub-town encompasses three kebeles except Abaya which has two kebeles. Therefore the

total number of kebeles in the town is eleven. According to BOWRD (2009) eight

kebeles are water short areas and the rest three are with better supply.

The older sub-towns are Secha and Sikela for which there are two pressure zone

distribution networks. The upper pressure zone, Secha, receives water boosted from a

reservoir and the lower pressure zone, Sikela, receives water from the same reservoir via

gravity. The other two sub-towns, Abaya and Nechsar, are expansions of the older Sikela

sub-town.

It is important to stratify the kebeles into areas with critical water problems and those

with better supply. The kebeles with better water supply are only three which are in sub-

towns Sikela, Secha and Nechsar. A total of four sample kebeles were selected to

represent the town population. Out of which three are from water short areas and one

kebele from areas of better water supply using proportionate sampling technique.

To consider the pressure zone difference and related supply difference one water short

kebele was selected from the upper pressure zone. The selected kebeles were Chamo,

Dilfana, Idget Ber, and Waze from Shecha, Sikela, Nech Sar and Abaya sub-towns

respectively.

21

10% of households from each sample kebele will reasonably represent the households in

the sample kebeles. However based on the criteria used to categorize the kebeles, that is

water supply status, households in each category are more or less homogeneous. In

addition 10% of households in each kebele adds up unmanageable number due to urban

setting is populous. Therefore 25 households were selected from each four sample kebele

giving a sample size of 100 households. Sample households from sample kebeles were

selected using systematic sampling technique.

1.8.4 Analysis of Data

Data collected through the household survey was entered into computer with the help of

Micro-soft SPSS for easy handling. Data validation and analysis was undertaken with

SPSS. The outputs of SPSS statistics was interpreted and used to describe the primary

information gathered from the town residents

Data collected using focus group discussion, key informant interview; physical

observation and secondary sources were used to triangulate and support the household

survey information through interpretations of descriptions, concepts, figures, and charts.

22

Chapter 2

2. Water Resource of Arba Minch Area Water resource of an area is generally controlled by factors like

geomorphology/topography, geology, hydrology, and vegetation cover of the area.

2.1 Controlling Factors

2.1.1 Geomorphology/Topography

Geomorphologic or topographic features are usually caused by erosion, geological

structures, and contact of different lithologic units. The features include slope gradient,

shape of valleys and drainage patterns which are important indicators of the geological

conditions of an area.

Arba Minch area is in the southern part of the Ethiopian Main Rift. It is at the foot of high

grounds which constitute the western escarpment of the rift. The rift lakes Abaya and

Chamo are located in the east and south of Arba Minch town respectively. The general

topography of the area slopes in the direction north and northeast, gently dropping

towards flat land adjacent to Lake Abaya. Locally, the southern part of the town is

situated over gently slopping land with minor undulations, while the northern part is

situated on a relatively flat to gently sloping land. The high ground in the west drains to

the town area through narrow and deep dry valleys and streams which form wide and

meandering valleys when approaching the flat land.

23

2.1.2 Geology

Geology refers to the type of rock units, vertical variation of rock units, and structures in

an area. The type of rock units is important to indicate water bearing properties of the

rock units. Vertical variation of rock units and structure of an area are also important for

the understanding of ground water bearing zones, ground water boundaries, ground water

movement directions, and ground water recharge zones.

The regional geology of Arba Minch area has been mapped as volcanic, composed of

basalts and tuffs, and undifferentiated quaternary deposits. Two distinct types of basalt

formation exist in the area.

According to MOWR (2002) the escarpment and plateau part of the Arba Minch area are

made up of Trap basalts. These Oligocene basalt flows have undergone severe

weathering and are found as crushed or fractured, sometimes with spheroidal weathering.

In general, this rock unit forms the highland areas west of Arba Minch town. This unit is

deeply weathered, fractured and faulted. This property provided favorable conditions for

the infiltration of water into the ground feeding the Arba Minch springs, as well as deeper

percolation to the underlying aquifer systems within the alluvial deposits at lower

elevations, between Lake Abaya in the east and Arba Minch town in the west. Since these

units are found in topographically high areas, they act as good recharge for the aquifers

located in topographically low areas.

Areas around the town and the hill between Lake Abaya and Lake Chamo, also called

‘Yegzer Dildey’, are made up of quaternary basalt (MoWR, 2002). These are described

as relatively fresh and show structures like gas vesicles and cooling joints. Appreciable

amounts of water can be infiltrated through joints. Interconnected pores could increase

the permeability of the rocks. The town is also founded over these quaternary basalt

formations. The southern end of the town is covered by colluviums. Clear outcrops of

quaternary basalt are observed at the escarpment west of the Arba Minch spring.

24

Alluvial deposits fill the rift valley floor near Lake Abaya and Lake Chamo at the eastern

vicinities of Arba Minch town. Wells drilled in the area reveal that the alluvium is thick

(up to 90m). The sediments range from gravel to clay with varying proportions. The grain

size of the sediments decreases from the foot of the escarpment to the Lake, and this is

true of the fluvial origin. Generally the deposits are composed of gravels, sands, silts and

clays. Clays hold water and do not transmit it. The main water bearing formations in the

area could be either gravels and/or combination of sand and gravel.

Regarding structures distinctive step faulting characterizes the area with a north-south

trend for the major structural features. This is due to Arba Minch area is in the main rift

system. It is believed that the tributaries of the stream near the town (Kulfo) flow along

the faults. This encourages the recharge to ground water.

2.1.3 Hydrology

The surface water and ground water dynamics is a concern of hydrology. The total water

available from precipitation and surface runoff for ground water recharge, ease of

recharge and zone of recharge are determined by hydrological methods.

Arba Minch is located in the ‘Kolla’ eco-climatic zone, and has a bi-modal rainfall

pattern with maximum precipitation falling in the months of April-June (120-140mm per

month) and a second rainy season in September-October (80-100mm per month).

December, January and February are relatively dry months. Maximum temperature

ranges from 30-330c and Minimum temperature ranges from 12-17 0c in Arba Minch

area.

25

Monthly Average Rainfall of Arbaminch(1970-2006)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Month

Rai

nfal

l in m

m

Figure 2 Monthly Average Rainfall of Arba Minch

Source: Arba Minch state Farm and Arba Minch University Meteorology Stations

Table 1 Monthly Maximum, Minimum and average temperature at Arba Minch (1997-2006)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Max 33.3 35.3 35.1 32.7 30.5 30.1 29.6 29.9 32.6 31.1 32.3 31.9

Aver. 32.14 33.71 33.2 30.9 28.8 28.5 28.1 28.93 30.8 29.75 30.50 31.07

Min 13.8 14.6 16.8 16.8 17.3 16.6 16.9 17.3 17.2 16.3 13.7 11.7

Aver. 15.8 16 18.07 18 17.73 17.6 17.8 17.92 17.8 17.3 15.62 14.73

Source: Arba Minch state Farm and Arba Minch University Meteorology Stations.

The water supply source for Arba Minch is the multiple eye spring at the foot of the

escarpment on the top of which the southern part of the town is situated. The recharge

areas of the water supply source are the escarpment in the west of the source which

26

extends up to the highland in the west, the ridge between the two lakes, the stream

(Kulfo) at the western edge of the ground water forest in the spring area, and also direct

infiltration.

The stepping escarpment in the west is covered by old cracked and weathered basalts at

the Ganta ridge, and quaternary materials of volcanic flows and falls at the southern arm

of town area. These allow water infiltration and ground water movement and therefore

recharge the water supply source.

The ridge between the two lakes (‘Yegzer Dildey’) is covered by layers of volcanic

deposits that are interchanged layers of lava and volcanic ashes with pumice rocks. These

deposits are underlain by lacustrine (lake bottom) deposits. These relatively fresh

volcanic deposits have structures like gas vesicles and joints. These structures form

interconnected pores which allow infiltration of appreciable amount of water and

permeability of the rock units.

‘Yegzer Dildey’

Figure 3: The ridge between the lakes Abaya and Chamo

27

The Kulfo stream drains the higher elevations of the rift valley escarpment and descends

towards Lake Abaya, and then it turns abruptly to flow at the edge of the ground water

forest in a southerly direction to join Lake Chamo. The tributaries of the stream flow

along faults and recharge the ground water. Moreover, the stream flows on the alluvial

deposits and lacustrine material at the rift floor which also allows recharge of the ground

water by the surface water.

The spring area is the rift floor which is covered by intercalations of alluvial material and

lacustrine deposits. These are permeable materials that allow direct infiltration of water.

Moreover, the area is covered by dense forest that minimizes surface runoff and enhances

direct infiltration of water.

The Spring Area

Figure 4: The dense forest around Arba Minch Spring

28

The regional ground water flow in the area is inferred to be towards the south. However,

locally and especially around the Arba Minch springs, it follows an easterly direction.

Due to the local topography and the position of the underlying saturated zone (aquifer)

close to the spring area, the ground water table is expected to be at shallow depth. Apart

from direct precipitation, the source of ground water recharge for the area is the streams

at the surroundings. The area is considered to be part of a large ground water basin within

the quaternary deposits, regionally extending north-east/south-west, with fresh water

recharge fed by streams draining from the adjacent high lands and regional sub-surface

flows.

29

Figure 5 Schematics of ground water flows around Arba Minch spring

Source: MoWR, 2002

30

2.1.4 Vegetation

The semi-arid nature of the area has resulted in the dominant vegetation of the slopes of

the Genta ridge being dry land acacia bush. Near the town much of the original

vegetation has been cleared for fire wood and to leave room for new built up areas. Only

smaller bushes are now observed. Larger trees have mostly been cut in a wide area

around the town and along its approach roads. Along the Lake shores typical shoreline

vegetation of reeds and grasses are found. The most striking vegetation of the area,

however, is found in the valley below the southern part of the town (Shecha). This area,

which is part of the Nech Sar National Park, exhibits a much denser bush land and a

canopy forest which is the result of the presence of ground water emerging from the

escarpment, as well as the permanent water supply provided by the Kulfo stream and the

Arba Minch stream.

2.2. Water Resource

2.2.1 Surface Water

The combination of its location at the edge of the rift valley and the associated geology of

the area have endowed Arba Minch and its surroundings with relatively abundant water

resources. The most conspicuous of these are the two rift valley lakes, Abaya and Chamo.

Lake Abaya and Lake Chamo are found in the East and South at about 6km and 8km

distance from Arba Minch town respectively. According to MoWR (2002) the estimated

volume of Lake Abaya is 7900Mm3 while that of Chamo is 4100Mm3. Even though both

lakes are rich in fish, intensive fishing activities are done on Chamo. This is because

Chamo is not as turbid as Abaya. Lower turbidity in Chamo helps fishers to save

themselves from crocodile attacks and to oversee their nets easily. The turbid nature of

Abaya is explained by extensive degradation and erosion of its wider catchment as

compared to less degraded and smaller catchment of Chamo.

31

Besides the two lakes, there are a large number of streams descending the mountains that

border the rift and join the lakes. Some of these are Sago, Sile, Kulfo,and Hare in the

west and Argoba, Bilate, and Sermele in the east of the lakes. Of these Kulfo is a nearby

stream of the northern arm of the town which residents use for cloth washing, bathing and

also for other domestic consumption. Kulfo drains the western mountain chains and

descends towards Lake Abaya but joins Lake Chamo by turning abruptly to south

direction.

2.2.2 Ground water and springs

Groundwater occurrences in Arba Minch area are also common. The heavily weathered,

older basalts to the west of the town (the Genta Mountain and its slopes) form favorable

recharge area for local as well as regional (deeper) aquifers. Similarly the interchanging

layers of lava, with layers of volcanic debris, at the ‘Yegzer Dildey’ and southern arm of

the town have created favorable aquifers and aquicludes. Alluvial deposits intercalated

with lacustrine deposits at the flat land near the lakes are also sources of deeper ground

water.

A total of fourteen boreholes have been recorded in the surroundings of the town. History

of these wells indicates that all are productive and their water qualities are also acceptable

in general. No serious water quality problem is reported for most of the wells though

some cases of poor quality (salinity) wells are mentioned.

All the boreholes are drilled for consumption of institutions and industries like Arba

Minch University, Arba Minch textile factory, the crocodile farm, the Air port, and the

Teachers Training College. None of the wells is connected to the town water supply

system.

The depths of the existing wells range from 51m at the crocodile farm to 100m for a well

situated at the vicinity of Arba Minch University, with corresponding static water levels

32

ranging from 7m to 23.95m b.g.l. The well yields reported from the above localities vary

from 1.7l/s for a well at the textile factory to 8l/s at Arba Minch University.

At the foot of the escarpment on which the southern part of the town is built, this local

ground water emerges in abundance in the form of the ‘forty springs’. The presence of

colluvium deposits along the line of springs makes it difficult to identify the exact

number of total spring eyes. The fault escarpment at the foot of which the spring emerges

is at 2 km to 6km from the northern and southern part of the town. The spring emerges

along a spring line of 100m long. From the Arba Minch springs a small stream flows

directly across the valley floor and joins the Kulfo stream at the foot of ‘Yegzer Dildey’

ridge.

