The middle Ages

*The Roman Empire grew weaker

*Tribes of barbarians increased raids

*Rome was captured by the Goths

*New capital was built-Constantinople- Eastern Roman Empire

*Army leaves Britain in 410AD

The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire was the Roman Empire during the middle Ages, centered on the capital of Constantinople, and ruled by Emperors. It was called the Roman Empire by its inhabitants and its neighbors, and was also known as Romania (Greek: Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía). As the distinction between "Roman Empire" and "Byzantine Empire" is purely a modern convention, it is not possible to assign a date of separation, but an important point is the Emperor Constantine I's transfer of the capital from Nicomedia (in Anatolia) to Byzantium on the Bosporus, which became Constantinople (alternatively "New Rome").

STAMFORD BRIDGE- 1066

Edward confessor-1066, been king since 1042-no children, no surviving siblings

Prince Edgar- closest blood relative – Edwards’ nephews’ son- no siblings, little experience in government or war

Edward died 5th January

He named Harold Goodwin as his successor, earl of Wessex- leader of the army, his sister Edith had been Edwards’ wife

Duke William of Normandy was angry, he had visited the confessor king in 1051 and claimed that the king had promised hi m the throne. Harold had also been to Normandy in 1064 and that while he was there Harold had sworn an oath on a box of holy relics, promising to help William to the throne. William prepared to invade England.

There was a 3rd man with a claim to the English throne, Harold Hardrada, King of Norway. He said that Before Saxon king Edward, the Viking warrior Cnut had been king from 1016 to 1042. He also had the support of a large army and of Harold Goodwin’s’ brother Tostig who quarrelled with his brother and now wanted revenge.

August 1066 Duke William was ready to sail from Normandy. Ki9ng Harold gathered his army and stationed them along the south coast to await the attack. All through-out the summer Harold’s fleet lay off the Isle of Wright, guarding the channel.

Northerly winds, however, kept William in the port of Saint Valery. On the 8th September, Harold was forced to disband the army so that they could collect their harvest, for he could feed them no longer.

Two disasters quickly followed, 1. The English fleet was caught in gales in the channel, and many ships were wrecked. 2. Tostig and Hardrada landed in the Humber estuary with an invasion fleet of 300 ships.

The unprepared English army was defeated on 20th September in the battle of Fulford. Hardrada controlled the north.

Harold hurried north with his housecarls, a highly-trained bodyguard, gathering forces along the way. He made very fast progress. On the morning of the 25th September, he surprised Hardrada’s troops as they rested at Stamford Bridge, just outside of York. It was an unusually bloody battle, and the invading army was slaughtered. Hardrada and Tostig were both killed, and so few others survived that only 24 of the 300 ships returned. King Harold had seen of one challenge, but only three days later the winds changed. On 28 September, Williams’ invasion fleet left Normandy.

EDWARD THE CONFESSOR England’s king in 1066

PRINCE EDGAR Nearest blood relative, but only a child

HAROLD GOODWIN Earl of Wessex, was named as the next king, leader of Edward the Confessors army, related to royal family, but only by marriage, sister married Edward

DUKE WILLIAM OF NORMANDY Claimed that Edward promised the throne to him, he also claimed that Harold Goodwin swore to help him win over the throne, over a box of holy relics. He prepared to invade England; he believed he had the right to the throne.

HAROLD HARDRADA King of Normandy, also claimed the throne

TOSTIG Harold Goodwin’s brother, teamed up with Hardrada, in order to seek revenge upon his brother due to a quarrel.

BATTLE OF HASTINGS

On the 28th September, William landed at Pevensey in Sussex, with about 5000 men. The news was brought to Harold who was now in York. Harold was weary after 2 big battles, hurried southwards, with his best soldiers, the rest of the army followed more slowly. October 13th, Harold reaches Senlac hill on the edge of the forest near Hastings. He fortifies the top. October 14th, William advances from Hastings and attacks the Saxons position. The Norman knights are driven back all day.

