Zaolzie 1

Zaolzie

Territorial evolutionof Poland

in the 20th century

•• v•• t• e [1]

Zaolzie [zaˈɔlʑɛ] ( ) is the Polish name for an area now in the Czech Republic which was disputed betweeninterwar Poland and Czechoslovakia. The name means "lands beyond the Olza River"; it is also called Śląskzaolziański, meaning "trans-Olza Silesia". Equivalent terms in other languages include Zaolší (Zaolží) in Czech andOlsa-Gebiet in German. The Zaolzie region was created in 1920, when Cieszyn Silesia was divided betweenCzechoslovakia and Poland. Zaolzie forms the eastern part of the Czech portion of Cieszyn Silesia. The division didnot satisfy any side, and persisting conflict over the region led to its annexation by Poland in October 1938,following the Munich Agreement. After German invasion of Poland in 1939, the area became a part of NaziGermany until 1945. After the war, the 1920 borders were restored.Historically, the largest specified ethnic group inhabiting this area were those identifying as Poles.[2] Under Austrianrule, Cieszyn Silesia was divided into four districts. One of them, Frýdek, had a mostly Czech population, the otherthree were mostly inhabited by Poles.[3] During the 19th century the number of ethnic Germans grew. Afterdeclining at the end of the 19th century,[4] at the beginning of the 20th century and later from 1920 to 1938 theCzech population grew significantly (mainly as a result of immigration and the assimilation of locals) and Polesbecame a minority, which they are to this day. Another significant ethnic group were the Jews, but almost the entireJewish population was exterminated during World War II.In addition to the Polish, Czech and German national orientations there was another group living in the area, theŚlązakowcy, who claimed a distinct Silesian national identity. This group enjoyed popular support throughout thewhole of Cieszyn Silesia although its strongest supporters were among the Protestants in eastern part of the CieszynSilesia (now part of Poland) and not in Zaolzie itself.[5]

Name and territoryThe term Zaolzie (meaning "the trans-Olza", i.e. "lands beyond the Olza") is used predominantly in Poland and alsocommonly by the Polish minority living in the territory. In Czech it is mainly referred to as ČeskéTěšínsko/Českotěšínsko ("land around Český Těšín"), or as Těšínsko or Těšínské Slezsko (meaning Cieszyn Silesia).Czech equivalent of Zaolzie (Zaolší or Zaolží) is rarely used. The term of Zaolzie is also used by some foreignscholars, e.g. American ethnolinguist Kevin Hannan.[6]

The term Zaolzie denotes the territory of the former districts of Český Těšín and Fryštát, in which the Polishpopulation formed a majority according to the 1910 Austrian census.[7] It makes up the eastern part of the Czechportion of Cieszyn Silesia. However, Polish historian Józef Szymeczek notes that the term is often mistakenly usedfor the whole Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia.Since the 1960 reform of administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia, Zaolzie has consisted of Karviná District andthe eastern part of Frýdek-Místek District.

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HistoryInitially the area was a part of Great Moravia.[8] From 950 to 1060 it was under the rule of Principality ofBohemia,[9] and from 1060 it was part of Poland. From 1327 the whole area of the Duchy of Cieszyn became anautonomic fiefdom of the Bohemian crown.[10] Upon the death of Elizabeth Lucretia, its last ruler from the PolishPiast dynasty in 1653, it passed directly to the Czech kings from the Habsburg dynasty together with the remainderof the Duchy of Cieszyn.[11] When most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia's Frederick the Great in 1742, theCieszyn region was part of the small southern portion that was retained by the Habsburg monarchy (AustrianSilesia).Up to the mid-19th century members of the local Slav population did not identify themselves as members of largerethnolinguistic entities. In Cieszyn Silesia (as in all West Slavic borderlands) various territorial identities pre-datedethnic and national identity. Consciousness of membership within a greater Polish or Czech nation spread slowly inSilesia.[12]

From 1848 to the end of the 19th century, local Polish and Czech people co-operated, united against theGermanizing tendencies of the Austrian Empire and later of Austria-Hungary.[13] At the end of the century, ethnictensions arose as the area's economic significance grew. This growth caused a wave of immigration from Galicia.About 60,000 people arrived between 1880 and 1910.[14] The new immigrants were Polish and poor, about half ofthem being illiterate. They worked in coal mining and metallurgy. For these people the most important factor wasmaterial well-being; they cared little about the homeland from which they had fled. Almost all of them assimilatedinto the Czech population.[15] Many of them settled in Ostrava (west of the ethnic border), as heavy industry wasspread through the whole western part of Cieszyn Silesia. Even today, ethnographers find that about 25,000 peoplein Ostrava (about 8% of the population) have Polish surnames. The Czech population (living mainly in the northernpart of the area: Bohumín, Orlová, etc.) declined numerically at the end of the 19th century, assimilating with theprevalent Polish population. This process shifted with the industrial boom in the area.