2.3. Water Supply System of Arba Minch Town

The existing water supply system of Arba Minch town is constructed in 1987 for the design

period of ten years. However, formerly water supply system for the town from the same

source was constructed in 1963 and later improved in 1968 in responding to the increasing

population of the town.

2.3.1 Source

The water supply source for Arba Minch town is a spring named as Arba Minch to mean

forty springs which is located at 2.3 kilometers from the north eastern end of the town. There

are numerous springs discharging at the base of the escarpment in the southwest of the town

along a spring line of about 100m. It is from these springs that a part (northern arm) is

capped for the town water supply. According to MOWR (2002) the total yield of the spring

ranges between 110l/sec and 380l/sec depending on the season when the discharge is

measured. Of this the water amount in the pipeline currently is 34l/sec.According to the

informants the usable amount can not exceed 59l/sec.

33

Though the variation in the yield of the spring is not recognized as a cause for the current

water supply shortage in the town, the informants substantiate that there will be a need to

shift to other complementary sources for the yield of the existing source is limited to certain

design period according to the study by DHV Consultant in association with T& A

Consultants Plc (2002-2004).

Quality problem in the source has not been reported still now. According to studies

conducted by “The 12 towns water supply, GWE, 1998” and Arba Minch Water technology

Institute, the water quality of the Arba Minch springs is characterized by a low

mineralization level, a dominating bicarbonate content (soft spring water) and a low content

of sulphates and chlorides. The water is neither corrosive nor encrusting and within the limits

of the WHO guidelines. But recently increasing number of hotels and lodges are being

constructed on the top of the escarpment at the base of which the spring is located. These will

potentially contaminate the source through open drains unless mitigated.

2.3.2 Intake Structure

The water from part of the numerous springs is capped into a structure called intake structure

(collection chamber).There are a number of water inlet holes on the sides and bottom of the

structure. It is equipped with drain pipe with gate valve and an overflow structure. A

considerable amount of water leaks out from this chamber before reaching the overflow level

due to a gate valve failure. This problem has not been identified easily up to near past.

According to the informants from the WSSO it is not easy to maintain the gate valve failure

due to it needs to stop the system working for days where there is no alternative water source.

Figure 6 Intake Structure of Arba Minch Water supply System

34

2.3.3 Wet Well

There is a 70m3 wet well at the source area. The water from the intake structure is gravitated to

this structure via 20m long DN 200 DCI pipe. It is used as a sump for the base pumping

station. This rectangular structure has openings fitted with woody bushes. According to the

key informants in the WSSO these woody bushes are leaking due to long time service.

Therefore the effective capacity of the wet well is declined to 65m3.

2.3.4 Pumping Stations

Arba Minch water supply system has two pump stations. The first pump station is located at

the spring site and lifts water from the wet well to the reservoir at the second pump station. It

consists of two identical pumps and a space for a third. The pumps are directly coupled to an

electric motor. Similarly the second pump station is located at the 500 m3 reservoir site. It is

to lift water from the reservoir to the upper pressure zone (secha sub town). This station also

consists of two identical pumps directly coupled to an electric motor and a space for a third.

There are also standby old pumps. The pumps at times fail though four of them are with only

two years service. The working hours of the pumps are 8 hours with in 12 hours. They are

functioning with slight variation from their design. Spare parts of the pumps are available in

the water service office which was given as a part during purchase. Other components of the

pump house include surge vessel, drain pump and chemical dosing pump. The surge vessel

avoids water hammer and protects the pump; drain pump removes drain water from a cellar

automatically; and the chemical dosing pumps inject chlorine solution into the rising main

out side the spring site pumping station. However, all these components are not operational.

Regarding power supply the pumps in both stations are connected to EEPCO national grid

system. Each pump station also has a stand by diesel generator. The power supply from

EEPCO and Standby generator to the pump is controlled at the switchboard house and is

operated manually. There is a frequent failure in the control panel at both pumping stations.

35

Figure 7 Base and Booster pump Stations of Arba Minch Water supply system.

2.3.5 Transmission Main

There is one DN 200mm PN 25 DCI transmission main having a total length of 698m. It is

used to convey water from the base pumping station to the 500m3 reservoir. It consists of air

valve, flush valve, check valve, compensators and by pass pipe with gate valve.

2.3.6 Reservoirs

Arba Minch water supply system has three reservoirs. Two of the reservoirs are located at the

booster pump station connected each other. Their capacity is 100m3 (square) and 500 m3

(circular). These reservoirs are used to supply water to the lower pressure zone distribution

network (mostly for Sikela sub town) and as the same time serve as a sump for lifting water

to the upper pressure zone distribution network and the third reservoir. The third reservoir

with capacity of 300m3 (circular) is located at the western end of the upper sub-town (Secha

sub-town). It is used to store the excess water left from the upper pressure zone distribution

network and at the same time to supply back to the same distribution network. This service of

the reservoir is operational when the upper pressure zone distribution network was not as

dense as it is now. But currently the upper pressure zone distribution network consumes

36

almost all water in its way to the third reservoir. Therefore it is rarely that water is stored in

the third reservoir and is distributed back to the upper pressure zone distribution network.

Figure 8: The three reservoirs of Arba Minch water supply system

2.3.7 Distribution Network

Arba Minch town water supply system consists of two major pressure zone distribution

networks. These agree to the two earlier parts of the town, Secha and Sikela. Water is

distributed to the lower pressure zone, Sikela, from the 500m3 reservoir via gravity while to

the upper pressure zone, secha, boosted from the same reservoir. The water boosted from the

500m3 reservoir is distributed to the upper pressure zone connections in its way to the 300m3

reservoir. Each major pressure zone is further subdivided into two by a pressure reducing

valves (PRV). The entire system thus comprises of four pressure zones.

The former two parts of the town are joined and stretched to wider areas by now.

Especially the lower pressure zone distribution network is extended to other two sub-

town areas and further to the Main campus of the University. A total of 28.72km

distribution line has been laid up to now. However, this does not sufficiently cover the

whole developed area of the town and a leakage of about 18.20% (five years average) is

reported.

37

Table 2. Trends of water supply service connections in Arba Minch (2005/2006 – 2007/2008)

Connection type

Consumers connection profiles

2005/2006 2006/2007 2007/2008 Average Annual

Growth Private HH connections 5,020 5,483 5,788 6.9%

Commercial 149 215 310 30.7%

Industrial 3 3 3 0.0%

Government 146 183 262 25.2%

Public Taps 37 38 39 2.6%

Source: Arba Minch WSSO

Each household and institutional connection is equipped with a water meter. At present there

are more than 356 applicants on the waiting list for a house connection. This demand cannot

be met because of shortage of water supply and lack of water meters.

Extending connections are decided without considering the pressure efficiency, the water

amount and the status of the system. Therefore a number of dry pipes are reported from

different angles of the town.

The water service office has no detail map of the distribution network which could have been

simplified identification and location of problems.

2.4 Water Consumption Pattern in Arba Minch Town

Water consumption of a particular town depends on the size of the population, their

standard of living and activities, the cost of water supplied, and the purpose of

consumption. It varies according to the requirement of the domestic population,

institutional, industrial and social establishments, etc. Generally water is consumed for

domestic and non-domestic purposes.

Domestic water consumption is the amount of water used for drinking, food preparation,

washing, cleaning, bathing and other miscellaneous domestic purposes. The amount of

water used for domestic purposes greatly depends on the lifestyle, living standard, and

climate, mode of service and affordability of the users.

38

Non-domestic water consumption can be broadly classified into Institutional,

Commercial and Industrial water consumption.

According to the key informants in the WSSO the water amount in the pipe line is 34l/s.

The average pumping hours is 18 hours. This indicates that 2,203,200 liters of water is

supplied to the town on average daily. And a leakage of about 18.20% (five years

average), which is 400982.4 liters, is reported. Therefore water ready for consumption

reaches 1,802,217.6 liters per day on average. The water amount used for domestic

purpose is 75.24% which is 1,356,078.63 liters on average. The population of the town is

estimated to be 80, 950 in 2009. Therefore, domestic water supply per capita per day

reaches 16.75 liters. Still the water loss amount reported seems not representative and

therefore the per capita per day water amount is even lesser.

However, the WSDP (2002) document specifies the general standard adopted for urban

water supply to be 30 to 50 liters per capita per day. Similarly 16.75liters per capita per

day is below basic access to water supply according to the WHO standard for quantity of

water consumption.

According to the information from the WSSO, currently there are about 6,699 modes of

connection in the town out of which 6433 are private (house and yard) connection, 127

commercial connections, 127 Government/NGO/public connections, 12 industry

connections. Highest amount of water is consumed by private customers followed by

Government/NGO/Public customers.

Table 3 Monthly Sectoral Water Consumption (Feb, 2010)

Connection type No. of customers percentage Consumption(m3) percentage

commercial 127 1.9 4544 9.36

GO/NGO/public 127 1.9 9215 18.97

Industry 12 0.18 85 0.18

Private 6433 96.03 34716 71.49

Total 6699 100 48560 100

Source: Arba Minch WSSO

39

Chapter 3

3. Manifestations of Water Supply Shortage in Arba Minch

Residents of Arba Minch town suffer from water supply shortage not only in the absence

of water connection but also due to dry water connections or connections that give

inadequate water. The problem is pronounced in dry season. In effect the residents are

obliged to either use other unprotected water sources or buy water from private sellers or

use shared stand pipes.

According to Alaci and Esubalew (2009) using unprotected water sources and/or buying

water from private sellers or using shared stand pipes:

• Cause water borne diseases and related costs,

• Make users pay more for their water than households with regular pipe water

system, and the high cost of water may force households to use small quantities of

water and alternative sources of poorer quality,

• Rise burden on people, mostly women, to collect water from available sources, and

• Increase working time spent in the collection of water that has opportunity cost on

children’s education and productivity of other family members.

According to WHO (2004) in Alaci and Esubalew (2009) if households spent more than

30 minutes, travel more than 1000m, consume below 5l/c/d; it is no access to water

supply and is a very high level of health concern. And if households are supplied water

through multiple taps continuously and consume 100l/c/d and above, it is optimal access

and is very low level of health concern.

40

Table 4 WHO Standards in Relation to Time, Distance, Quantity of Water and Health Concern

Time spent to

fetch water

Distance travel

to fetch water

Quantity of

water

consumed

Water supply

accessibility

Level of

health

concern

More than 30

minutes

More than

1000m

Below 5l/c/d No access Very

high

5 to 30 minutes Between 1000m

and 100m

20l/c/d Basic access high

Within 5

minutes

With in 100m 50l/c/d through

one tap on plot

Intermediate

access

low

Water supplied through multiple taps continuously

Water supplied through multiple taps continuously

100l/c/d and

above

Optimal access Very low

Source: WHO, 2004 in Alaci and Esubalew, 2009

In Arba Minch the alternative water source to which dwellers shift in short of water supply is

the Kulfo stream that encloses a part (Sikela) of the town in the north. Some times the

residents of the southern part of the town travel up to the ‘Arba Minch spring’ site to collect

the untapped water. There are also private sellers of water in different parts of the town.

According to the information from the WSSO there are 39 public taps (stand pipes), 11 of

which are not operational due to the absence of users since residents around these public

taps have got yard and house connections.

Of the 100 respondents in the household survey conducted 70 are connected to the piped

water supply system. However, even from respondents connected to piped water system

51 responded that the water from their tap does not satisfy household water demand. And

a total of 92 respondents are using different sources of water for either most of the

respondent’s taps do not supply adequate water or some others do not have water

41

connection. The major sources include private water sellers (26.1%), stream (21.7%) and

public fountains (18.5%).

The length of time in which private faucets give water varies widely. From the

households surveyed and with water connection 10 have dry pipes. Hours of a day in

which faucets give water varies from 0 hour to 24 hours and 32% of the respondents

access water for less than 4hrs while comparable amount (32%) of the respondents access

water for greater than 8 hrs. Similarly days of a week in which surveyed residents access

water varies from 0 to 7 days and considerable amount (45%) lies in the range 0-4 days

3.1 Health Problems Related to Water Supply Regarding the health problems caused by unprotected water sources, information from

different sources indicates that there is occurrence of skin infections and other water

borne diseases in the town. From the 92 respondents whom do not get adequate water

from their tap or do not have water connection 43 responded that they take bath in the

stream and some 18 responded that they have caught by skin infections. Some 15

responded that their family members are caught by other water borne diseases. It can be

explained that skin infections are due to respondents take bath in stream.