October 14th. William advances from Hastings and attacks the Saxons position. The Norman knights are driven back all day. By the afternoon William is desperate, he ordered his archers to shoot high in the air. Harold’s two older brothers are killed. The Norman knights pretend to retreat to get the Saxons out of their defensive position and chase them.

When on high ground, the Norman horsemen turn and destroy the Saxon foot soldiers. Harold himself is killed. His other men vanish into the forest. William has won the battle. After marching through Sussex, Kent, Surrey, North Hampshire, Berkshire and Hertfordshire, William comes to London. He is crowned king on Christmas day 1066.

THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY

The Bayeux tapestry was created to commemorate the victory of William of Normandy. It is a needle work that stretches 70m and is 50cm wide. It is made up of 72 panels and shows events that took place between 1064-1066.It is believed to have been created by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and step-brother of William. It is kept in France.

The Norman Conquest

The Norman Conquest succeeded in ending around 600 years of continual fighting for control over England. William the conqueror and his Norman troops were a strong force. They defeated English rebellions and many Viking raids on England.

This consistent hold on power allowed William the conqueror and his Norman earls to bring law and order and security. 1066 is the date that historians give to the end of the dark ages.

FIRST STEP IN NORMAN CONTROL

The Norman army made big sweeps to different parts of the country, killing people and animals and burning down home. This was to terrify the people into keeping quiet and to punish them for rebelling. Devon, the midlands, East Anglia and Yorkshire especially were very harshly treated.

THE SECOND PART OF THE NORMANS TAKING CONROL

The Normans built castles all over the country. In them were trusted nobles and their knights to keep order. At first, to save time, the castles were wooded forts often built on mound of earth. Late on, huge stone castles were made.

THIRRD STEP IN WHICH THE NORMANS TOOK CONTROL

Keeping order for a long time with soldiers is difficult. People hate the army and are ready to rebel. For a real settlement the Norman kings used what is called the feudal system. In some parts of Britain the Saxons Already had a kind of feudal system, but the Normans made it much more important. Under this system, everyone in the country, except the king, had a master or lord above him to give him orders.

KING

PARTS OF A MANOR

FARMING STRIPS

TITHE BARN

MEADOW

WATERMILL

OPEN FIELDS

BAILIFFS HOUSE

FIRST FIELD

TOFTS

TRACKS

CHURCH

MANOR HOUSE

SECOND FIELD

WELL

PASTURE

THIRD FIELD

PEASENTS

Tenants/freemen Serfs/villains Cottars

Tenants

Sub-Tenants

Peasants

(Able to come and go as they please) (Tied to the manor) (Sewing/craft)

In a Lords absence, 3 officials acted on his behalf.

1. The steward- who travelled from manor to manor checking on other officials and the Manor Court2. The Bailiff- a freeman appointed at each manor accounts, collects taxes, decides what crops to grow

and where, and to sort out problems between villeins. He also made decisions about punishments at manor court.

3. The Reeve- appointed at each manor to supervise the villeins, and enforce decisions made by the manor courts.

HeraldryHeraldry helped soldiers identify one another during a battle. Noble families designed pattern and symbols to paint on their shields that would represent their family. These shields were called “COATS OF ARMS”. And they were probably displayed on doors, plates and furniture.

CASTLESThe first English castles were built in about 1066, the Norman Conquest. They helped the Normans to control the English. The 1st castles the built were called moat and bailey castles. The motte was a huge hill or mound that had a wooden building called a keep (or watch-tower) on top. The Bailey was a large area in front of the motte. They were made of wood, but it was easy to build, carry, and find.Stone castles, on the other hand, were sturdy and strong. They were a sign of wealth and status.