Decision time (1918–1920)

Map of the plebiscite area of Cieszyn Silesia with variousdemarcation lines

Originally, both national councils (the Polish RadaNarodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego in its declaration "Luduśląski!" of 30 October 1918 and the Czech Zemský národnívýbor pro Slezsko in its declaration of 1 November 1918)claimed the whole Cieszyn Silesia for themselves.[16]

On 31 October 1918, at the dusk of World War I and thedissolution of Austria-Hungary, the majority of the area wastaken over by local Polish authorities supported by armedforces.[17] The interim agreement of 2 November 1918reflected the inability of the two national councils to cometo final delimitation. On 5 November 1918, the area wasdivided between Poland and Czechoslovakia by an interimagreement of two local self-government councils (CzechZemský národní výbor pro Slezsko and Polish RadaNarodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego).[18] Before that, themajority of the area was taken over by Polish localauthorities. In 1919 both councils were absorbed by thenewly created and independent central governments inPrague and Warsaw. The former was not satisfied with this

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compromise and on 23 January 1919 invaded the area[19][20] while Poland was engaged in its war against the WestUkrainian National Republic.The reason for the Czech invasion in 1919 was primarily the organisation of elections to the Sejm (parliament) ofPoland in the disputed area.[21] The elections were to be held in the whole of Cieszyn Silesia. The Czechs claimedthat the polls must not be held in the disputed area as the delimitation was only interim and no sovereign rule shouldbe executed there by any party. When the Czech demand was rejected by the Poles, the Czechs decided to resolve theissue by force.Czech units were held up near Skoczów and a ceasefire was signed on 3 February. The new Czechoslovakia claimedthe area partly on historic and ethnic grounds, but especially on economic grounds.[22] The area was important forthe Czechs as the crucial railway line connecting Czech Silesia with Slovakia crossed the area (the Košice-BohumínRailway, which was one of only two railroads that linked the Czech provinces to Slovakia at that time). The area isalso very rich in black coal. Many important coal mines, facilities and metallurgy factories are located there. ThePolish side based its claim to the area on ethnic criteria: a majority of the area's population was Polish according tothe last (1910) Austrian census.[23]

In this very tense atmosphere it was decided that a plebiscite would be held in the area asking people which countrythis territory should join. Plebiscite commissioners arrived there at the end of January 1920, and after analysing thesituation declared a state of emergency in the territory on 19 May 1920. The situation in the area remained verytense, with mutual intimidation, acts of terror, beatings and even killings.[24] A plebiscite could not be held in thisatmosphere. On 10 July both sides renounced the idea of a plebiscite and entrusted the Conference of Ambassadorswith the decision.[25] Eventually, on 28 July 1920, by a decision of the Spa Conference, Czechoslovakia received58.1% of the area of Cieszyn Silesia, containing 67.9% of the population. It was this territory that became known,originally from the Polish standpoint, as Zaolzie – the Olza River marked the boundary between the Polish andCzechoslovak parts of the territory.The most vocal support for union with Poland had come from within the territory awarded to Czechoslovakia, whilesome of the strongest opponents of Polish rule came from the territory awarded to Poland.[26]

1918-19

Historian Richard M. Watt writes, "On 5 November 1918, the Poles and the Czechs in the region disarmed theAustrian garrison (...) The Poles took over the areas that appeared to be theirs, just as the Czechs had assumedadministration of theirs. Nobody objected to this friendly arrangement (...) Then came second thoughts in Prague. Itwas observed that under the agreement of 5 November, the Poles controlled about a third of the duchy's coal mines.The Czechs realized that they had given away rather a lot (...) It was recognized that any takeover in Teschen wouldhave to be accomplished in a manner acceptable by the victorious Allies (...), so the Czechs cooked up a tale that theTeschen area was becoming Bolshevik (...) The Czechs put together a substantial body of infantry – about 15,000men – and on 23 January 1919, they invaded the Polish-held areas. To confuse the Poles, the Czechs recruited someAllied officers of Czech background and put these men in their respective wartime uniforms at the head of theinvasion forces. After a little skirmishing, the tiny Polish defense force was nearly driven out."[27]