Table 5 The Ten top diseases

Type of diseases No. of Cases % of Total Malaria 5125 33.2 Lower respiratory infection 1235 8.0 Diarrhea 1135 7.3 Skin infection 866 5.6 Upper throat infection 1403 9.1 Upper respiratory 1011 6.5 Gastric 793 5.1 Helementaisis 576 3.7 Rheumatism 571 3.7 Thyroid 287 1.9 Others 2452 15.9 Total 15,454 100

Source: Health office of Arba Minch town, 2007/2008

42

Diarrhea and skin infections in the list of ten top diseases can be caused by unclean water.

Health problems related with water have their effect on children’s school condition and

monetary expenses of the household. From the surveyed households 13% responded that

their children missed school days due to water borne diseases. Again 14% of the

surveyed households spent 100-130 birr per annum for medical treatment of water born

diseases and 10% of the respondents spent in the range 15-40birr.

3.2 Water Cost and Consumption

Water supply shortage forces the users to buy water from private sellers or public stand

pipes. This makes the users pay greater amount for water as compared to households with

regular piped water system and the high cost of water may force households to use small

quantities of water.

According to the household survey respondents pay 25 to 60 cents for 20 liters ‘jerican’

when buying from private water sellers and they pay 20 to 30 cents when buying from

public stand pipes. Specifically from 30% public fountain users 28% responded that they

pay 30 cents for a 20 liters container of water and the rest said 20 cents for the same

volume of water. Those who go to private sellers to collect water are 77 respondents. Of

these 41.5% pay 50 cents for a 20 liters container of water followed by 36.4% and 16.9%

who pay 40 cents and 30 cents for the same volume of water respectively.

The current water tariff of Arba Minch town water supply is 2 birr per m3. When the cost

of water that majority of the respondents pay, that is 50 cents, for private sellers is

compared with this tariff, it is 2.5 times greater per m3. Therefore the users are forced to

pay greater amount due to the water supply shortage.

43

Regarding the amount of water consumed by residents the household survey result shows

that majority of the respondent households (62.1%) consume 20-40 liters followed by

23% and 14.9% that consume 41-60 liters and >60 liters daily. The family size of the

sample households ranges from 2 to 17 and has mean of 6.15. When the water amount

consumed by the majority of the respondents, 20-40 liters, is shared out by the mean

family size it is 3.3 to 6.6 l/c/d. This quantity is almost no access (below 5l/c/d) as

compared to the WHO standard. It is also very small quantity as compared to the general

design standards adopted for domestic water demand in the water sector development

program (2006) of the country that is 30 to 50 l/c/d for urban centers.

3.3 Burden on Water Collectors

Collecting water from taps of private water sellers in the areas of better water supply,

from public stand pipes, and from stream is a heavy task. According to the household

survey conducted this task rests on almost all household members (boys, girls, mothers,

and fathers). 40% of the sample households responded that all household members

collect water, 14% responded that it is children who are responsible to collect water,

some 11% responded that only girls collect water, 9% also said only mothers collect

water and the rest have composite responses excluding the 3% non-respondents. Though

all household members participate in collecting water, the sample households expressed

the girls and mothers separately which is not the case for other household members.

Mothers and girls also have other domestic duties.

Water collection is burden in water short areas of Arba Minch because it requires

traveling long distance up to and back from the source, waiting in the site of the source,

carrying at least a 20 liters container of water while traveling back the distance.

According to the household survey result the public fountain users are 34 in number and

the total time spent in walking to and from the public fountain and waiting at the source

ranges from15minutes to 1:45hr. Considerable amount of respondents (13) are in the

range 15-30 minutes. This is only basic access according to the WHO standard.

44

The stream water users are 37% of the total sample households of the survey. They walk

for 2minutes to 1:30 hr to fetch water. The greater amount of respondents (20) spent 20-

30 minutes which is also only basic access according to the WHO standard. As the stream

(Kulfo) drains the highland in the west and also wastes in the northern arm of the town

drains to this stream, it is undesirable for domestic use unless forced by water supply

shortage.

The other water supply source for water problem victims in Arba Minch town is private

tap water sellers. 58% of the sample households use tap water from private water sellers.

Of these 48 respondents spend 5-30 minutes to walk to and from the sources and the

other 6 and 4 respondents walk for >30 minutes and <5 minutes respectively. Again

waiting at the source requires in the range 5 to 30 minutes for the majority (33)

respondents. Therefore, the total time spent to collect water is very long and almost all

users fall below intermediate access according to the WHO standard.

The time spent for the purpose of water collection affects children’s school condition at

least by forcing them to miss school days. In the household survey 73 responded

regarding this and the rest 27 are non respondents. The result shows 26 agreed that water

collection in Arba Minch town is a cause for missing school days of children. The

missing school days range from 1 to 30 and a mean of 8.5 days per year.

Figure 9 Long lines of containers waiting for water and a girl travelling back from private sellers carrying water

45

Chapter 4

4. Discussion and Results

4.1. Characteristics of the Sample Households One hundred sample households are drawn from four kebeles of the town each kebele

belonging to different sub-towns. The age distribution of the respondents shows that, of

the 99 responded households 31.3% are in the age group 41-50, 27.3% are in the group

31-40, 22.2% are >50, and 18.2% are in the group 21-30. The rest 1% is <20. 95

households responded concerning their educational level. 28.4% are 1-6 grade and those

who are first degree holders and above are 5.3%. The rest are in the groups 9-10 grade,

10+1-3, 12 complete, 7-8 grade and 12+1-2 except 2.1% are illiterate. The sex data

shows that male respondents are 79, females are 17 and the sex of 4 respondents was not

recorded. Regarding the family size the minimum is 2, the maximum is 17 and the mean

is 6.15.

House holding of the sample house holds is also surveyed. 83.8% are private houses,

9.1% are rented from kebele, 4% rented from private. 89% of the houses of the sample

house holds are made of mud plastered, wood and corrugated iron roof, 5% are concrete

buildings and the rest 6% are thatched roof. Concerning the house floor type 99

households have responded. 53.5%have earthen floor, 34.3% have cemented floor, 6.1%

tiled floor and the rest have other type floors.

The sample households have different occupations. These include government

employees, trade/ businessmen, daily laborers, farmers, service providers, pensioners and

others. Out of the total 99 responded sample households 37.4 per cent are government

employees that constitute the dominant number of the sample households. Business men

constitute 14.1 per cent whereas 10.1 per cent of the sample household is pensioner

Farmers and daily laborers constitute 7.1% each. The remaining 6.1 and 18.2 per cent are

service providers and others (mixed occupations, dependents) respectively.

46

Income characteristics of the surveyed households show that 22.1% of the households lie

in the income group 301-600 birr followed by 601-900 birr with percentage of 16.1, and

101-300 birr and >2101birr each with 15.1%. The rest 14.1%, 3.5% and 2.3% are in the

income groups 900-1200 birr, 1800-2100 birr, 1501-1800 birr respectively.

4.2. Causes of Water Supply Shortage in Arba Minch

4.2.1 Environmental Factors

Environmental factors such as recharge area management, down stream water demand,

climate, and topography can cause urban water supply shortage by affecting the quantity

and quality of water; and the pressure efficiency in the water supply system.

4.2.1.1. Quantity factors

A. Recharge Area Management

Ground water is in motion through geological formations from recharge area to discharge

area governed by gravity. It is the water that is infiltrated in the recharge area that

replenishes the water abstracted at discharge area. Degradation of the recharge areas

affect the infiltration of water into the ground thereby decreases the amount of water in

the source. Degradation also favors high runoff and then flooding which can have a

damaging effect on physical structures at the water source.

The recharge area of water supply source for Arba Minch town is pointed out on study

documents in the water supply service office. It is indicated that the spring source is

recharged by the escarpment in west of the source, the volcanic ridge ( ‘Yegzer Dildiy) in

the east of the source, a stream named as Kulfo that flows at western edge of the ground

water forest, and also direct infiltration.

47

However, there is no any integrated recharge area management activities related with the

water supply source. The escarpment in the west is a high slope area on top of which the

southern segment of the town is located. It is a continuation of Ganta ridge in the western

escarpment of the rift. The rock materials on this escarpment has been seriously

excavated and transported. The vegetation cover in the area has also been cleared. A

number of hotels and lodges with wide cemented grounds and considerable sewage are

built on the top of the escarpment at the foot of which the springs emerge. The focus

group discussion participants from the water board of the town indicated that they were

strongly opposing the cementation of wide areas of the hotels and lodges to protect the

high runoff. Similarly the volcanic ridge in the east is on the way to the Nech Sar plain.

It is only covered by smaller bushes due to big trees are cleared by wood collectors. A

denser bush and a canopy forest are seen only in the valley area where the spring emerges

though it is also under heavy pressure of deforestation.

A lodge With Wide Cemented Area

The Spring

Area

Figure 10: A lodge at the top of the escarpment in the west of the spring

The Kulfo stream is a perennial one with very low dry season flow due to it is heavily

utilized for irrigation purposes (both traditional and for the Arba Minch state farm).

48

As the chart below shows the discharge of the Arba Minch spring had generally declined

for the years 1980-1999. Therefore the total discharge of the spring, water supply source

for the town, is declining.

7113

6747

82428044

6645

5021

3627 35573725

3509

48304531

4955

57515473

4074

5553

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

1980 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1999

Year

Dis

char

ge

in M

CM

Figure 11: Annual Discharge of Arba Minch Spring

Source: MOWR (2002)

B. Downstream Water Demand

There has to be consideration of down stream water demand when developing water

supply source for an area. This definitely leads to sharing of the available water amount

to environmental components down the source.

The untapped water from Arba Minch springs flow through the forest area in the valley

as Arba Minch stream and eventually joins Lake Chamo. The dense forest through which

Arba Minch stream flows is a part of the Nech Sar national park which is with

spectacular natural scenery and biodiversity. A study by MOWR (2002) indicated that the

49

occurrence of the canopy forest at Arba Minch is the result of the presence of Arba

Minch stream, and not the general availability of ground water. Therefore it demands

around 20l/s of water from the spring for the downstream ecology such as the forest, wild

animals and the lake. The WSSO has planned to further develop the spring up to only

59l/sec and to shift to other sources. However, the potential yield of the source ranges

from 110-350l/sec. This is to leave sufficient amount of water for the down stream

environmental components. Therefore environmental components in the down stream

require substantial water from the water supply and hinder using all the available water

resource.

C. Climate

Arba Minch is located in the ‘Kolla’ eco-climatic zone. Increased temperatures and/or

decreasing precipitation can have impacts like increased evapotranspiration and lowered

recharge rates that reduce the total water available in the hydrological system while also

increasing the total end-user demand. Supply declines while demand increases.

The water supply source for Arba Minch town is the multiple eye spring located at the

foot of an escarpment in the east of the southern segment of the town. The total discharge

of this spring is estimated to be in the range of 110l/s to 350l/s. This shows the range

between the minimum and maximum discharge of the spring is large. This is related with

seasonal temperature and rainfall variations and also annual trends.

It is water from rainfall that infiltrates into the ground and discharges as springs. Arba

Minch has a bi-modal rainfall pattern with maximum precipitation falling in the months

of April- June and a second rainy season in September – October. The total annual

rainfall is between 800 and 1000mm. January, February, and December are generally dry

months. The yield of Arba Minch spring can increase during seasons of continuous

rainfall and decrease during dry season. This is manifested in that the water amount from

taps differs following season changes. The household survey result shows that there

exists water amount difference due to season difference. Those who responded the water

50

amount in their tap decreases in dry season are 71% and those who said in the rainy

season are only 3%. The rest are non-respondents.

In Arba Minch monthly maximum temperature ranges from 270c in July to 350c in

February. Minimum temperature ranges from 110c in December to 190c in March.

Rise in temperature lowers recharge rate by increasing evapotranspiration and increases

water demand of the end-users.

In the study area water consumption can increase during dry season. In the household

survey conducted 94% of the respondents expressed that their water consumption

increases in the dry season. Regarding purposes that consume much water during dry

season, 68% of the respondents said drinking; bathing and washing clothes consume

much water followed by 8% who responded drinking, bathing, washing clothes and also

watering domestic animals.

Table 6 Water Consumption Difference in seasons

Water consumption No. of respondents Percent

Increases in Dry season

94 94.0

Increases in rain season

5 5.0

increases In both seasons

1 1.0

Total 100 100.0

Source: household Survey

A data from WSSO regarding monthly water consumption trend shows that water

consumption is relatively high in the months August to October and also slightly high in

months January to March. But the consumption is low in months April to July. August,

September and October are rainy months where recharge to the source increases. This in

turn increases the spring flow and maximizes pressure efficiency in the water supply

51

system. This brings back the dry pipes in the areas of pressure loss to operation. At the

same time temperature is high as compared to the other rainy season. Therefore residents

that have been using other water sources start using higher amount of water from their

tap. This increases water consumption in the months. January and February are dry

months where temperature is high. This high temperature increases water demand and

consumption of the users. April, May and June constitute the rainy season of maximum

precipitation and low temperature. These keep water consumption low. However, it

requires data of greater number of years to see the existent consumption pattern.