Weapons

The medieval era saw many castles constructed. A totally new form of warfare and weapons were introduced to England with the castles- medieval siege warfare. Siege warfare tactics and weapons

ARMOUR USED

METALPLATED ARMOURSTEEL PLATEDMAILBREASTPLATEDHELMS

DEFENCE STRATEGIES

ARCHERSSWORDSROCKSHIGH, THICK WALLSKEEPMOATWITHDRAWAL

ATTACK WEAPONS AND STRATEGIES

LADDERS TO SCALE WALLSMINESBATTERING RAMSSPEARSTREBUCHETBALLISTAMANGONELFIRE

KNIGHTS

CODE OF CHIVALRY

THE RULES THAT KNIGHTS PROMISED TO OBEY WERE CALLEDTHE CODE OF CHIVALRY. These rules show the importance of knights in medieval society. And the way they were expected to behave. The rules were:

-Protect and obey the church

-Be loyal to the king and country

-To be loyal to your feudal Lord

-Fight against evil and infidel

-Never retreat in battle

-Protect the weak and the good

-Be generous, loving, loyal and godly

-defend a woman’s honour

-be the champion of justice

At the age of 7- PAGE

He was to study under the guide of a noble-woman. He was to learn how to be polite, serve god, to read and write

At the age of 14-SQUIRE

He was, through service to a knight, learn how to become one , and all it entails, such as looking after armour, weaponry, horses, continue training in military service, social graces and cultural pursuits.

At the age of approx. 21-KNIGHT

Appointed into knight hood.

CRIME and PUNISHMENT

Crimes- whinging, gossiping, witchcraft, unfaithfulness, treason,

Punishments- thumbscrews, hung, drawn and quartered, burnt, stretched, dunking, stocks, fines, locked up with wild animals, beheading, executed, torture, ordeal by fire, ordeal by water, oaths

THE CRUSADES

In 1071, the fanatic Seljuk Turks from the north, who had recently converted to Islam, made ferocious attacks upon Christian pilgrims in the holy lands. It was no longer safe for the Christian pilgrims.

The Emperor of Byzantine appealed to the Pope Urban II for help in re-establishing passage to the Holy Land. In 1095, the Pope, at a council meeting at Clermont, France, called upon the knights of Christendom (the Christian world) to restore the Holy Land from the infidel. During the next month, the Pope sent envoys throughout Europe to spread the message of the crusade. All over Europe and England people were preparing to “Take the Cross”, or go into battle in defence of Christianity.

In the enforced relative order and peace of British society since William the conqueror, British knights and barons found it an excellent opportunity to practice their knightly skills. Young nobles saw it as an opportunity to make their fortunes by winning lands from the infidel.

The armies of Crusaders were also made up of serfs who had left their homeland for a number of reasons a. Some had been granted freedom by their lords if they attended the crusade, and willingly jumped at the opportunity. Others had found their lives hard with bad harvest, famine, plagues, harsh lords or simply not enough land to go around.

There was, of course, the original religious zeal that sent people to the crusades. They believed if they in the cause of God, they would go on to heaven. Their religious fervour spurred them on.

RESULTS OF THE CRUSADE

-The crusaders failed to free the holy lands

-The meeting of the east (Muslim land) and west (Europe)

-Increasing power of the Pope

-Death of many lords, knights, barons etc. Destroyed the feudal system

WHAT WAS THE POINT OF FIGHTING THE CRUSADES? The main reason for fighting the crusades was religion. The Christians and Muslims were both fighting for what they both believed to be holy land. WHERE WERE THE CRUSADES FOUGHT? In the holy lands, Modern day Israel, and throughout the Middle East WHO FOUGHT IN THE CRUSADES? The Muslims, the Christians the nobles, kings, peasants, serfs, freemen

THE TOWN

The shambles- the street was the best known in the medieval city of York. Hardly wider than an alley, it has rows of neat little shops. The upper stories overhang the alley so neighbours could be very close. The shambles is where (in the age before refrigeration) the butchers had their shops. In a city with a reputation for its stink, this part must have been the smelliest.