In 1919, the matter went to consideration in Paris before the World War I Allies. Watt claims the Poles based theirclaims on ethnographical reasons and the Czechs based their need on the Teschen coal, useful in order to influencethe actions of Austria and Hungary, whose capitals were fuelled by coal from the duchy. The Allies finally decidedthat the Czechs should get 60 percent of the coal fields and the Poles were to get most of the people and the strategicrail line. Watt writes: "Czech envoy Edvard Beneš proposed a plebiscite. The Allies were shocked, arguing that theCzechs were bound to lose it. However, Beneš was insistent and a plebiscite was announced in September 1919. Asit turned out, Beneš knew what he was doing. A plebiscite would take some time to set up, and a lot could happen inthat time – particularly when a nation's affairs were conducted as cleverly as were Czechoslovakia's."[28]

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Watt argues that Beneš strategically waited for Poland's moment of weakness, and moved in during the Polish-SovietWar crisis in July 1920. As Watt writes, "Over the dinner table, Beneš convinced the British and French that theplebiscite should not be held and that the Allies should simply impose their own decision in the Teschen matter.More than that, Beneš persuaded the French and the British to draw a frontier line that gave Czechoslovakia most ofthe territory of Teschen, the vital railroad and all the important coal fields. With this frontier, 139,000 Poles were tobe left in Czech territory, whereas only 2,000 Czechs were left on the Polish side"."The next morning Beneš visited the Polish delegation at Spa. By giving the impression that the Czechs wouldaccept a settlement favorable to the Poles without a plebiscite, Beneš got the Poles to sign an agreement that Polandwould abide by any Allied decision regarding Teschen. The Poles, of course, had no way of knowing that Beneš hadalready persuaded the Allies to make a decision on Teschen. After a brief interval, to make it appear that duedeliberation had taken place, the Allied Council of Ambassadors in Paris imposed its 'decision'. Only then did itdawn on the Poles that at Spa they had signed a blank check. To them, Beneš' stunning triumph was not diplomacy,it was a swindle (...) As Polish Prime Minister Wincenty Witos warned: 'The Polish nation has received a blowwhich will play an important role in our relations with the Czechoslovak Republic. The decision of the Council ofAmbassadors has given the Czechs a piece of Polish land containing a population which is mostly Polish... Thedecision has caused a rift between these two nations which are ordinarily politically and economically united'(...)."[29]

The affair soured the Prague-Warsaw relationship.

View by Victor S. Mamatey

Another account of the situation in 1918–1919 is given by historian Victor S. Mamatey. He notes that when theFrench government recognised Czechoslovakia's right to the "boundaries of Bohemia, Moravia, and AustrianSilesia" in its note to Austria of 19 December, the Czechoslovak government acted under the impression it hadFrench support for its claim to Cieszyn Silesia as part of Austrian Silesia. However, Paris believed it gave thatassurance only against German-Austrian claims, not Polish ones. Paris, however, viewed both Czechoslovakia andPoland as potential allies against Germany and did not want to cool relations with either. Mamatey writes that thePoles "brought the matter before the peace conference that had opened in Paris on 18 January. On 29 January, theCouncil of Ten summoned Beneš and the Polish delegate Roman Dmowski to explain the dispute, and on 1 Februaryobliged them to sign an agreement redividing the area pending its final disposition by the peace conference.Czechoslovakia thus failed to gain her objective in Teschen."With respect to the arbitration decision itself, Mamatey writes that "On 25 March, to expedite the work of the peaceconference, the Council of Ten was divided into the Council of Four (The "Big Four") and the Council of Five (theforeign ministers). Early in April the two councils considered and approved the recommendations of theCzechoslovak commission without a change – with the exception of Teschen, which they referred to Poland andCzechoslovakia to settle in bilateral negotiations."[30] When the Polish-Czechoslovak negotiations failed, the Alliedpowers proposed plebiscites in the Cieszyn Silesia and also in the border districts of Orava and Spiš (now inSlovakia) to which the Poles had raised claims. In the end, however, no plebiscites were held due to the rising mutualhostilities of Czechs and Poles in Cieszyn Silesia. Instead, on 28 July 1920 the Spa Conference (also known as theConference of Ambassadors) divided each of the three disputed areas between Poland and Czechoslovakia.