Table 7 Monthly Consumption of water in (M3) of Arba Minch Town

year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

2008 50499 65271 77547 56789 52463 52888

2009 65249 54974 54597 50361 50320 52691 50872 61480 62615 62692 76295 49276

2010 55992 48560

Source: Arba Minch WSSO

4.2.1.2 Quality factors

Contaminant sources at the upstream can affect the quality of water either by joining the

recharge or in the form of surface flow to the water collection structures at the source or

in the distribution line.

Regarding the quality of the water supply source of Arba Minch, a report of analysis

made by the National Research Institute of Health (1995) from the WSSO outlines that

the un-chlorinated water taken from the spring intake structure is bacteriologically not

potable and chlorination is recommended. Furthermore, the Arba Minch Water

Technology Institute was also carried out physical and bacteriological analysis on

samples taken from four selected water distribution points and a report was submitted to

52

the utility operator in 2005. According to the report coliform has been reported and

sufficient chlorination is recommended.

Currently, treatment is only being done at 500m3 reservoir with Calcium hypochlorite

(bleaching powder) manually. This kind of treatment method is applied to disinfect the

pipeline and to treat the water distributed to the customer via the distribution pipes. It is a

drop by drop chlorination done daily in the proportion of 1kg for daily pumped water amount

(2928m3)

In general, from pervious result of the chemical analysis, the water quality of the Forty

Springs is characterized by a low mineralization level, dominating bicarbonate content (soft

spring water) and a low content of sulphates and chlorides. The water is neither corrosive nor

encrusting and within the limits of the WHO guidelines.

Recently a number of lodges and hotels are constructed at the top of the escarpment at the

foot of which the spring is discharging. The waste drains from these points can potentially

contaminate the water at the source. In the household survey conducted 14.4% of the

respondents said the taste of the tap water occasionally changes and 85.6% have not noticed

the taste change. 10 households were non-respondents. Similarly 93.5% of the respondents

evaluated the quality of the water as very good, 3.2% as more or less good and the rest 3.2%

as not good. 7 households are non-respondents.

According to the focus group discussion in the zonal water office, the quality of the water

supply source is exposed to sewage from hotels and lodges at the top of the escarpment in the

west. The zonal water department and the WSSO of the town were not consulted during the

construction of the hotels and lodges. Neither the water supply project nor the hotels and

lodges constructions were preceded by environmental impact assessments.

It seems that significant number of the respondents have not shown the quality problem of

the water source due to it is chlorinated daily.

53

4.2.1.3. Pressure efficiency factors

A. Topography

Topography of the source area and the town has effect on the pressure efficiency of the

water supply system. The source is on the lower ground from which water is pumped to

the town. Especially the transmission main is stretched on higher slope ground. This has

required pumps at the source. Even after the transmission main the upper distribution

zone has required a pump station due to one of the sub-towns (shecha) is located at higher

ground compared to the second pump station while water to the lower distribution goes

via gravity.

Had the town been at lower topography as compared to the source area, the water would

have been distributed via gravity, and pump and generator failures would have not been

causes of the water supply interruption.

According to the key informants in the WSSO both in the lower and upper distribution

zones there are also places where water lacks pressure to overcome the topography effect,

for example Bere, Gurba and Idget ber areas.

4.2.2 Socio-economic Factors

Socio-economic factors that can drive urban water supply shortage may include

population pressure, urbanization (life standard change), economic development,

behavior of the public in using water and willingness of the community to pay for water.

These factors increase water demand; and cause pronounced water supply shortage in a

case where water supply system is operating out of its design period.

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4.2.2.1. Population pressure

Population pressure in urban areas makes maintenance of the existing level of water

supply an enormous task. Water supply per capita declines as population increase beyond

the projected capacity. This forces either expansion of the existing water supply system

or developing new water supply sources which needs long term investments.

In Arba Minch population pressure is caused by rural-urban migration, increasing

construction investments, educational institutions and also natural increase. According to

the household survey result 74% of the sample households have been in the town for

more than 20 years. Only 9% of the respondents have been in the town for less than 10

years. On the other hand 30% of the households have rooms for rent and 20 of these

responded that the rooms are accommodating students. Though new arrivals to the town

in the household level are very small, those who come to educational institutions and rent

rooms are considerable. Especially Arba Minch University is extending its three faculties

in different corners of the town out of the main campus. The University has student

enrollment of about 15,000 currently. This has increased the water demand in the town.

Table 8 Occupants of houses for rent in Arba Minch

occupants No. of respondents

percent

Students 20 66.7

Office workers 4 13.3

Industry workers 1 3.3

Others 3 10.0

Students and office workers 1 3.3

Students, office workers and industry workers

1 3.3

Total 30 100.0

Non-respondents 70

Source: household survey

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Table 9 Educational Institutions in Arba Minch Town

Edu. Institution Private , public, faith based &

NGOs Government

Total

Technical (TEVT) school

1 1 2

college 5 2 7 University - 1 1 Boarding - 1 1 Total 6 4 11

Source: Arba Minch Town administration

According to the 2007 population census the town population is 74,843. The existing

water scheme was extensively extended in 1987 to respond to water demand of the

increasing population of the town. The design period of the system was 10 years. It was

designed to supply water for 46,000 people (design population). It is this system which is

operational currently for almost doubled population in the town, in the educational

institutions and tourists after thirteen years of its design period with out significant

expansion.

In the same manner water connections show increasing trend though it has to consider the

water amount and the pressure efficiency of the water supply system. Especially the

private water connections show pronounced annual increase like 423 and 155 new

connections in 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 respectively. Therefore there are a number of

dry pipes in different angles of the town.

Table 10 Water connection increase trend

year

Type of connection

private Institut-

ional

commercial industry military hydrant Public

fountain

total

2007/2008 5900 240 178 2 5 1 37 6363

2008/2009 6323 182 186 2 5 1 37 6736

2009/2010 6478 185 190 2 5 1 37 6861

Source: Arba Minch WSSO

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4.2.2.2. Rise in standard of living

Urbanization process gives rise to a new urbanized environment, involving both

settlement forms and an altered physical environment, the water needs of which may

exceed the supply capacity of the existing system. People’s changing sense of urbanism

implies having appliances/fixtures that use water, increased frequency of bathing and

cloth washing, using water for washing house/floor, etc.

In Arba Minch there are residents who had been taking bath in the nearby stream have

shifted to taking bath in shower rooms at home. And also some residents who had been

using the stream water at least for domestic purpose other than drinking have totally

shifted to tap water. Due to life standard changes residents have also started using

domestic devices which use water, bathing and washing clothes frequently, washing

floor, watering gardens.

The household survey result reveals that 97% of the sample households use tap water as

their major water source. Of 89 respondents 23.6% have flower/vegetable garden which

they water it from tap water. Similarly, of 73 respondents 27.4% have bath rooms

connected to the pipe line. Regarding frequency of taking bath, from 94 respondents

40.4% take baths 3-4 times and 41.5% take twice weekly. In the same manner 77.1% of

the 96 respondents wash their clothes once weekly and some 17.7% wash twice a week.

The survey result indicates that majority of the town residents use tap water as their

major water source. They take other water sources as their secondary source though there

is water supply shortage. The residents also grow flowers/vegetables to have attractive

living environment. A considerable amount of residents have bath rooms which keeps

them away from streams and other unprotected sources. Majority of the residents also

take baths twice and above in a week. These are urban behaviors which grow up with rise

in living standards and can obviously cause water demand increase.

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4.2.2.3. Economic Activities

Major economic activities in Arba Minch are related with agricultural productivity of the

surrounding areas; tourist attractions; labor absorbing factories, farms, constructions and

fish marketing; educational institutions and of course employment in government offices

as a zonal capital.

The surrounding rift floor areas of Arba Minch are mainly producing banana fruit for

national market. This makes the farmers economically strong to invest on constructions

of residential and commercial houses in the town. It also has a market connection with

traders in the town in supplying the product to other urban centers in the country (Addis

Ababa, Dire Dawa, Mekele). Therefore both farmers and other business people invest on

different commercial sectors in the town. These include hotels, lodges, cafeterias,

pensions, Educational institutions, and Industries which consume substantial amount of

water.

Table 11 Commercial investments in Arba Minch town, since 1992/93

No. Type of Investment Quantity

1 Hotels 18

2 Lodges 8

3 Cafeterias, Pensions, Super Market 7

4 Educational Institutions 13

5 Industries 11

Source: Zonal trade, Industry and Investment department

Commercial sector is in the third position in consuming the town water supply following

the private users and institutions. Industry and Military connections take the rest share in

the given order. The water consumption data from the WSSO shows that the percentage

share of consumption of the commercial sector ranges from 8.31 to 11.20 in 2009. On

average the sector consumes 9.8% of the total consumption in the year taken.

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Table 12 Sectoral Water Consumption (%) of Arba Minch Town in 2009

Sector Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

commercial

10.73 10.59 8.35 11.20 10.26 9.49 8.31 9.19 11.19 9.54 9.12 9.33

Institutiona

l(Gov/NGO)

12.36 10.88 11.38 12.41 13.88 13.72 16.05 16.18 14.57 15.21 16.32 15.94

Industry 1.58 0.54 0.27 0.15 0.23 0.26 0.18 0.12 0.05 0.08 0.1 0.08

Private 75.32 77.99 79.99 76.23 75.63 76.24 75.21 74.39 74.03 71.96 71.48 74.47

Military 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.25 0.12 0.17 3.21 2.98 0.18

Source: WSSO of Arba Minch

The natural scenery of Arba Minch: the two lakes, the hill in between, the Nech Sar plain

with its wild life, the crocodile ranch, the crocodile market place, the Arba Minch springs

and the dense forest around the springs all combined in a small area with excellent

viewing opportunities attract considerable number of tourists from home and abroad.

Arba Minch is also a gate to other tourist attraction areas like Konso and South Omo.

Table 13 Tourist visit to Arba Minch town (2003/2004-2007/2008)

Year Number of visitors

Foreign In land Total 2003/2004 22,463 8,631 31,094

2004/2005 19,940 10,425 30,365 2005/2006 23,079 12,700 35,779 2006/2007 34,102 15,501 49,603 2007/2008 15,425 37,327 52,752

Source: Gamo gofa zone, Tourism, Parks and Hotels desk

The Arba Minch textile factory, the Arba Minch state farm and emerging housing

developments absorb significant man power. Fish marketing also has a substantial share

in attracting man power. The Arba Minch University and other government and private

colleges exert a pull on extensive number of students and instructors. Arba Minch is a

59

seat for Gamo Gofa zone, Arba Minch Zuria Woreda, and Arba Minch town

Administration government offices with all their employees.

These economic activities increasingly bring about alarming water demand which take

part in causing water supply shortage in the town.

4.2.2.4. Behavior of the Public in Using Water

There are cases in which water users consider water as for granted and unlimited

resource. These cases are exhibited in that water users waste water when collecting, that

is leaving open the tap, not maintaining minor failures of fittings around the tap, etc.

There are also over use cases where users water their garden through out the night or sell

water for long hours in a day using their own expensive tariff rate. The WSSO wants to

protect such cases by using the progressive tariff rate established in the office. But the

cases occur repeatedly. The other problem is illegal connection in which users’ tap is

located before the water meter or fitting the water meter in the reverse side and use

immeasurable water for watering their garden and other purposes.

According to the household survey result 60 respondents from the 70 responded

households experienced the absence of water in their tap while it flows through the tap of

their neighbors, and therefore they either buy water from their neighbors or ask their

neighbor to close his faucet in order to make their tap give water. This is pressure

inefficiency problem exacerbated by customers overuse.

Similarly 18 respondents from the total 67 responded households said forgetting to close

a tap is a cause for water wastage. Focus group discussion participants in the WSSO

informed that the office make sudden campaigns to find illegal connections. According to

the informants a single campaign in 2009 has found 94 illegal connections.

These behaviors of the public cause pressure losses in the water supply system and leave

the nearby customers’ tap dry at the time of misuse. It also affects the revenue of the

WSSO.

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4.2.2.5. Willingness of the Community to Pay for Water

The communities in the town are required to pay for water monthly for the amount they

used according to the established tariff and also during long term investments on the

water supply system as a stake holder.

Regarding the monthly payment for the water amount they used, there are reluctant

customers who do not pay regularly. The measures taken by the WSSO on such

customers is disconnecting the line and ask for a reconnection fee when there is a demand

to reconnect. But there are customers who do not demand reconnection formally and

reconnect by themselves.

According to the household survey result, from 68 respondents with water connection 24

responded that they have paid reconnection fee. Again in a single sudden campaign by

the WSSO 5941.80 birr unpaid water fee is collected in 2009. The survey result

concerning the willingness of the community to pay for water investments in the town

shows that some 26 respondents are not willing to pay for water investments. They

reasoned out it by economic problems.

Customers go into reconnection fee when they do not pay for the water they used timely.