MEDIEVAL SHOPS- In market towns there were symbols over many shop doorways. This was especially important in the middle Ages, as many people could not read. Shops were specialised; they were very small (often only an arched recess on the ground floor of the building) and sold only one type of good, such as fish, cloth, hats, or bread. Often, all the shops of one street would sell the same product as their name suggested, for example, Fish street, Baker Street, Candler Street, Clothier Street, and butchers row, which are all in London.

Shop symbols included;

Striped pole- barber

Shoe- cobbler

Vase jar- potter

Chicken- poulterer

TRADE

Early tradesmen used to barter their goods. One man might exchange poultry for cloth; or offer pottery or weaving for vegetables or shoes. Bartering however, was often difficult as there was conflict over the value of the goods or the goods might be too bulky to easily bring to the marketplace. People begun using weights of precious metals instead, and so coins were developed.

Towns could make money by charging rent for market stalls or tolls on goods coming into the town. As towns begun to make their own money, they could begin to bargain with the king or Lord in order to gain freedom from feudal obligations.

CRAFTS MEN

People engaged in one part of kind of craft tended to live together in one part of the town. Among the craftsmen and traders were carpenters, weavers, dyers, tailors, millers, butchers, cooks, bakers, candlestick makers, tilers, coopers, goldsmiths, wheelwrights and drapers.

THE BLACK DEATHS

During the 14th century, most of Europe was struck by a devastating disease called the Black Death, or bubonic plague. Infected fleas were carried in the fur of rats into every home and people. The children’s rhyme, “Ring a Ring a Rosie’, which refers to herb treatment and death, is based on the Black Death.

Although the Black Death was controlled in Europe by 1351, it recurred at regular intervals for the next 150 year. It was not until the Great Fire of London in the 17th century, which destroyed the source of filth and congestion that fuelled the plague, that London was free of the plague.

WITCHCRAFT

Witch craft was a very serious crime in the, Middle Ages. People believed that witches were the devils followers on earth, and that they used their special powers to bring suffering and unhappiness into the word. People blamed witches of all kinds of natural disasters, famine, plague, and drought, the failure of harvest or even of the stillbirth of a baby. Sometimes people accused others of being witches because of jealousy or a desire of revenge. Whatever the reason, it was not hard to find ‘evidence’ to convict someone.

THE CHURCHES LAW

The Catholic Church used its own courts and its own law to try and control people’s behaviour. People would be fined or even whipped if they worked on Sundays and holy days. The most serious crime against the church was that of heresy, the offence of criticising the church of its teachings. Church courts also heard cases involving fights husbands and wives.

CHRISTIANITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Timeline-

Christianity begun 2000 years ago * Christianity became illegal * Emperor Constantine changed the la, by AD 392, it became the official religion * Christianity spread powerful through Europe * Church decided who went to Heaven and Hell, purgatory

THE RENAISSENCEWHTA WAS HTE RENAISSENCE?The renaissance is a French word for ‘rebirth’. It is used to describe a period in European history when there was a renewed interest in the work of ancient Greek and roman scholars and artists, an increase in the spread of new ideas, and a remarkable outpouring of artistic creativity.HOW DID THE RENAISSENCE BEGIN?The Renaissance begun in the city-states of northern Italy, such as Milan, Florence and Venice. By the 14th century, these cities had become strong trading centres. This made Italian merchants wealthy- many used this wealth to crate beautiful houses decorated with wonderful artworks. This also meant that the artists of the town received encouragement and money from merchants (who become known as patrons, or supporters of the arts.Trade also brought knowledge to the Italian cities. They had strong links with the Muslim world and Byzantine world.-in the e13th century. The links gave them different ideas, after the fall of CONSTANTINOPLE, capital of BYZANTINE EMPIRE to a Muslim army in 1453, many Greek soldiers fled to northern Italy. They brought with them their collections of ancient manuscripts.Learning and artistic activity slowly spread throughout Germany, Belgium, Holland, and England.THE REFORMATION

Martin Luther- 1483- 154695 statementsDeclared heretic 1520Translated bible from Latin into German

PRINTING PRESSInvented 1440’sIn Germany

AGE OF DISCOVERYThe period known as the Renaissance was also known as the time when European exploration of the globe begun in earnest. The 12th century crusades opened European eyes to the highly civilised culture in the east. Not only did returning crusaders bring back knowledge of science, geography, medicine and mathematics, but also new products including spices, silk, sugar and precious stones. Trade in these goods proved lucrative to those merchants willing to travel. By the mid 1400’s, the situation had changed. Trade routes were closed down or made unsafe following the collapse of the long standing Byzantine and Mongolian Empires. A safe route to the Indies had to be found from Western Europe.