Part of Czechoslovakia (1920–1938)The local Polish population felt that Warsaw had betrayed them and they were not satisfied with the division of Cieszyn Silesia. About 12,000 to 14,000 Poles were forced to leave to Poland.[31] It is not quite clear how many Poles were in Zaolzie in Czechoslovakia. Estimates (depending mainly whether the Silesians are included as Poles or not) range from 110,000 to 140,000 people in 1921.[32] The 1921 and 1930 census numbers are not accurate since nationality depended on self-declaration and many Poles filled in Czech nationality mainly as a result of fear of the

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new authorities and as compensation for some benefits. Czechoslovak law guaranteed rights for national minoritiesbut reality in Zaolzie was quite different.[33] Local Czech authorities made it more difficult for local Poles to obtaincitizenship, while the process was expedited when the applicant pledged to declare Czech nationality and send hischildren to a Czech school.[34] Newly built Czech schools were often better supported and equipped, thus inducingsome Poles to send their children there. Czechs schools were built in ethnically almost entirely Polishmunicipalities.[35] This and other factors contributed to the cultural assimilation of Poles and also to significantemigration to Poland. After few years, the heightened nationalism typical for the years around 1920 receded andlocal Poles increasingly co-operated with Czechs. Still, Czechization was supported by Prague, which did not followcertain laws related to language, legislative and organizational issues. Polish deputies in Czechoslovak NationalAssembly frequently tried to put that issues on agenda. One way or the other, increasingly local Poles thusassimilated into the Czech population.

Part of Poland (1938–1939)

Polish Army capturing Český Těšín (Czeski Cieszyn) in 1938

"For 600 years we have been waiting for you (1335–1938)." EthnicPolish band welcoming the annexation of Zaolzie by the Polish

Republic in Karviná, October 1938.

Within the region originally demanded fromCzechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938 was theimportant railway junction city of Bohumín (Polish:Bogumin). The Poles regarded the city as of crucialimportance to the area and to Polish interests. On 28September, Edvard Beneš composed a note to thePolish administration offering to reopen the debatesurrounding the territorial demarcation in Těšínsko inthe interest of mutual relations, but he delayed insending it in hopes of good news from London andParis, which came only in a limited form. Beneš thenturned to the Soviet leadership in Moscow, whichbegun a partial mobilisation in eastern Belarus and theUkrainian SSR and threatened Poland with thedissolution of the Soviet-Polish non-aggression pact.[36]

Nevertheless, the Polish leader, Colonel Józef Beck,believed that Warsaw should act rapidly to forestall theGerman occupation of the city. At noon on 30September, Poland gave an ultimatum to theCzechoslovak government. It demanded the immediateevacuation of Czechoslovak troops and police and gavePrague time until noon the following day. At11:45 a.m. on 1 October the Czechoslovak foreignministry called the Polish ambassador in Prague andtold him that Poland could have what it wanted. ThePolish Army, commanded by General WładysławBortnowski, annexed an area of 801.5 km² with apopulation of 227,399 people.

The Germans were delighted with this outcome, and were happy to give up the sacrifice of a small provincial railcentre to Poland in exchange for the

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Decree on the official language on the annexed territory

ensuing propaganda benefits. It spread the blame of thepartition of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, madePoland a participant in the process and confusedpolitical expectations. Poland was accused of being anaccomplice of Nazi Germany – a charge that Warsawwas hard-put to deny.[37]

„Zaolzie is ours!” – Polish newspaper IlustrowanyKuryer Codzienny on 3 October 1938.

The Polish side argued that Poles in Zaolzie deserved the same ethnicrights and freedom as the Sudeten Germans under the MunichAgreement. The vast majority of the local Polish populationenthusiastically welcomed the change, seeing it as a liberation and aform of historical justice,[38] but they quickly changed their mood. Thenew Polish authorities appointed people from Poland to various keypositions from which locals were fired.[39] The Polish languagebecame the sole official language. Using Czech (or German) by Czechs(or Germans) in public was prohibited and Czechs and Germans werebeing forced to leave the annexed area or become subject toPolonization. Rapid Polonization policies then followed in all parts ofpublic and private life. Czech organizations were dismantled and theiractivity was prohibited. The Roman Catholic parishes in the areabelonged either to the Archdiocese of Breslau (Archbishop Bertram) orto the Archdiocese of Olomouc (Archbishop Leopold Prečan),respectively, both traditionally comprising cross-border diocesanterritories in Czechoslovakia and Germany. When the Polishgovernment demanded after its takeover that the parishes there bedisentangled from these two archdioceses, the Holy See complied.