The number of respondents who have paid reconnection fee is significant and it can be

said that they are reluctant. The case in which customers pay an important amount of

unpaid fee in a campaign confirms that they are reluctant. This hampers the office from

extending the water supply system by its own revenue.

4.2.3. Technical Factors

Technical factors cause water supply shortage by making the water supply system

produce lower water than the planned amount. This is either by interrupting the regular

production of water or affecting the pressure efficiency in the system. The major

technical factors may include design (demand analysis and physical structures) problems,

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operating the water supply system out of its design period, water loss management

problems, failures in electromechanical equipments, pressure efficiency problems, and

interruption of the water supply due to development of other infrastructures.

4.2.3.1. Design problems

A. Demand analysis problems

Population, climate and living standard of the beneficiaries are basic factors for water

demand analysis. This needs proper measurement of source yield and reliable socio-

economic data. However, most study documents of town water supply of different settings

show similar estimations of population increment, climate and living standard conditions.

Area specific estimations are not used for designs and therefore the water amount does not

coincide with the socio-economic conditions.

According to the key informants in the Zonal water resource development office, common

water demand analysis problems include problems in measuring yield of sources, inaccurate

database of socio-economic conditions of an area and therefore using estimations of other

areas, not respecting national standards, problems in design period estimation (not exactly

considering the expected socio-economic changes).

The studies of Arba Minch water supply do also show these problems. For example, there is

inconsistency of data regarding the water that is pumped to the town from the source.

According to the German Water Engineering (GWE) consultant in 1987 150m3/hr (41.70l/s)

is capped to be pumped to the town. However as reported by the utility operator and by the

Desta Horecha water supply engineering service 122m3/hr (33.9l/s) is pumped to the town

water supply system. There is also inconsistency of population data of the town: according

to Bureau of Finance and Economic Development (BOFED) in the year 2007, total

population of the town was estimated to be 71,571 and the town municipality estimated the

town population as 120,000 in 2009. While the feasibility study and detail design by DHV

consultants in 2004 and Business plan study by Arba Minch University in 2008 estimated the

62

population size of the town based on 1994 CSA data. However, as per 2007 population and

housing census, total population of the town was indicated to be 74,843 as of year 2007.

This inconsistent data as input for demand analysis result in wrong design. Some of the key

informants in the zonal water resource say that the water supply system has started showing

shortage before its design period had completed.

B. Design Problems in the Distribution System

The distribution system of Arba Minch water supply has two major pressure zones. These

are the lower pressure zone (Sikela) in which water is distributed from the 500m3 in the

second pump station via gravity and the upper pressure zone ( Secha ) in which water is

boosted to the third reservoir using pumps in the second station.

In the upper pressure zone (Secha) the topography problem is exacerbated by the dual

distribution system. In this pressure zone water is distributed to the connections in its

way to the 300m3 (third) reservoir. The 300m3 (third) reservoir in this pressure zone is

used to store the excess water left from the upper pressure zone distribution network and

at the same time to supply back to the same distribution network. The reservoir supplies

back the upper distribution network when excess water than the pumping amount is

required in the network and when pumping is stopped. There are also connections from

the back supply line.

According to the key informants in the WSSO, presently almost all water pumped from

the 500m3 reservoir to the upper distribution network is distributed to the private

connections prior to entering 300m3 reservoir due to connections and water consumption

increased tremendously. Even parts of the distribution network are under water supply

shortage. There are also repeated failures of electromechanical equipments which result

in pumping stop. Therefore the excess water needed by the upper distribution network is

not supplied from the reservoir. That is water is not distributed back from the reservoir to

the connections from the back supply line, and when pumping is stopped.

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This dual system appears to be defective in the populous urban setting. Because the water

amount and pressure is not sufficient to distribute water to the connections and at the

same time to store water in the reservoir. Therefore the third reservoir is almost non-

functional currently and in effect the upper distribution network does not have reserve

water to be distributed when there is pumping failure. And the key informants in the

WSSO specify that connections from the back supply line are dry for more than six

months in a year.

The other design problem is disorders in the pipe line arrangement. The key informants both

in the WSSO and the zonal water resource development office point out that the pipe

diameter arrangement in the distribution network is not uniform throughout the town. In

some parts of the town unexpectedly one inch pipe is followed by two inch pipe and also

followed by connections (half inch). But the acceptable pipe arrangement is in a decreasing

order of pipe diameter up to connections. This has affected the pressure efficiency of the

water supply system and malfunctioned some of the sub-distribution lines (Chamo, Idget Ber,

and Gurba kebeles).

4.2.3.2. Water Loss Management Problems

Water loss refers to the water amount that is not billed with reference to the total

produced amount. Water losses can be both administrative and technical losses. The

major losses contributing to administrative losses are: (i) incomplete customer database;

(ii) unmetered service connections; (iii) illegal and illegally reconnected service

connections; (iv) Inaccurate and tampered-with connections; and (v) wrong meter

reading, faulty invoicing and rent-seeking behaviour by revenue inspectors. Leaking

pipes, service connections, in-operational fittings, and overflow mainly cause technical

losses.

The total water loss in the water supply system of Arba Minch town is estimated to be

14% according to the information from the WSSO. However, according to the focus

64

group discussion in the WSSO this is not representative loss amount. Because the water

meters installed on the outlet pipes of both the upper and lower distribution zones are not

operational and therefore the water amount produced is not known accurately to calculate

the loss using the consumption data. Water loss amount includes both the loss in the

distribution line and in the storage facilities.

According to the household survey the usual technical failures in the water supply system

are fitting failures in both house/yard connection and distribution network. Out of 73

responded households 15 respondents said fitting failures in the house/yard connection,

the other 15 said fitting failures in the distribution network and 18 said both are usual

technical failures.

Regarding the causes of the failures in the fittings greater amount of the respondents (27)

out of 73 responded households indicated that it is due to the old age of the fittings and

some 8 responded it is due to the mismatch between the town plan and the distribution

network.

The key informants in the WSSO indicate that leaking pipes, failed fittings, illegal and

illegally reconnected service connections are major causes of water loss in the

distribution network. Besides the leakage in the distribution network there is a substantial

leakage at the capping structure where water leaks before reaching the level of overflow

through failed gate valve. And also the woody fittings of the openings of the wet well at

the source are not functioning well or are leaking.

Generally, water loss in the distribution network and in the storage facilities might be

higher if accurately determined.

4.2.3.3. Failures in Electromechanical Equipments

The water supply system of Arba Minch town is repeatedly interrupted by electromechanical

equipments failure. The major ones include pumps, generators, and electrical systems. There

65

are two pumps in each of the pump stations. Each pump station also has a generator though

the pumps are connected to the Electric grid system.

According to the key informants in the zonal water resource development office, the

generators are outdated models for which spare parts are not available. The operators of the

generator are not trained and can not take the appropriate care. The panel boards repeatedly

face failures which are related to capacity problems of the operators to read the signals of the

panel board.

Similarly, the controlling parts for pumps are also not functioning. Generally

electromechanical equipments fail due to there are no preventive maintenances, controlling

systems of different equipments are not functioning (example, float valves, surge vessels,

drain pumps of the pumps), and low technical skills of the operators (do not know clearly the

system details).

Key informants in the WSSO said that for the newly replaced pumps failures are related with

destruction of simpler spare parts (like berrings) which are available. This is related with

long hours of working. But generators fail frequently at least two times in a three month time

on average.

Regarding technical problems on the distribution network, key informants in the zonal water

office stated that they are concentrated on plumbing fittings like gate valves, unions, and

nipples. These are related to water pressure fluctuation and age of the water supply system.

In some points of the town the pipe line is destructed by constructions due to the town plan

and the water distribution network do not match each other.

4.2.3.4. Pressure Efficiency Problems

Pressure inefficiency refers to the inability of water pressure in the system to drive water to

some connections and minor distribution lines due to bending, high grounds, etc. This has to

66

be known before extending the connections and minor distribution lines using the pump

capacity, elevations, pipe diameter, etc.

In Arba Minch pressure inefficiency is manifested in that water reaches some users while it

does not reach others in the same distribution line. The water directly runs to the end users in

the lower ground by passing the preceding users and it also reaches the preceding users while

it does not reach the end users in the upper ground. Due to pipe diameter disorder the water

that is pushed by pressure in the narrower pipe loses its pressure when entering to the next

wider pipe line.

Regarding the causes of pressure inefficiency the key informants in the WSSO state that

there are over use cases of water though it is expected that the progressive water tariff

protects it. This is for watering gardens, for private constructions and also in the case of

private water sellers. The over use cases affect the pressure efficiency of the distribution

network. The informants also said that decisions to extend connections have not been made

scientifically by considering the water pressure and amount in the system. Therefore some

parts of the town especially new built areas and high grounds in the town suffer from water

supply shortage.

Generally technical factors affect the water production amount and exaggerate the difference

between water production and consumption.

Table 14 Water Production and Consumption in Arba minch Town (2003/2004-2007/2008)

Year Water Production (m3) Water consumption (m3) 2007/2008 872,064 727,393.0 2006/2007 769,542 692,036.0

2005/2006 840,358 703,484.0 2004/2005 570,095 472,806.0

2003/2004 594,742 489,708.0

Source: Arba Minch WSSO

67

4.2.4 Institutional Factors

The SNNPR state proclamation has provided the establishment of Urban WSSE as an

independent /autonomous public entities administered by generating their own income in the

Region. Proclamation No. 40/2002 issued on 20th April, 2002 for the expansion of

organizational system which obtains independence workings of effective existence and

sustainable urban drinking water services in the region. This proclamation was issued for the

determination of organization and management to facilitate to urban drinking water service

enterprises so that to enable to cover the operational and maintenance costs in sufficient

manner and to be established in the principles of cost recovery as per the requirements of

Ethiopian water resources management policy.

Regulation No. 2/2003 issued on 2nd December, 2003 for the establishment of “the

SNNPR state urban drinking water service enterprises” in 15 towns located in different

administrative zones/Woredas of the region. Later in February, 2004 the regional

government has issued Proclamation No. 71/2004, to amend some articles of the previous

Proclamation No. 40/2002,

As a result of the amended proclamation, the responsibility to establish TWB is

transferred from Zone/Woreda council to town administration council and the town

administration is given the mandates for nominating, establishing and to replace board

members as per the regulation. The Proclamation also defined the mandates, duties,

responsibilities, and accountabilities of the WSSO as well as TWB by provision of legal

personality and autonomous rights thereof.

As it was stated in the regional proclamation, institutional set up of the town water supply

service Enterprise is to have the following organizational units:

� A Water Board Management,

� A General Manager,

� The staff required for the performance of its duties

With regards to the accountability, the TWB reports to the town administration Council

and the Enterprise is directly accountable to the management board. The day to day

68

operation and administration of the Enterprise is carried out by the Utility whereas the

board oversights the activities of the same. The Manager of the Enterprise is the higher

executive officer and represented in the board as a non voting member.

The regional proclamation states the following points to illustrate the powers and duties

of the enterprise.

• Provide adequate potable water supply & sewerage service to dwellers in &

around a specific town,

• Administers itself on the basis of cost coverage principles and decision and

guidelines of a board that could be established to lead and regulate the utility,

• Partially contract out some of its works to maximize efficiency. It shall use

service charges it collected only for development of water works,

• Enter an agreement; procure or sell fixed and consumable assets; posses

properties,

• It can sue or be sued, acquire and own any moveable or fixed assets.

4.2.4.1 Human and Material Capacity of the WSSO

Arba Minch Water Service was established in 1956 EC as an institution to supply

drinking water for the town residents of 15,000 populations. The utility was administered

under the municipality.

Later the responsibility to administer the water service was transferred to the BOWRD.

After the constitution of regional government, it was decided to reorganize the urban

water supply services as independent / autonomous public enterprises administered under

the supervision of TWB.

As defined by the regional proclamation, Arba Minch WSSO was established to supply

sufficient, reliable drinking water and sewerage service to the town and surrounding

people to enable to cover full cost of operation as per the national water resources

management policy initiatives.

69

The water board was established and began managing the Utility at the top since the new

setup of Arba Minch town WSSO being as independent Enterprise. The day to day

operation of the Enterprise is carried out by the Utility office which is accountable to the

board. The town Administration Council is responsible for the formation and to appoint

water board members.

The internal organization of Arba Minch WSSO is structured by one General Manager,

three objective implementing services and two support giving services. Accordingly, the

highest decision making organ of the enterprise is water board management and the

manager is responsible for the internal administration of the water supply service.

70

Figure 12 Existing organizational structure of Arba Minch WSSO

Town Town Town Town Water BoardWater BoardWater BoardWater Board ManagementManagementManagementManagement

Enterprise Manager

Finance Service Administration Service

Legal Service

Water Production Section

Distribution Section Personnel Admin Section

General Service Section

Bill Preparation Section

Accounts Section

Secretary

Reform Officer

Internal Audit

Design & Construction Section

Plan & Budget Section Customer Service

Information Section

Technical Operations Service

71

According to the household survey, the capacity of the technicians is evaluated as both

good and poor by equal number of 32 respondents. Those who evaluated their capacity as

very good are 14 in number.