THE AGE OF EXPLORATIONThe 155th to the 1800th centuryTerra Incognita- unknown land

Colonisation- the term refers to the process in which people from a specific community take over control of an area over someone else. A district or country that is ruled by a different country is called a ‘colony’.

Economic-places where colonies were established produced natural resources, good and raw materials such as gold, tobacco, spices, cotton, silks and even slaves. Colonies also provided a place from the European countries to sell goods and generated even more wealth.

Power-many people believed that they could gain power and status by conquering new land. It was an opportunity to make up in social standing. E.g. - peasants to noble

THE AZTECSCity in the lake-

The Aztecs built their capital city, Tenochtitlan, on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco in the central Valley of Mexico. It was founded around AD 1325, and soon grew into one of the largest cities in the world. Historians estimate that over 2000,000 people lived there by 1500. As the centre of Aztec government, the city saw traders, ambassadors, scribes and porters streaming in with huge loads of tribute from all over Mesoamerica. Thousands of enemy soldiers captured in battle were also brought there to be sacrificed to the gods.

The city was divided into 4 districts- Flowery palace, Mosquito Fen, Heron’s Home and, at the centre, the Sacred Precinct. The four districts of the city were linked to one another, and to the mainland, by countless little canals and surfaces of the lake. Fresh drinking water forms the nearby Mountains was carried by a tall stone aqueduct.

According to the legend, the Aztecs chose the site for Tenochtitlan after they received a message from the god Huitzilopochtli. He told them to build their city where they saw an eagle sitting on a cactus eating a snake. Priests and rulers told legends like this to give reasons for their past actions and make people accept their future plans.

AZTEC SOCIETY The Aztecs are one example of the many sophisticated societies in ancient history. The Aztecs built huge ceremonial temple- pyramids. They had marvellous astronomical knowledge and possessed fabulous craftsman. The Aztecs lived in an area called Meso-america, which involved the modern day countries such as Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Belize. This Area is located between the north and South America.

14th century- Aztec tribes begun

The Aztecs transformed themselves from a nomadic tribe in to a huge civilisation.

Despite their sophistication they were hugely into human sacrifices, believing it to be the only way for t them to survive.

DYKES- a long wall that protected a city from brackish water

AQUEDUCTS- long wide canals/ water ways that held the cities supply of water

BRACKISH-salty water

The Aztec EmpireThere were 38 provinces in the Aztec Empire which was as large as Modern – day – Mexico. It had a population of over 12,000,000 people. Tenochtitlan, their city, was the religious and administrative centre of the Aztec Empire

Aztec Government- the Aztecs lived in a highly organised society. They were governed by a male ruler who was chosen from a royal family.

Aztec Society- 2 social classes, clearly defined roles for men and women, NOBILITY –PILLI, COMMONERS- MACEHUALLES. A commoner could become a noble in a brave act of war. All boys go to school at 15. School called hose of youth. They learned history, art of war, a trade, religion, and citizenship. Aztec law was harsh and simple.

Aztec Beliefs - more than 300 gods. Each one was responsible for a different part of life.

Aztec Writing- used calendars and developed writing. Used glyphs. Made books called codex. Long strips of paper or animal skins. Aztec government 48 000 sheets of paper per year.

CHINAMPAS

Chinampa is a method of ancient Mesoamerican agriculture which used small, rectangle-shaped areas of fertile arable land to grow crops on the shallow lake beds in the Valley of Mexico.