Pope Pius XI, former nuncio to Poland, subjected the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie to an apostolic administrationunder Stanisław Adamski, Bishop of Katowice.[40]

Czechoslovak education in the Czech and German language ceased to exist.[41] About 35,000 Czechoslovaksemigrated to core Czechoslovakia (the later Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia) by choice or forcibly.[42] Thebehaviour of the new Polish authorities was different but similar in nature to that of the Czechoslovak ones before1938. Two political factions appeared: socialists (the opposition) and rightists (loyal to the new Polish nationalauthorities). Leftist politicians and sympathizers were discriminated against and often fired from work.[43] ThePolish political system was artificially implemented in Zaolzie. The local Poles continued to feel like second-classcitizens and a majority of them were dissatisfied with the situation after October 1938.[44] Zaolzie remained a part ofPoland for only 11 months until the invasion of Poland started on 1 September 1939.Richard M. Watt describes the Polish capture of Teschen in these words: "Amid the general euphoria in Poland –the acquisition of Teschen was a very popular development – no one paid attention to the bitter comment of theCzechoslovak general who handed the region over to the incoming Poles. He predicted that it would not be longbefore the Poles would themselves be handing Teschen over to the Germans."

Watt also writes that "the Polish 1938 ultimatum to Czechoslovakia and its acquisition of Teschen were gross tactical errors. Whatever justice there might have been to the Polish claim upon Teschen, its seizure in 1938 was an enormous mistake in terms of the damage done to Poland's reputation among the democratic powers of the

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world."[45]

World War IIOn 1 September 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland, starting World War II, and subsequently made Zaolzie part ofthe Military district of Upper Silesia. On 26 October 1939 Nazi Germany unilaterally annexed Zaolzie as part ofLandkreis Teschen. During the war, strong Germanization was introduced by the authorities. The Jews were in theworst position, followed by the Poles.[46] Poles received lower food rations, they were supposed to pay extra taxes,they were not allowed to enter theatres, cinemas, etc. Polish and Czech education ceased to exist, Polishorganizations were dismantled and their activity was prohibited. So also Katowice's Bishop Adamski was deposed asapostolic administrator for the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie and on 23 December 1939 Cesare Orsenigo, nuncio toGermany, returned them to their original archdioceses of Breslau or Olomouc, respectively, with effect of 1 January1940.[47]

The German authorities introduced terror into Zaolzie. The Nazis especially targeted the Polish intelligentsia, manyof whom died during the war. Mass killings, executions, arrests, taking locals to forced labour and deportations toconcentration camps all happened on a daily basis. The most notorious war crime was a murder of 36 villagers in andaround Żywocice on 6 August 1944.[48] This massacre is known as Tragedia Żywocicka (the Żywocice tragedy). Theresistance movement, mostly composed of Poles, was fairly strong in Zaolzie. Volkslists – a document in which anon-German citizen declared that he had some German ancestry by signing it; refusal to sign this document couldlead to deportation to a concentration camp – were introduced. Local people who took them were later on enrolled inthe Wehrmacht. Many local people with no German ancestry were also forced to take them. The World War II deathtoll in Zaolzie is estimated at about 6,000 people: about 2,500 Jews, 2,000 other citizens (80% of them beingPoles)[49] and more than 1,000 locals who died in the Wehrmacht (those who took the Volksliste). Also a fewhundred Poles from Zaolzie were murdered by Soviets in the Katyn massacre. Percentage-wise, Zaolzie suffered theworst human loss from the whole of Czechoslovakia – about 2.6% of the total population.

Since 1945

Polish Gorals from Jablunkov during PZKOfestival in Karviná, 2007

Immediately after World War II, Zaolzie was returned toCzechoslovakia within its 1920 borders, although local Poles hoped itwould again be given to Poland.[50] While most Czechoslovaks ofGerman ethnicity were expelled, the local Polish population againsuffered discrimination, as many Czechs blamed them for thediscrimination by the Polish authorities in 1938–1939.[51] Polishorganizations were banned, and the Czechoslovak authorities carriedout many arrests and dismissed many Poles from work.[52] Thesituation had somehow improved when the Communist Party ofCzechoslovakia took power in February 1948. Polish property deprivedby the German occupants during the war was never returned.