Table 15 Evaluation of technical capacity of technicians in the WSSO

Evaluation No. of respondents Percent

very good 14 16.1

good 32 36.8

fair 9 10.3

poor 32 36.8

Total 87 100.0

Non-respondents 13

Total 100

Source: Household survey.

The participants of the focus group discussion in the water board also confirm that there

is a skilled man power shortage in the WSSO which contribute for the water supply

problem in the town.

The state of human resource condition in Arba Minch WSSO is that a total number of 63

permanent employees assigned to run the day-to-day operation of the Enterprise. Of this

number, 27 which is (43%) are administration staff, 11 (17%) are finance, and 19 (30%)

are technical and 6 (10%) are management staff. It was found out that the skill and level

of education of the existing employees seem to be low to adequately run the major

activities of the Utility.

Total number of Permanent employees by education level and year of experience is

summarized in the table below.

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Table 16 Manpower data of Arba Minch WSS enterprise by Education Level

No Educational Level No. of

Workers Mgt Staff Experience Yrs % Remark

1 B.Sc. and BA 3 2 > 10 years 4.8%

2 College Diploma 3 2 >5 Years 4.8%

3 Vocational/Tech Diploma

6 - > 5 Years 9.5%

4 12th Complete 14 2 > 15 Years 22.2%

5 9-11 grade Complete 7 - 1-33 Years 11.1%

6 Under 9th grade 30 - > 15 Years 47.6%

Total 63 6 1 to 33 Years 100.0% Source: Arba Minch WSSO

As can be understood from the above table only 6 employees have B.Sc. /BA and College

diploma, out of which four are management staff. The rest workers are below diploma

level with long years of experience. The average work experience is 15 years; the

minimum and the maximum experience years are 1 and 33 respectively.

As to the sufficiency of manpower, the existing manpower covers 83.3% of the staff

amount specified by the organizational structure.

Regarding qualification, around 10% of the total employees are said to be qualified or

skilled as per the position classification and requirement of service provision. About

16.7% of job positions are vacant. The enterprise lacks professional personnel in areas of

engineering, planning, budgeting and accounting functions. Personnel data obtained from

the enterprise shows that most of the workers are aged among which 45.2% are between

40 to 58 years old. 53.2% of the staff is 30 to 39 years old and only 1.6% are below 30

years old. The minimum and maximum age of the workers is 23 and 58 years old. The

average age is 40years old.

Regarding the material capacity of the office there is shortage of office equipments and

also working tools.

The water supply source is located at about 4km from town. In case of problem, it is

difficult for the utility operators to walk on foot. Currently the enterprise has only one old

73

vehicle for transportation to under take the day to day operation. It was observed that the

utility has its own office and store building however the rooms are narrow and

uncomfortable for working. Especially, the store is full of material and the enterprise has

been using other store which was made of poor local material that tends to be vulnerable

to many risks or material damages. The Enterprise is equipped with the following list of

office equipments.

Table 17 List of Office Equipments in Arba Minch WSSO

Item No. Type of equipment Quantity Remark

1 Desktop computer 5

2 Laptop computer 1

3 Printer 2 One for Bill processing

4 Photocopy machine 1 old

5 Duplicator -

6 Manual Type writer 1 -

Sources: Arba Minch WSSO record

Regarding the working tools, the key informants in the WSSO indicated that there is shortage

of pipe cutters, pipe traders, and a welding machine. Leakage detection instrument,

laboratory kits, water meter testers, digital multi meter, electrician hand tool sets, mechanics

hand tool box, dewatering pumps, tripods and chains, theodolites and other required for

technical supports are lacking.

As to the result of the household survey, from 75 responded households 22.7% said the

service delivery by the WSSO of Arba Minch is ‘very good’, 37.3% said ‘good’, 33.3% said

‘Poor’ and the rest said ‘satisfactory’.

Generally the human and material capacity of the water supply service is very low. The

respondents who evaluated the service delivery by the WSSO below ‘very good’ are

substantial. There is no well trained human power in the office. There are no refreshing

trainings for the existing water service workers.

74

4.2.4.2 Financial Management of the WSSO

Regarding financial management the WSSO has a finance section that uses finance receipts

published by the order of the enterprise itself different from government finance system. The

WSSO only reports its finance performance to the board. The Enterprise collects money from

water it sells. For the last 6 years financial performance indicates that a considerable amount

of profit is being attained. Computerized billing system and double entry accounting system

is installed and implemented. Key informants in WSSO pointed that although bill preparation

is computerized, the system currently has problems of operation and indicated as one of the

major problem in bill preparation and bill collection. Some efforts are under way by the

enterprise in order to improve the system.

There is also lack of capacity building training to the finance staff and number of

accounting clerks are in adequate and the finance operation is not efficient as required.

A baseline survey document in 2009 in the office indicate that key financial activities

such as calculation of depreciation, asset valuation and preparation of balance sheets are

not performed, mainly due to lack of sufficient knowledge of accounting. Lack of

adequate know-how on annual budget preparation is also observed. Installing a fixed

asset management system through the establishment of a fixed asset registration is some

how in a better condition.

According to the focus group discussion with the board members, there exist uncollected

water fees from both households and institutions. The WSSO at most disconnect water

meters for regularly unpaid water fees. In such cases some customers refuse to pay

reconnection fees and also the unpaid water fee. There is no legal framework to settle such

cases.

On the other hand the participants of focus group discussion in the WSSO complain that

there is weak financial support from the town municipality in that the municipality does not

75

refund the expenses of the water service office for pipe line destructions and constructions in

the case of town infrastructures like roads and housing development.

Arba Minch water supply system is in a problem of unplanned expenses caused by system

failures due to old age parts, failure of the municipality to refund destructions of pipelines

due to constructions of other infrastructures.

Table 18 Annual Financial Record of Arba Minch WSSO

Year Revenue Expense Balance

2003/4 1534175.11 1183546.21 350628.90

2004/5 1273412.89 1268066.41 5346.48

2005/6 2013908.13 1397483.65 616424.48

2006/7 1788321.25 1536806.25 251515.00

2007/8 2331283.33 2156398.03 174885.30

2008/9 3167893.05 2205912.36 961943.69

Total 12108993.76 9748212.91 2360780.85

Source: Arba Minch WSSO

4.2.4.3 Coordination of Stakeholders of the WSSO

The key stakeholders of the WSSO are town administration, the town water board, the

municipality, the community, the regional water resource development bureau, the zonal

water resource development office.

The water supply service is an enterprise whose over all works are directed, followed up and

monitored by the town water board. The board of Arba Minch WSSO consists of 10

members, who were nominated from sector offices of the town administration (Finance and

economic development office, trade, industry and transport office, capacity building office),

WSSE (the manager and two representatives of the staff), Municipality and two

representatives from user community.

76

Women users are not represented in the board however water supply problems are mainly the

problems of women. According to a baseline survey document in 2009 in the WSSO the

powers, duties and right of the water board, Municipality, the enterprise and town planning

office is not clearly stated. Moreover, some of the board members lack awareness and

knowledge on WSS operation for the reason that there is no clear division of work with in

board members. Regarding to strategic thinking and management ability, the board has

constraints regarding planning, contract administration, supervision, monitoring and

evaluation of activities.

The compliance of the work of the enterprise with national water resource management

policy and water law is followed up by the regional water resource development bureau. The

bureau also gives any technical and consultancy support. However, according to the focus

group discussion in the WSSO, the bureau is not supporting the water supply service

technically and administratively even on demand.

The focus group discussion participants of the zonal water resource development office

indicated that the formal relation between the zonal water resource development department

and the town water supply service has ceased after the establishment of the town

administration. There is only a technical support on the basis of request from the town water

supply service. However, it seems that the zonal water resource development department

shall support formally the town water supply service at least technically. Because it

represents the regional water resource development bureau in the zone and it also has

considerable man power. The trend was also the zonal water resource development

department was member of the town water board and gives technical support formally.

In the new business processes re-engineering of 2009 the action sets of the zonal water

resource development department include both administrative and technical actions in the

town water supply service as a mandate. But the work flow has not been supported by

guidelines still now.

77

The stakeholders’ coordination in the town water supply is very low. The WSSO and the

town water board are pointing this condition. The municipality is not supporting the water

service of the town though availing water service for the residents is one of its duties. The

regional water resource development bureau is not constantly supporting the WSSO. Women

are not represented in the town water board. There is loose communication between the

WSSO, the town water board and the community in long term investments of the town water

supply. There is no non-governmental organization working on the town water supply. Also

no considerable environmental researches are done regarding the water source.

Chapter 5

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusions Safe and potable water coverage in urban areas of Ethiopia is better as compared to rural

areas. In effect some people say low coverage of rural water supply is due to urban bias.

However, there are water short urban areas which are incorporated in the majority areas of

better water supply.

Arba Minch town area with its rich surface and ground water resource is facing shortage of

safe and adequate water supply. This problem is manifested in that there are substantial

residents that are not connected to the pipe line, residents who are connected to the pipe line

get water on a shift basis, substantial amount of residents are users of unprotected sources

especially stream water by spending high energy and time, or many residents buy water from

private sellers paying expensive water fee.

Causes of the problem are multi-dimensional. Environmentally areas that recharge the

existing and expected sources of water supply are getting degraded and in effect the flow

amount of the existing source is declining especially in the dry months. The water amount in

78

the water supply system is very low while the demand of water increases extensively in these

dry months due to the hot climate. Down stream environmental components require a

significant amount of water from the same source which could be added to the water supply

system. There can also be a quality threat potentially caused by discharges from hotels and

lodges on the upstream of the source.

Socio-economically the population in the town increases extensively causing demand

increase and lowering the water amount supplied per capita per day. The life standard

changes in the residents of the town also increase water demand and consumption. Economic

development activities like constructions, tourism, industries, and educational institutions are

widening and consuming much water. Some behaviors of the public in using water result in

water wastages and losses; and their willingness to pay for water affects the revenue of the

WSSO and this in turn affects the investment of the WSSO on the water supply system.

Technically the design period of the water supply system of Arba Minch town is completed

in 1997. The water supply system is operating for almost doubled population using the same

system components except some replacements. There are design problems like less reliability

of socio-economic data for water demand analysis which result in mismatch between demand

and supply even in the design period, physical design problems (the upper major distribution

line distributes water to the connections and conveys water to the third reservoir at the same

time, pipe diameter disorders in some parts of the town) which result in pressure inefficiency

in the system and non-functionality of a reservoir. Water loss is also significant both in the

storage facilities and in the distribution network. There is weak integration among concerned

bodies during other infrastructures development which results in long time interruptions of

water supply.

Institutionally the powers and duties of the WSSO are vast and require strong individual and

institutional capacity. At individual level though the employees of the WSSO have

experiences of long years, their educational level is low. The office lacks professionals in the

areas of engineering, planning, budgeting and accounting functions. This lowers the

managerial, technical and administrative efficiency of the office. Some positions of the

79

organizational structure are vacant. At institutional level the office has shortage of working

tools which affect the operation and maintenance works. The integration among the

stakeholders is also very loose and this influences the technical and administrative supports

from different bodies.

5.2 Recommendations

Adequacy and consistency of Water supply is important for socio-economic wellbeing of

residents of a town. Therefore, to reverse the existing inadequacy and inconsistency of water

supply and to ensure the socio-economic wellbeing of the residents of Arba Minch town the

following measures should be taken.

Environmental researches that point out the recharge areas of the existing and expected water

supply sources should be conducted. This has to be followed by integrated and continuous

management of the recharge areas. Environmental impact assessment should be done for

both the projects on the upstream of the source and expansion of the source.

Long term investments on water supply of the town should be given due attention by all

concerned bodies including the users. Wider Institutions and commercial centers should

better develop their own water sources if available.

All important data for town water supply designs should be recorded and managed

appropriately in order to avoid unreliable estimations during designing, constructing and

expanding the water supply system.

The WSSO should be capacitated by well educated and skilled manpower and also materials.

The stakeholders of the town water supply should integrate and carry out their respective

duties in a time frame to support the WSSO.