Often referred to as "floating gardens," Chinampa were artificial islands that usually measured roughly 30 m × 2.5 m (98 ft × 8.2 ft), although they were sometimes longer. They were created by staking out the shallow lake bed and then fencing in the rectangle with wattle. The fenced-off area was then layered with mud, lake sediment, and decaying vegetation, eventually bringing it above the level of the lake. Often trees such as āhuexōtl (Salix bonplandiana)[1] and āhuēhuētl (Taxodium mucronatum)[2] were planted at the corners to secure the Chinampa. Chinampa were separated by channels wide enough for a canoe to pass.

The earliest fields that have been securely dated are from the Middle Post classic period, 1150 – 1350 CE. Chinampa were used primarily in Lakes Xochimilco and Chalco near the springs that lined the south shore of those lakes. The Aztecs not only conducted military campaigns to obtain control over these regions but, according to some researchers, undertook significant state-led efforts to increase their extent. Chinampa farms also ringed Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, which was considerably enlarged over time due to the use of chinampas. Smaller-scale farms have also been identified near the island-city of Xaltocan and on the east side of Lake Texcoco. With the destruction

of the dams and sluice gates during the Spanish conquest of Mexico, many Chinampa fields were abandoned, although remnants are still in use today in what remains of Lake Xochimilco.

The primary Chinampa crops were maize, beans, squash, amaranth, tomatoes, and chili peppers, although Chinampa were also used to grow flowers. It is estimated that food provided by Chinampa made up one-half to two-thirds of the food consumed by the city of Tenochtitlan. Chinampa were fertilized using lake sediments as well as human excrement.

The word Chinampa comes from the Nahua word chināmitl, meaning "square made of canes".

Telepuchcalli- house of youth.

AZTEC DOWNFALLAt the beginning of 1519- Aztec year one reed, Montezuma , Aztec king, Cortes , Spanish conquistador,

April 21, 1519--the year Ce Acatl (One Reed) by Aztec reckoning-- marked the opening of a short but decisive chapter in Mexico's history. On that day a fleet of 11 Spanish galleons sailing along the eastern gulf coast dropped anchor just off the wind-swept beach on the island of San Juan de Ulúa. Under the command of the wily, daring Hernán Cortés, the vessels bore 550 Spanish soldiers and sailors, as well as 16 horses, the first of the species to tread the American continent.

The party disembarked to set up camp on the dunes behind the beach. In a friendly reception from the native Totonac Indians, greetings and gifts were exchanged. Cognizant of the existence of a great inland Empire, Cortés promptly dispatched a message requesting an audience with Aztec ruler Moctezuma II. (The term "Aztec" will be used throughout, although some historians prefer the less familiar designation "Mexica" for the last of Mexico's formidable pre-Hispanic civilizations.)

Runners had already carried word to the "Lord of Cuhúa" in Tenochitlán, the capital city set on an island in Lake Texcoco some 200 hundred miles away. They reported the arrival of fair-skinned, bearded strangers and fearsome "man-beasts" (cavalry) who had descended from "towers floating on the sea."

Cortés wasted no time in staking a claim for God and King, ceremoniously founding a settlement on the coast that he christened Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, in reference to the fleet's arrival on Good Friday to what he believed to be a vast land of plenty. The Spanish Conquest had begun.

All odds were against this tiny band of adventurers who would soon venture into unknown territory to topple the mighty Aztec Empire. It could never have happened were it not for Cortés' remarkable fortitude and cunning, coupled with an incredible series of coincidental prior events.

In the wake the "discovery" of the Western Hemisphere by Christopher Columbus (1492), Spanish and Portuguese explorers continued the quest for riches in the New World. Among these were Francisco Hernández de Córdoba and Juan de Grijalba who, under the orders of Diego Veláquez, Spanish Governor of Cuba, set out on ill-fated ventures to the Yucatan and Mexico's gulf coast (1517-1518). Velázquez then commissioned the 34 year-old Cortés to lead a new expedition westward, but alarmed by escalating costs, had a last-minute change of heart.