As to the Catholic parishes in Zaolzie pertaining to the Archdiocese of Breslau Archbishop Bertram, then residing inthe episcopal Jánský vrch castle in Czechoslovak Javorník (Jauernig), appointed František Onderek (1888–1962) asvicar general for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau on 21 June 1945. In July 1946 Pope PiusXII elevated Onderek to Apostolic Administrator for the Czechoslovak portion of the Archdiocese of Breslau(colloquially: Apostolic Administration of Český Těšín; Czech: Apoštolská administratura českotěšínská), seated inČeský Těšín, thus disentangling the parishes from Breslau's jurisdiction.[53] On 31 May 1978 Pope Paul VI mergedthe apostolic administration into the Archdiocese of Olomouc through his Apostolic constitution Olomoucensis etaliarum.[54]

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Poland signed a treaty with Czechoslovakia in Warsaw on 13 June 1958 confirming the border as it existed on 1January 1938. After the Communist takeover of power, the industrial boom continued and many immigrants arrivedin the area (mostly from other parts of Czechoslovakia, mainly from Slovakia). The arrival of Slovaks significantlychanged the ethnic structure of the area, as almost all the Slovak immigrants assimilated into the Czech majority inthe course of time.[55] The number of self-declared Slovaks is rapidly declining. The last Slovak elementary schoolwas closed in Karviná several years ago.[56] Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, Zaolzie has been partof the independent Czech Republic. However a significant Polish minority still remains there.

In the European UnionThe entry of both the Czech Republic and Poland to the European Union in May 2004, and especially the entry ofthe countries to the EU's passport-free Schengen zone in late 2007, reduced the significance of territorial disputes,ending systematic controls on the border between the countries. Signs prohibiting passage across the state borderwere removed, with individuals now allowed to cross the border freely at any point of their choosing.

Census dataEthnic structure of Zaolzie based on census results:

Year Total Poles Czechs Germans Slovaks

1880 94,370 71,239 16,425 6,672 –

1890 107,675 86,674 13,580 7,388 –

1900 143,220 115,392 14,093 13,476 –

1910 179,145 123,923 32,821 22,312 –

1921[57] 177,176 68,034 88,556 18,260 –

1930[58] 216,255 76,230 120,639 17,182 –

1939[59] 213,867 51,499 44,579 38,408 –

1950[60] 219,811 59,005 155,146 – 4,388

1961 281,183 58,876 205,785 – 13,233

1970[61] 350,825 56,075 263,047 – 26,806

1980 366,559 51,586 281,584 – 28,719

1991 368,355 43,479 263,941 706 26,629

Sources: Zahradnik 1992, 178–179. Siwek 1996, 31–38.

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Footnotes[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Borders_of_Poland& action=edit[2] Zahradnik 1992, 16–17.[3][3] Watt 1998, 161.[4][4] The 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 Austrian censuses asked people about the language they use. (Siwek 1996, 31.)[5][5] Hannan 1996, 47.[6] Hannan 1999, 191–203.[7][7] Szymeczek 2008, 63.[8] Žáček 2004, 12–13.[9] Žáček 2004, 14–20.[10][10] Panic 2002, 7.[11][11] Zahradnik 1992, 13.[12] Hannan 1996, 76–77.[13][13] Zahradnik 1992, 40.[14][14] Zahradnik 1992, 48.[15][15] Zahradnik 1992, 51.[16][16] Gawrecká 2004, 21.[17][17] Kovtun 2005, 51.[18][18] Zahradnik 1992, 52.[19][19] Długajczyk 1993, 7.[20][20] Zahradnik 1992, 59.[21][21] Gawrecká, 23, in particular the quotation of Dąbrowski: "Czesi uderzyli na nas kilka dni przed 26 stycznia 1919, w którym to dniu miały się

odbyć wybory do Sejmu w Warszawie. Nie chcieli bowiem między innemi dopuścić do przeprowadzenia tych wyborów, któreby byływykazały bez wszelkiej presyi i agitacyi, że Śląsk jest polskim.".

[22][22] Mamatey 1973, 34.[23] Zahradnik 1992, 178–179.[24] Zahradnik 1992, 62–63.[25][25] Zahradnik 1992, 64.[26][26] Hannan 1996, 46.[27] Watt 1998, 161–162.[28][28] Watt 1998, 163.[29][29] Watt 1998, 164.[30][30] Mamatey 1973, 36.[31][31] Gabal 1999, 120.[32][32] Zahradnik 1992, 72.[33] Zahradnik 1992, 76–79.[34][34] Zahradnik 1992, 76.[35] Zahradnik 1992, 75–76.[36][36] The Munich Crisis, 1938 by Igor Lukes and Erik Goldstein, page 61[37][37] Watt 1998, 386.[38][38] Zahradnik 1992, 86.[39][39] Gabal 1999, 123.[40] Jerzy Pietrzak, "Die politischen und kirchenrechtlichen Grundlagen der Einsetzung Apostolischer Administratoren in den Jahren 1939–1942

und 1945 im Vergleich", in: Katholische Kirche unter nationalsozialistischer und kommunistischer Diktatur: Deutschland und Polen1939–1989, Hans-Jürgen Karp and Joachim Köhler (eds.), (=Forschungen und Quellen zur Kirchen- und Kulturgeschichte Ostdeutschlands;vol. 32), Cologne: Böhlau, 2001, pp. 157–174, here p. 160. ISBN 3-412-11800-1.