80

References

ADB (2007): Asian Development Bank, Asian water development outlook

Andre Dzikus (2006): Water for Asian Cities Programme, Issues and Challenges in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas

Assefa Delesho (2006): Urban water supply, the case of Assosa town, M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa BOWRD (2009): SNNPRS Bureau of Water Resource Development bureau, Desta Horecha water supply engineering service, Arba Minch town baseline assessment report, Addis Ababa

Christopher W.Tatlock (2006): Water stress in sub-Saharan Africa-Council on Foreign relations. RetrievedOctober, 2009 from http://www.cfr.org/publication/11240/water_stress_in_subsaharan_africa.html CSA (2008): Summary and statistical report of the 2007 population and housing census Davidson S.A. Alaci and Esubalew Alehegn (2009): Experiences from Ethiopia and Nigeria, Infrastructure Provision and the Attainment of Millennium Development Goals (MDG) in Decentralized Systems of Africa Khan and Siddique (2000): Khan, Hamidur Rahman and Siddique, Quamrul Islam'Urban Water Management Problems in Developing Countries with Particular Reference to Bangladesh', International Journal of Water Resources Development,16: 1, 21 — 33 Kharti,K.B variavamoorthy K.( 2007): Challenges for urban water supply and sanitation in the developing countries, Delft, The Netherlands Lekan Oyebande(2001): Water problems in Africa—how can the sciences help?, Department of Geography, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Lagos, Nigeria Magie A. Montgomery and Menachem Elimelech (2007): Water and sanitation in developing countries including health in the equation.

MOWR (2002): Ministry of water resources, feasibility study and detail design of Arba Minch town water supply system, DHV consultants, Addis Ababa

81

MOWR (2006): Ministry of water resources, Universal Access Program for water supply and sanitation services, first English edition, Addis Ababa MOWR1 (2009): a case study on the status of Ethiopian water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) program, Ministry of Water Resources

MOWR2 (2009): 15 towns’ water supply and sanitation project, design review report, Addis Ababa WHO and UNICEF (2006): Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target, the Urban and Rural Challenge of the Decade WHO and UNICEF (2008): A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa, A regional perspective based on new data from the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation WSDP (2002): Water Sector Development Program of Ethiopia WSP (2009): Water and Sanitation program, Guidance notes on services for the urban poor World Water Week synthesis report (2008): Theme report, Environmental pollution and Ecosystems Yimer Mohammed (1992): Factors affecting household water supply and consumption in Nazareth, M.A. thesis, Addis Ababa University

82

ANNEXES

Annexes

Annex-1

Data Instruments

Questionnaire for household survey

General objective and confidentiality

The purpose of this survey is to generate relevant information on causes and socio-

economic impacts of water supply shortage in Arbaminch town. The research is

conducted for M.A. Degree in development studies at Addis Ababa University. The

information you provide will be used only for this academic study. Your cooperation and

willingness to respond to questions is important for the success of the study. Therefore

you are kindly requested to give complete and reliable responses to all the questions.

Background Information

1. Sub town ----------------------- Kebele --------------

2. Name ---------------------------- Age ---------- Education level -----------------

3. Sex 1) Male 2) Female

4. Family Size -----------------

5. Family Members in age

Age( in yrs) Number

<1

1-14

15-65

>65

Total

6. House holding 1) Private 2) Rented from Kebele 3) Rented from Private 4)

Mention if other

7. House Type 1) houses made of mud plastered, wood and corrugated iron roof 2)

building made up concrete 3) thatched roof

8. House floor type 1) earthen 2) tiled with plastic or other 3) cement 4) other

9. What is the occupation of the household head? 1) Government employee 2)

farming 3) service provider 4) business 5) daily worker 6) pensioner

10. How much is the monthly income of the household? Income of the household

head ---------, Income of other members of the household ------------, Total ------

Environmental Factors

11. In which season do you consume much water? 1) Dry season 2) rain season

12. For which purposes does the consumption increase? 1) Drinking, bathing, and

washing clothes 2) cleaning house and furniture 3) for toilet use 4) for domestic

animals 5) for watering garden 6) Mention if there are others

13. Do you see water amount difference in your tap due to season difference? 1) Yes

2) no

14. In which season does the water amount decrease? 1) dry season 2) rain season

15. Is there a contaminant source that can affect the quality of water at the source? 1)

Yes 2) no

16. What are these sources? 1) Household wastes draining to the source 2) Industrial

wastes draining to the source 3) Wastes from hotels, institutions draining to the

water source 4) mention if there is other source

17. Has the taste of the water ever changed? 1)yes 2)no

18. How do you see the quality of water you are using? 1) Very good 2) More or less

3) not good

Socio-Economic Factors

19. How long have you been in the town? ----------years

20. Have you rooms for rent? 1) Yes 2) No

21. If yes, whom do the rooms usually accommodate? 1) Students 2) office workers

3) industry workers 4) others

22. Has your family size or those who rent your rooms increased in the last five

years? 1) yes 2) no

23. What is your major water source? 1) tap water 2) stream 3) Mention if other

24. What is your secondary water source? 1) tap water 2) stream 3) Mention if other

25. At what time do you shift to the secondary source? 1) Daily 2) weekly 3) monthly

4) during dry season 5) mention if other

26. Do you have water connection? 1) Yes 2) no

27. If yes, what type of connection is it? 1) House 2) yard

28. For how long time do you find water in your tap? -----------Hours in a day, -------

---- days in a week

29. Does the water from your tap satisfy your household demand? 1) Yes 2) no

30. If no, what measures do you take? 1) store water 2) buy from private taps 3) use

unprotected sources 4) mention if other

31. How many liters do you consume daily on average? ---------- Liters

32. Have you flower/vegetable garden?1) yes 2)no

33. Do you water your garden in all seasons using tap water? 1) Yes 2) no

34. If yes, at what time do you water your garden? 1) In the morning 2) in the

afternoon 3) throughout the night after sleep time 4) both in the morning and

afternoon

35. Has your income showed increase for the last five years? 1) Yes 2) No

36. Has your water demand increased accordingly? 1) Yes 2) no

37. What purposes do consume water in your home? 1) Drinking, bathing, and

washing clothes 2) cleaning house 3) for toilet use 4) for domestic animals 5) for

watering garden 6) Mention if there are others

38. Do you have the following fixtures?

1) Hand wash faucets Yes/No 2) Cloth washing faucets Yes/No

3) Flush toilets Yes/No 4) Bath rooms Yes/No

5) Other Yes/No

39. When did you install them?1) During house construction 2) Some years after

house construction 3) During new house construction 4)mention if other

40. How many times do you take bath weekly? 1) Once 2) twice 3) 3-4 times 4) daily

41. How many times do you wash clothes weekly? 1) Once 2) twice 3) mention if

other

42. Who collects water in your home? 1) Boys 2) girls 3) Women 4) Men

43. Is forgetting to close the tap a case for water wastage in your home? 1) yes 2) no

44. How many do you pay for water monthly on average? ---------- Birr

45. Have you ever paid a reconnection fee? 1) Yes 2) no

46. What do you say about the water tariff in Arbaminch? 1) Expensive 2) Fair

3)cheap

47. Can you pay for extending safe and adequate water to your yard? 1) Yes 2) no

48. How much will you pay for safe and adequate water monthly? ---------- Birr

49. If you are not willing to pay how you can reason out it? 1) Low income of the

household? 2) Presence of alternative water source 3) mention if you have any

other reason

Technical Factors

50. Have you experienced the presence of water in your neighbor’s tap while it is not

in your own? 1) Yes 2) no

51. What measures do you take in the case given in Number 38? 1) Asking the

neighbor to shut his faucet 2) Shortening your pipe containing the faucet 3)

shutting the sub distribution network 4)mention if other

52. What technical failures are usual in the water system? 1) Fitting failures in the

house/yard connection 2) fitting failures in the distribution networks 3) pump

failures 4) generator failures 4) pressure inefficiency 5) mention if other

53. What are the major causes for technical failures? 1) Old age of the fittings 2) old

age of the pumps 3) the mismatch between town plan and distribution network 4)

Low water amount in the system 5) infrastructure development like roads and

Tele-communication 6) mention if other

54. How do you respond to nearby system failures? 1) Calling for the water supply

service office immediately 2) waiting for the water supply service supervision 3)

early preparation of the required spare parts 4) Mention if other

55. Which system failures are easily maintained by the technicians of the water

supply service? 1) Fittings 2) pumps 3) generators 4) panel boards 5) mention if

other

56. How long does maintaining system failures take on average? Fittings ---------

days, Pumps and generators ----------- days.

57. Are spare parts of the water system available

Of Fittings 1) yes 2) no

Of pumps and generators 1) yes 2) no

Of panel boards 1) yes 2) no

Institutional Factors

58. Do you get adequate service from the water supply service office?

In extending new pipelines 1) yes 2) no

In maintaining the existing pipelines 1) yes 2) no

In availing bills and collecting payment 1) yes 2) no

59. How do you evaluate the service delivery by the water supply service 1) very

good 2) good 3) satisfactory 4) poor

60. How do you communicate with the water supply service?

a. For water investment contributions 1) through kebele administration 2)

through the municipality 3) Through the representatives of the users 4) no

contribution for water investment 4) mention if other

b. For monthly payments 1) payment collectors reach each house 2) only

water meter readers reach each house 3) payment is at the service office 4)

mention if other

c. In the case of technical failures 1) contact the technician in the office 2)

calling for the office 3) waiting for the supervision of the technicians 4)

reporting to the water agent in the village 5) mention if other

61. Whom do you think is responsible to avail water supply service for the town? 1)

The municipality 2) the water service office 3) the residents 4) regional water

resource development bureau 5) Aid organizations 6) mention if other

62. How do you evaluate the capacity of the technicians in the water office 1) very

good 2) good 3) fair 4) poor

63. How do you evaluate the material capacity of the water service? 1)very good 2)

good 3) fair 4)poor

Socio-economic impacts

64. If you have no water connection, why is it? 1) Because of money shortage 2)

because of deficiency of service delivery in the water service office 3) because of

65. water shortage in the town 4) because there is alternative water source 5) Mention

if there is other

66. If you have no water connection or if water from your tap is not adequate or if it is

intermittent

a. Where do you get water for your domestic consumption? 1) Sharing from

neighbor 2) buying from vendors 3) from protected springs 4) from

unprotected springs 5) from wells 6) from streams 7) from public fountain 8)

Mention if there are others.

b. Where do you take shower? 1)In the streams 2) in the communal shower

rooms 3) at home buying water from vendors 4)mention if any other

c. How many liters of water do you consume daily? -----------

67. Have you ever caught by skin infections due to using unprotected water source for

shower? 1)yes 2) no

68. If you buy water, what is the common interval 1) daily 2) in two days time 3) in

three days time 4)weekly 5)in two weeks time 6) Monthly 7) in more than a

month time 8)mention if other

69. How many do you pay for a ------- Liters container while buying?

Source for buying

Price per ------Liters

Public fountain

private

vendors

others

70. If you do not use tap water from the system, why is it? 1) There is repeated

interruption of the system 2) to save water expense 3) there is no a nearby

pipeline 4) mention if there are other cases

71. How long does it take to collect water?

Source to collect Time in Minute

Walking to and from

the source

Waiting at the source

Public fountain

stream

spring

Tap water(out of yard)

72. Does the time it takes make children to miss school? 1) Yes 2) no

73. How many days per year? ---------- Days

74. Do you store water for the water shortage problem? 1) yes 2) no

75. For how long do you store water in your home? 1) For a day 2) for two days 3)

for 3-6 days 4) for a week 5) mention if other

76. What containers do you use to store water? 1) Pot 2) barrel 3) Jerican 4) bucket

5)mention if other

77. Has water borne disease affected your family member in the last one year? 1) Yes

2) no

78. What was the effect of water borne diseases on your children school condition? 1)

Could not start school 2) dropped out from school 3) missed school days 4)

mention if other

79. What was your expense related with water borne diseases? --------------- Birr in a

year

80. How many working days did you lose due to water borne diseases? ----------------

- Days in a year

81. How much do you pay for your water consumption monthly? Tap water for

drinking purpose ------------- Birr, for domestic consumption other than tap water -

------------- Birr

KII Check List (for experts from water supply service and zonal water office)

For experts from the water service

1. What is the yield of the source? ---------- L/sec (M3/day)

2. What amount of the yield is in pipe line?

3. When was the whole water system constructed?

4. Have there been expansion works? When?

5. What were the causes for expansion?

6. How far is the source from the town?

7. Does the yield of the spring vary? yes / no

8. Does the variation have relation with temperature and rainfall change patterns?

9. Does the yield variation of the spring account for the water supply shortage in the

town?

10. Are there suspected contaminant sources?

11. What is the volume of the intake structure? Inlets? Fittings? Functionality?

12. What is the volume of the wet well of the system? Inlets? Fittings? Functionality?

13. How many pump stations are there?

14. How many pumps are there and what amount are they pumping?

15. What are their average pumping hours?

16. Are they functional? Age? Technology?

17. What is the length of the transmission main?

18. How many reservoirs are there in the system? Volumes? Functionality? Relative

elevation to the town setting?