The eager and ever-astute Cortés eluded cancellation of the enterprise by hastily setting sail. The fleet first landed on the island of Cozumel off the Yucatan peninsula. There Cortés ransomed fellow Spaniard Gerónimo de Aguilar who had been forced to live among the Mayas after surviving a 1511 shipwreck during a prior expedition. Aguilar proved an invaluable asset to Cortés, acting as his personal interpreter of both native language and culture.

Communication problems arose anew, however, as the Spaniards sailed farther north, encountering natives who spoke a different tongue. Fortuitously, the spoils of victory over a Tabascan chieftain at Potonchán included a gift of twenty native maidens, one of whom was fluent in both the Náhuatl and Mayan tongues. The comely and clever Malintzin was promptly baptized with a Spanish name, Marina, and appointed the task of intervening in further contacts with indigenous peoples. She translated Náhuatl to Mayan for Aguilar, who then put her words into Spanish.

Doña Marina soon earned her place as Cortés' most intimate adviser by first mastering Spanish and then becoming his mistress. Eventually she bore him a son, Martín, the first mixed-blood Mexican or mestizo. For having aided the Spaniards, today she is widely considered a traitor to her own people. The moniker by which she is mostly commonly known, la Malinche, gave rise to the modern-day term malinchista used in reference a Mexican who takes a fancy to anything of foreign origin.

Meanwhile, back in Tenochitlán, Moctezuma was in a quandary as to how to best deal with the unwelcome strangers. Ancient legend prophesied that Quetzalcoátl, the bearded, fair-skinned Toltec ruler-god, would return from the east in the year Ce Acatl to reclaim his kingdom. Evil omens that had confounded the Aztec priests and sorcerers over the previous decade only heightened Moctezuma's anxiety. First, despite fair weather, the waters of Lake Texcoco had suddenly boiled up, flooding the island of their capital city. Then an inexplicable conflagration had consumed the temple of their chief god, Huitzilopochtli. The voice of a woman wailing in the night had repeatedly disturbed the city's slumber. Immense comets with fiery tails had been seen shooting through day-time skies and a great column of fire had appeared in the east every night for an entire year. All of these were taken to be signs of Quetzalcoátl's imminent return.

A hostile reception of the mighty Plumed Serpent or his emissaries was unthinkable. So Moctezuma sent Cortés a cordial message, but cautioned him against proceeding to the Aztec capital. It was, he noted, an arduous journey through deserts, mountains and dangerous enemy territories. He also sent many fine gifts, tokens of his esteem which he hoped would placate the strangers or, better still, spur them to return from whence they came.

The gold and other Aztec finery only whetted the Spaniards' appetite for new world riches. Determined to carry forward, the next moves Cortés made were as astute as they were bold. After dispatching trusted envoys back to Spain to deliver letters and Aztec treasure to his monarch, Carlos V, he stripped and scuttled the remainder of his fleet. This drastic measure constituted a blatant act of rebellion against his direct superior, Governor Velázquez, but by effectively eliminating any means of desertion, Cortés hoped to assure the do-or-die loyalty of his men.

Through cunning and intrigue Cortés forged an alliance with the Totonacs at the coastal city-state Cempoala, then under Aztec dominion. The Spanish army was thus beefed up with more than a thousand native warriors plus 200 porters. With a small party left to hold the fort at Vera Cruz, Cortés commenced the hazardous journey towards the Aztec capital.

To the east of the great twin volcanoes Popocatépetl and Ixtaccíhuatl lay the first obstacle, the small kingdom of Tlaxcala whose fierce mountain people who had long managed to defy Aztec dominance. Suspecting the odd strangers to be agents of Moctezuma the Tlaxcalans promptly engaged the

Spaniards in battle. Superior weaponry and military tactics, added to internecine rivalry between Tlaxcalan generals, helped Cortés prevail despite the fact that his troops were greatly outnumbered. The subsequent Spanish-Tlaxcalan alliance proved to be a crucial factor in the ultimate downfall of the Aztecs.