[41][41] Zahradnik 1992, 87.[42] Zahradnik 1992, 89–90.[43] Zahradnik 1992, 88–89.[44][44] Zahradnik 1992, 96.[45][45] Watt 1998, 458.[46][46] Zahradnik 1992, 99.[47] Jerzy Pietrzak, "Die politischen und kirchenrechtlichen Grundlagen der Einsetzung Apostolischer Administratoren in den Jahren 1939–1942

und 1945 im Vergleich", in: Katholische Kirche unter nationalsozialistischer und kommunistischer Diktatur: Deutschland und Polen1939–1989, Hans-Jürgen Karp and Joachim Köhler (eds.), (=Forschungen und Quellen zur Kirchen- und Kulturgeschichte Ostdeutschlands;vol. 32), Cologne: Böhlau, 2001, pp. 157–174, here p. 162. ISBN 3-412-11800-1.

[48] Zahradnik 1992, 102–103.[49][49] Zahradnik 1992, 103.

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[50][50] Zahradnik 1992, 116.[51][51] Zahradnik 1992, 111.[52] Zahradnik 1992, 116–120.[53] Biographisches Handbuch der Tschechoslowakei, Heinrich Kuhn and Otto Böss (compil.), Munich: Lerche 1961, (Veröffentlichungen des

Collegium Carolinum), p. 115.[54] Emil Valasek, "Veränderungen der Diözesangrenzen in der Tschechoslowakei seit 1918", in: Archiv für Kirchengeschichte von Böhmen –

Mähren – Schlesien, vol. 6 (1982), pp. 289–296, here p. 292.[55] Hannan 1996, 163–164.[56] Photo of the school (http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ Image:Karwina_1445. jpg)[57][57] The 1921 Czechoslovak census asked people about their native language. (Siwek 1996, 32.)[58][58] People could declare a nationality other than that indicated by their native language. (Siwek 1996, 32.)[59][59] The German occupational census based nationality on self-declaration of citizens. The census was distorted by the occupational regime.

(Siwek 1996, 32.)[60] The 1950, 1961, 1980 and 1991 Czechoslovak censuses based nationality on self-declaration of citizens. (Siwek 1996, 37–38.)[61][61] The 1970 Czechoslovak census asked people about their native language. (Siwek 1996, 37.)

References• Długajczyk, Edward (1993). Tajny front na granicy cieszyńskiej. Wywiad i dywersja w latach 1919–1939.

Katowice: Śląsk. ISBN 83-85831-03-7.• Gabal, Ivan; and collective (1999). Etnické menšiny ve Střední Evropě. Praha: G plus G; supported by the Nadace

rozvoje občanské společnosti of the European Commission. ISBN 80-86103-23-4.• Gawrecká, Marie (2004). Československé Slezsko mezi světovými válkami 1918–1938. Opava: Silesian University

in Ostrava. ISBN 80-7248-233-5.• Hannan, Kevin (1996). Borders of Language and Identity in Teschen Silesia. New York: Peter Lang.

ISBN 0-8204-3365-9.• Hannan, Kevin (1999). "Language and Ethnicity among Students in Teschen Silesia". Nationalities Papers 27 (2):

191–203. doi: 10.1080/009059999109028 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 009059999109028).• Kovtun, Jiří (2005). Republika v nebezpečném světě; Éra prezidenta Masaryka 1918–1933. Praha: Torst;

published in co-operation with Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic. ISBN 80-7215-254-8.• Mamatey, Victor S.; and Radomír Luža (1973). A history of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918–1948. Princeton,

New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05205-0.• Panic, Idzi (2002). Poczet Piastów i Piastówien cieszyńskich (in Polish). Cieszyn: Urząd Miejski.

ISBN 83-917095-4-X. OCLC  55650394 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 55650394).• Siwek, Tadeusz (1996). Česko-polská etnická hranice. Ostrava: Filozofická fakulta Ostravské univerzity.

ISBN 80-7042-457-5.• Szymeczek, Józef (2008). "Polacy na Zaolziu". In Janusz Spyra. Śląsk Cieszyński. Granice – przynależność –

tożsamość. Cieszyn: Muzeum Śląska Cieszyńskiego. pp. 63–72. ISBN 978-83-922005-4-3.• Watt, Richard M. (1998). Bitter Glory. Poland and its fate 1918–1939. New York: Hippocrene Books. p. 511.