19. How many distribution zones are in the system?

20. How is the pressure efficiency in each distribution zones?

21. How many connections and public fountains are in the system?

22. How are decisions made for extending connections? 1) as per the request of the

users 2) by considering hydraulic calculations 3) mention if other

23. What are the working hours of public fountains? Proximity to the users?

24. What are the supplementary buildings of the water supply system?

25. How long has the existing system served? ------------years

26. Is it in its design period? 1) yes 2) No

27. What is the average percentage of water loss in the system? --------%

28. Does the water service office have map of the distribution network? 1) yes 2) No

29. What are the major operation and maintenance problems? 1) budget shortage 2)

availability of spare parts 3) shortage of professionals 4) repeated failure of

electromechanical equipments 5) low support from the regional bureau 6) low

support from the water board

30. Which infrastructure development mostly interrupts the water supply? 1) road

construction 2) Tele communication 3) sewerage

31. What measures does the water service take for power inconsistencies 1) standby

generator 2) manual generator 3) no measure

32. What do you say about the profitability of the water service?

33. Is there a problem in managing the finance of the water service?

34. How do you manage technical and financial data in the water service office?

KII checklist for experts from zonal water office

1. What technical collaboration do you have with the water service office?

2. Where is the recharge area of the water supply source?

3. How is the recharge area managed?

4. What environmental components are sharing water from the same source?

5. Is there any environmental study related to the water supply system?

6. What do you say about common practices in water demand estimates and

projections of urban water supply system?

7. Does the slope of the transmission main affect water flow?

8. How about the setting of some parts of the town in relation with water flow and

reservoir elevation?

9. What can you comment on the distribution network of the water system?

10. What accounts for seasonal pressure efficiency difference in the distribution

network? 1) water consumption increase per household 2) yield variation of the

source 3) connection decisions that do not consider hydraulic calculations 4)

demand increase other than domestic 5)mention if other

11. What do you say about decisions made for extending connections by the water

service office?

12. Do you observe institutional capacity (human and material) problem in the water

service office? Yes/no

13. What can you say about financial and technical data management of the water

service office?

14. What are the major operation and maintenance problems of the water system?

FGD checklist for representatives of the users, water service office, town water

board, zonal water resource development office

For representatives of the users

1. Are you actively participating in the meetings of the water board?

2. What type of issues goes to the board for decision making?

3. Which parts of the town are in serious water supply shortage?

4. Is there a significant population increase in the town?

5. If yes, what do you think are the causes of population increase?

6. What are the life style changes of the public that entail increased water

consumption?

7. How do you evaluate the residents feeling to pay for water?

8. How frequent are water losses in the distribution network?

9. How speedily the water service office responds to these losses?

10. How do you see the human and material capacity of the water service?

11. How do you see the coordination of different stake holders (regional water

bureau, municipality, town administration, and the residents) in the issue of town

water supply?

12. What secondary water sources are used by water short areas of the town?

13. How prevalent is water borne diseases in these areas of the town?

14. How loaded are women and girls in these areas?

15. What are the major causes of water supply shortage in the town?

16. What socio-economic impacts do you see due to the water supply shortage?

17. What measures do you recommend to alleviate the water supply shortage

problem?

FGD checklist for water service office

1. Is there significant variation of the yield of the water source throughout a year?

2. What accounts for this variation?

3. Are there reports of quality problems of the water supply?

4. What are the contaminants?

5. What is the rate of increase in private connection requests?

6. Do you experience over use cases repeatedly?

7. Do you experience reluctant users to pay for water?

8. How frequent are fittings, pump and generator failures?

9. How clear are the water system details for the technicians?

10. Are there illegal connections?

11. Have there been pipeline destructions in the case of other infrastructure

developments?

12. If yes, how do you manage it?

13. Do you experience pressure losses in the distribution network?

14. Are there trainings to capacitate the water supply service office?

15. What do you say about the institutional framework of the water service?

16. What do you say about the composition of the water board?

17. Can the water service invest on large expansion projects of the water supply?

18. If no, why?

19. How do you see the attention given by stakeholders to the water supply?

20. How do you evaluate human and material capacity of the water service?

21. What do you think are the major causes the water supply shortage?

22. What are its socio-economic impacts?

23. What recommendations do you have for alleviation of the problem?

FGD Checklist for Members of the water board

1. What are the institutions represented by the members of the town board?

2. What is the problem you experience related with composition of the board

members?

3. Do you know there is water quantity variation in the water source?

4. If yes, what measures does the board take to maintain the quantity of water in the

source?

5. Are there contaminant sources in the vicinity of the water sources?

6. How does the town waste is managed?

7. Is there improper use of water by the public?

8. If yes, what techniques do you use to raise awareness of the public in water use?

9. Do other infrastructure development activities cause long time interruption of

water supply?

10. If yes, how do you manage it?

11. Do you think there is institutional capacity problem in the water supply service

office?

12. Did the water service, town administration or municipality invest on town water

supply expansion?

13. How does the board facilitate in capacitating (human and material) the water

service?

14. Is the water service profitable?

15. If not what is the reason behind?

16. Is there coordination among stakeholders of the water supply?

17. What are the major causes of the water supply shortage in the town?

18. What socio-economic impacts do you see due to the water supply shortage?

19. What solutions do you recommend for the water supply shortage problem?

FGD checklist for Zonal water office

1. What is your support for the town water supply service?

2. How usual is your support?

3. Is the support technical or administrative?

4. Is it on the basis of request or has legal ground?

5. What measures are missing in maintaining the quantity and quality of the water

supply source?

6. Is there a prominent demand increase of water in the town?

7. If yes, how?

8. Do you think it is the cause for water supply shortage in the town?

9. How frequent are technical failures in the water supply system?

10. If very frequent what are the underlying causes?

11. Do you have comment on institutional (human and material) capacity of the water

supply service office?

12. Do you have any comment on the institutional framework of the water supply

service?

13. How do you see the financial management of the water supply service?

14. Do you feel that there is coordination of stakeholders in the water supply system?

15. How do you see long term investments on water supply of the town? Whose

responsibility is it?

16. Can you summarize the major causes of the water supply shortage in the town?

17. What do you say about the socio-economic impacts of the problem?

18. What measures do you recommend as a solution?

Physical observation Checklist

1. How is the vegetation cover of the upstream of the water?

2. What management practices are there in the upstream?

3. Are there contaminant sources in the upstream?

4. What environmental components are there in the downstream of the source?

5. Are they sharing the water from the source?

6. How large are investment (private and government) and tourist flow to the town?

7. What are the components of the water system? Parts and functionality of each

component?

8. What are secondary sources of water for water-short parts of the town? Type?

Quality? Distance?

9. How do residents of water short areas collect water from areas of better supply?

10. Are there failed components of the water supply system?

Annex-2 Monthly Rainfall of Arba Minch in mm (1970-2006) Station: Arba Minch state Farm and Arba Minch University Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Yearly

Average Yearly Max

Yearly Min

1970 94.5 0 245.3 105.7 84.1 31 28.9 9.4 137.4 106.1 0 2.9 845.3 70.44 245.3 0 1971 25.8 16.2 69.7 87.6 112 47.3 2 97.6 34 134.7 26.6 0 653.5 54.46 134.7 0 1972 12 0.5 0 168.7 84.2 88.2 25.6 70.3 96.7 87.3 95.9 0 729.4 60.78 168.7 0 1973 16.5 6.4 12.9 117.6 0 75 98.2 113.4 144.9 136 45.6 3.7 770.2 64.18 144.9 0 1974 0 15 77.7 36.3 166.4 70.9 54.9 31.6 123.1 36.9 13.4 0 626.2 52.18 166.4 0 1975 1 1 0 170.2 237.1 25.2 80.2 56.9 76.6 90.1 65.4 0 803.7 66.98 237.1 0 1976 0 7.7 12.6 109.7 88.8 66.3 64.8 23.9 68.8 63.3 43.9 3.9 553.7 46.14 109.7 0 1977 91.1 17.1 30 175.6 187.9 81.8 12.8 24.8 49.1 211.7 171.9 15.9 1069.7 89.14 211.7 12.8 1978 0 3.6 136.3 141.1 110.3 45.8 77.9 85.7 122.1 212.4 52 89.3 1076.8 89.74 212.4 0 1979 52.4 43.6 152.3 55.1 148.1 94.1 44.3 28.3 90 99.2 29.9 12.2 849.5 70.79 152.3 12.2 1980 40.92 19.1 20.7 116.7 91 35.2 27.2 34.2 45.7 66.5 39.8 23.6 560.62 46.72 116.7 19.1 1981 25.27 21.6 143.9 177.8 90.4 44.6 46.9 52.1 94.3 76.4 50.7 4.4 828.37 69.03 177.8 4.4 1982 24.3 19.5 95.3 110.2 158.6 100.6 2.7 35.3 84.3 150.1 172.7 94.5 1048.1 87.34 172.7 2.7 1983 46.7 32.8 37.4 157 134.6 81.6 84.6 74.8 78.5 121.4 15.4 48.1 912.9 76.08 157 15.4 1984 0 2.9 15.4 63.7 204.9 45.1 19.1 64.5 191.3 14.5 61.8 25.2 708.4 59.03 204.9 0 1985 19.2 21.6 71.3 154.4 247.7 52.1 64.5 8.5 35.1 10 13.9 6.6 704.9 58.74 247.7 6.6 1986 0 14.8 56 128.9 109.3 96.4 14.2 36.4 30.8 42.9 23.1 27.2 580 48.33 128.9 0 1987 14.6 10.6 69.2 135.9 140.5 28.3 22.1 7.7 38.9 74.7 47.4 24 613.9 51.16 140.5 7.7 1988 36.6 26.5 31.2 209.1 119.4 68.9 105.9 96.9 82.4 160.2 38.7 7.9 983.7 81.98 209.1 7.9 1989 38.7 64.9 47.3 133.7 113 50.4 20.7 66.1 54.3 165 82.4 123 959.1 79.93 165 20.7 1990 24.6 107.4 64.5 106.6 104 25.5 30.6 52.5 28.6 27.6 25 25.4 622.3 51.86 107.4 24.6

Continuation … 1991 72.4 45.3 79.3 52 130.3 85.1 30.7 80.8 81.6 49.1 35.7 14.6 756.9 63.08 130.3 14.6 1992 12.8 18.1 27.1 165 140 132 32 42.8 132 173 59.3 29.3 963.4 80.28 173 12.8 1993 17.8 121 34.4 94.8 198 52.6 3.1 24.6 31.4 117 18.2 1.2 714.1 59.51 198 1.2 1994 0.3 4.1 36.4 184 165 59.9 72.1 82.9 29.7 70.3 59.6 18.8 783.1 65.26 184 0.3 1995 0.4 32.7 52.9 266.1 123.7 90.4 23.4 20.1 100.6 117.4 58.3 28 914 76.17 266.1 0.4 1996 32.6 20.4 80.7 138.8 207 85.5 47.5 161.2 80.6 71.2 45.8 2.2 973.57 81.13 207 2.2 1997 16.02 0.4 18.02 240.8 172.5 23.41 61.01 27.81 49.11 243.91 273.1 153 1278.9 106.58 273.12 0.4 1998 66.61 90.11 24.31 165.81 96.51 41.21 30.41 28.22 42.01 148.51 58.5 0.81 793.02 66.09 165.81 0.81 1999 17.1 0.7 125.3 136.9 43.2 49.2 79.2 23.9 68.91 203.6 9.7 44.5 802.22 66.85 203.6 0.7 2000 1.3 0 23.9 92.4 236.1 45.8 56.6 39.1 70.4 185.8 85.1 65.8 902.3 75.19 236.1 0 2001 68.7 86.6 56.01 175.3 246.3 52.91 41.2 45.12 108.2 123.9 85.11 5.5 1094.9 91.24 246.3 5.5 2002 42.9 22.4 93.9 112.4 56.5 52.2 66.7 12.4 87.9 87.7 18.1 167 820.31 68.36 167.21 12.4 2003 13.51 11.3 61.6 201.1 192.1 98.6 30.21 105.5 39.61 89.4 25.8 14.2 882.93 73.58 201.1 11.3 2004 41.7 31.21 17.5 164.82 58.71 34.8 22.2 69.92 81.62 60.94 143 32 758.44 63.20 164.82 17.5 2005 29 1.4 67.1 311.1 221.4 16.1 23 22.3 66.4 120.6 33.4 4.3 916.1 76.34 311.1 1.4 2006 12.8 83.9 137.4 115.4 129.7 126.2 24.4 75.2 42.8 160.2 109.3 118 1135.3 137.4 12.8 Total 1010 1022 2325 5278.6 5149 2300.2 1572 1933 2820 4109.6 2234 1237 Average 27.30 27.63 62.83 142.67 139.17 62.17 42.48 52.24 76.21 111.07 60.37 33.42 837.6 Max 94.5 121 245.3 266.1 247.7 132 105.9 161.2 191.3 243.91 273.1 167 273.12 Min 0 0 0 36.3 0 23.41 2 7.7 28.6 10 0 0 0

Annex-3 Annual Discharges of Arba Minch Spring Year Volume (MCM) per year 1980 7113 1982 6747 1983 8242 1984 8044 1985 6645 1986 5021 1987 5553 1989 3627 1990 3557 1991 3725 1992 3509 1993 4830 1994 4531 1995 4955 1996 5751 1997 5473 1999 4074