Next came a dangerous interlude at the great ceremonial center, Cholula. Warned by la Malinche that a plot was afoot to ambush and capture the Spaniards, Cortés outfoxed the Cholulan caciques (native chieftains), engineering a surprise attack in the city's center that left thousands dead. The Tlaxcalans joined in the fray, razing Cholula in a two-day rampage.

Finally the Spaniards approached their destination, descending into the Valley of Mexico from a high mountain pass between the great volcanoes. In early November 1519, with Cortés in the lead, they filed across the southern causeway into the magnificent Tenochtitlán. They were received with much ceremony by a retinue of lords and nobles headed by Moctezuma himself, and escorted to their quarters in the ancient palace of Atzayacatl, the emperor's father. The wary Moctezuma made great efforts to play the perfect host, showing his unwanted guests around the city and entertaining them with splendid banquets.

Aware of the precarious situation in which he had placed his band of adventurers, Cortés made an extraordinarily bold move to secure their safety. He took Moctezuma captive, holding him in the Spaniards quarters. This bizarre state of affairs continued for eight months until news came that Spanish troops sent by the Cuban Governor Velázquez had arrived at the coast had arrived to place Cortés under arrest. Leaving a garrison in charge in the Aztec capital, Cortés marched back eastward with a band of his finest soldiers. He defeated his intended captors in battle at Cempoala, and soon was headed back to Tenochtitlán with the newcomers in tow.

In his absence, Pedro de Alvarado, the garrison's commander, ordered an attack on the Aztecs in the midst of what he viewed as an alarmingly frenetic religious celebration. Enraged by the vicious slaughter, the native population rebelled. Upon his return, Cortés tried to quell the hostilities by persuading Moctezuma to mount the roof of Atzayacatl's palace and appeal to his people for peace. Their response was to shower the emperor with insults, stones and arrows, inflicting physical and mental injury that soon resulted in his death.

Under Moctezuma's successor, Cuitláhuac (who succumbed to smallpox several months later), the Aztecs mounted a full-scale siege on the conquistadores. With food and water scarce, the Spaniards and their Tlaxcalan allies attempted to slip out of the city under cover of darkness on what is now known as La Noche Triste, the Sad Night. An alarm was sounded and the Aztecs attacked with fury. Hundred of soliders were killed or captured. Others, weighted down with the gold and silver loot they had collected, fell into the canals and drowned. A despondent Cortés collapsed and wept beneath the famous ahuehuete tree that still stands today in the Mexico City suburb of Tacuba.

Damaged but not entirely disheartened, the surviving Spaniards and their allies retreated back into Tlaxcalan territory to regroup. In subsequent months they healed their wounds and trained for battle. Devising a new strategy, Cortés built a fleet of brigantines for his next attack.

In January 1521 the conquistadores once again entered the valley of Mexico. They staged a series of raids throughout the countryside and took the Aztec stronghold at Texcoco, from whence they could launch the newly built fleet. In May Cortés began his final assault on Tenochtitlán, bearing down from every direction, with separate divisions assigned to each of the city's three causeways and the flotilla moving in by water.

The Aztecs fought valiantly under leadership of the last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtemoc, whose name translates as "falling eagle" or alternately "setting sun." Ravaged by diseases introduced by the Spaniards, deprived of fresh water and food supplies from the mainland, they withstood an 80-day siege, surrendering August 13, 1521, only after their captured leader grasped the dagger in Cortés' belt and pleaded, "I have done all that I could to defend my people. Do with me now what you will."

Their fervor fueled by victory, the conquistadores lay the Aztec empire to waste, erasing the remnants of the culture as best they could, scorching Tenochtitlán by fire, leveling its majestic temples. The rubble would make up the foundations of a new world, the cradle of a brand new people.

SPANISH MOTTO- GOD,GOLD AND GLORY

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