ISBN 0-7818-0673-9.• Žáček, Rudolf (2004). Dějiny Slezska v datech. Praha: Libri. ISBN 80-7277-172-8.• Zahradnik, Stanisław; and Marek Ryczkowski (1992). Korzenie Zaolzia. Warszawa – Praga – Trzyniec:

PAI-press. OCLC  177389723 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 177389723).• "Zaolzie". Nowa Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN VI. Warszawa: PWN. 1997. ISBN 83-01-11969-1.

Zaolzie 11

Further reading• Badziak, Kazimierz; Giennadij Matwiejew and Paweł Samuś (1997). "Powstanie" na Zaolziu w 1938 r.: Polska

akcja specjalna w świetle dokumentów Oddziału II Sztabu Głównego WP. Warszawa: ADIUTOR.ISBN 83-86100-21-4.

• Kaszper, Roman; Małysz, Bohdan (editors) (2009). Poláci na Těšínsku (http:/ / www. polonica. cz/ projekty/ file/Polaci na Tesinsku. pdf). Český Těšín: Kongres Poláků v České republice. ISBN 978-80-87381-00-7.

External links• (Polish) Documents and photographs about the situation in Zaolzie in 1938 (http:/ / www. kc-cieszyn. pl/

zaolzie1938/ zaolzie. htm)• (Czech) Interview of professor Jerzy Tomaszewski by Aleksander Kaczorowski (http:/ / www. blisty. cz/ files/

isarc/ 9901/ 19990115g. html)Coordinates: 49°45′N 18°30′E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Zaolzie&params=49_45_N_18_30_E_source:kolossus-plwiki)

Article Sources and Contributors 12

Article Sources and ContributorsZaolzie  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593347231  Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, AjaxSmack, Akhristov, Art LaPella, Biruitorul, Breconborn, Brenont, Cautious,CharlotteWebb, Chris G, Chrisminter, Cimmerian praetor, Civilization Project, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, D T G, Darwinek, Der Eberswalder, Dewritech, Dominik92, DominusVobisdu, Double sharp, Emax, Epbr123, Giraffedata, Good Olfactory, Grzechu25, Gypsynomad, Halibutt, Hedviberit, Hmains, Iaroslavvs, Iohannes Animosus, John Quincy Adding Machine,Joseph Solis in Australia, Kane5187, Koavf, Kolega2357, Kotniski, Kpalion, Krupo, LUCPOL, Ling.Nut, Logologist, Lulo.it, Lysy, Maglocunus, Malleus Fatuorum, Mamalala, Marek69,Mathiasrex, Mixsynth, Morgan Hauser, Msamj, Mzajac, Nick Number, Oashi, Ohconfucius, Olegwiki, PANONIAN, PasswordUsername, Piotrus, Qertis, RamBow, Renata3, Rich Farmbrough,Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Robertsteadman, Sadads, Slb nsk, Smith2006, Szopen, Tamfang, Tec15, The Anome, Tomekpe, Tymek, Ulf Heinsohn, Voyevoda, Whoop whoop pull up, Wikipeditor,Willhsmit, Xixaxu, Xx236, Yelizandpaul, Yeti, Yopie, 25 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Jianhui67, Mobius, Tehdog, 3anonymous editsFile:Map of plebiscite area.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_plebiscite_area.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Daniel Baránek, Darwinek,MonkeymanTFile:Polish Army capturing Zaolzie in 1938.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polish_Army_capturing_Zaolzie_in_1938.PNG  License: anonymous-EU Contributors: D T G, Darwinek, Kekator, Mathiasrex, Przykuta, SuperTank17, 3 anonymous editsFile:Zaolzie karwina 1938.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zaolzie_karwina_1938.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: UnknownFile:Decree on Official Language on Annexed Territory.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Decree_on_Official_Language_on_Annexed_Territory.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Polish authorities on the annexed territory of Trans-Olza/Olše/Olsa Silesia territory (in Polish "Śląsk Zaolzański") - office of the Deputy of the Silesian Voivode.Image:Ilustrowany Kuryer Codzienny 3 X 1938.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ilustrowany_Kuryer_Codzienny_3_X_1938.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Daniel Baránek, IKCX38, Serdelll, 1 anonymous editsImage:Festiwal pzko 1078.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Festiwal_pzko_1078.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Darwinek

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