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A BACKGROUND PAPER Youth Development & Youth Leadership Youth Development & Youth Leadership PAPER PREPARED BY : Andrea Edelman Patricia Gill Katey Comerford Mindy Larson Rebecca Hare National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth June 2004

Youth Development Youth Leadership

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A B A C K G R O U N D P A P E R

Youth Development& Youth LeadershipYouth Development& Youth Leadership

PAPER PREPARED BY:Andrea Edelman

Patricia GillKatey Comerford

Mindy LarsonRebecca Hare

National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth

June 2004

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The National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth (NCWD/Youth) is composed of partners withexpertise in disability, education, employment, and workforce development issues. NCWD/Youth is housed at theInstitute for Educational Leadership in Washington, DC. The Collaborative is charged with assisting state and localworkforce development systems to integrate youth with disabilities into their service strategies.

Funded under a grant supported by the Office of Disability Employment Policy of the U. S. Department of Labor,grant # E-9-4-1-0070. The opinions contained in this publication are those of the grantee/contractor and do notnecessarily reflect those of the U. S. Department of Labor.

NCWD/Youth1-877-871-0744 (toll free)www.ncwd-youth.info [email protected]

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PurposeAll effective youth programs have youth developmentat their core. Effective youth leadership programs buildon solid youth development principles, with anemphasis on those areas of development and programcomponents that support youth leadership. This paperhas been created by the National Collaborative onWorkforce and Disability for Youth (NCWD/Youth) toassist youth service practitioners, administrators, andpolicy makers in defining, differentiating, andproviding youth development and youth leadershipprograms and activities, which are importantcomponents of the Workforce Investment Act (WIA).

BackgroundYouth Development in Workforce DevelopmentIn 1994, the National Youth Employment Coalition(NYEC) held a series of meetings to discuss the state ofyouth training and employment programs fordisadvantaged youth in America. Based on thesemeetings, a report was sent to the US Secretary ofLabor outlining the need for a comprehensive nationalyouth policy (National Youth Employment Coalition,1994). The suggested policy would cross sectors ofgovernment and fields of service delivery includingemployment and training, health and human services,

housing and community development, secondary andpostsecondary education, and juvenile justice, andwould not only provide services to youth but wouldalso value youth as a resource for programdevelopment. The comprehensive youth policy wouldput in place a coherent and long-term strategy thatwould contribute to positive youth development insuch a way that no one federal agency could possiblyachieve.

As a result of these recommendations by NYEC andothers, the youth provisions of WIA (1998) fused youthdevelopment principles with traditional workforcedevelopment. This convergence reflected the growingconsensus that the most effective youth initiatives arethe ones that focus on a wide range of developmentalneeds.

WIA offers comprehensive youth services emphasizinga systematic, consolidated approach geared towardlong-term workforce preparation. This comprehensiveapproach for youth consists of 10 required programelements:

• Tutoring, study skills training, and instruction lead-ing to completion of secondary school, includingdropout prevention strategies;

Youth Development& Youth LeadershipYouth Development& Youth Leadership

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• Alternative secondary school services, as appropriate;

• Summer employment opportunities that are directlylinked to academic and occupational learning;

• Paid and unpaid work experiences, including intern-ships and job shadowing, as appropriate;

• Occupational skill training, as appropriate;

• Leadership development opportunities (emphasisadded), which may include community service andpeer-centered activities encouraging responsibilityand other positive social behaviors during non-schoolhours;

• Supportive services;

• Adult mentoring for the period of participation and asubsequent period, for a total of not less than twelvemonths;

• Follow-up services for not less than twelve months afterthe completion of participation, as appropriate; and

• Comprehensive guidance and counseling, which mayinclude drug and alcohol abuse counseling and refer-ral, as appropriate.

WIA’s inclusion of leadership development activities asone of the 10 required program elements is consistentwith research (National Research Council and Instituteof Medicine, 2002; Gambone, Klem, & Connell, 2002;Sipe, Ma, & Gambone, 1998) showing that effectiveyouth initiatives give young people opportunities totake on new roles and responsibilities through theprogram and the community.

Youth Development for Youth with DisabilitiesAlthough research shows that youth who participate inyouth development and youth leadership experiencesare more likely to do well in school, be involved intheir community and positively transition throughadolescence to adulthood, youth with disabilities haveoften been isolated from mainstream youthdevelopment programs. To ensure equal access to allthe benefits of the youth-focused provisions in WIA, anumber of organizations devoted to promotingopportunities for persons with disabilities have becomeactive in the arena of comprehensive youthdevelopment and workforce development. Theseorganizations seek to replicate successful youthdevelopment activities for all youth while maintaining

a focus on areas of need specific to youth withdisabilities, including exposures to mentors and rolemodels with and without disabilities, and anunderstanding of disability history, culture, and publicpolicy issues as well as their rights and responsibilities.The long history of adult-driven advocacy, leadership,and activism within the disability communitycombined with the desire to see the emergence of thenext generation of young leaders with disabilities,resulted in the 1990s serving as the backdrop for theemergence of a youth leadership and youthdevelopment

As a result of emerging views around self-determination, leaders in the disability community andtheir federal partners, sought to involve youth in theplanning, development, and implementation of anannual conference focusing on the leadershipdevelopment of young people with disabilities. In 1990,following the first two national conferences for youthwith disabilities sponsored by the Social SecurityAdministration and other federal agencies, a youngperson was appointed as the first chair of the NationalYouth Leadership Council. The Chair was charged withplanning and implementing the annual conference,which eventually evolved from its concept as anannual event into a year-round network called theNational Youth Leadership Network (NYLN). It ishoused at Oregon Health and Sciences University(OHSU) Center for Self-Determination, with additionalsupport provided by the Academy for EducationalDevelopment (AED).

NYLN has grown into a formal year-round network ofcross-disability youth leaders from the U.S. and itsterritories. Unique in its development of youth-ledresearch studies, the NYLN has created an annualFuture Directions Agenda written in “youth speak”and based on feedback from the conferenceparticipants around the prevailing issues facing youthwith disabilities today. Past agendas have included:increasing opportunities for meaningful employment;the education and preparation of youth withdisabilities around transition issues; and the need topromote disability culture and history. The leadershipof the NYLN has also developed formal and informalmentorship programs. These programs include peer-to-peer, federal government mentors, and disability

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community mentors. Deeply rooted in the disabilitycommunity, NYLN is dedicated to advancing the nextgeneration of disability leaders and seeks to accomplishthe following goals:

• Promote leadership development, education, andemployment to ensure that all youth with disabilitieshave the opportunity to attain their maximum andunique potential;

• Foster the inclusion of young leaders with disabilitiesinto all aspects of society at national, state, and locallevels;

• Communicate about issues important to youth withdisabilities and the policies and practices that affecttheir lives.

National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth (NCWD/Youth)In 2001, the Office of Disability Employment Policy(ODEP) at the US Department of Labor (DOL) fundeda national technical assistance center designed to assistthe workforce development community in addressingissues affecting the employment of youth withdisabilities. As a result, NCWD/Youth was formedwith the following three goals: (1) supporting state andlocal policies that promote full access to high qualityservices for youth with disabilities; (2) strengtheningthe services provided by organizations responsible fordelivery of workforce development services; and (3)improving the awareness, knowledge, and skills ofindividuals responsible for providing direct services toyouth. Because leadership development and youthdevelopment have such a prominent role in WIA,NCWD/Youth is taking the important first step ofidentifying essential areas of development andprogram components for youth leadership and youthdevelopment programs to ensure the leadershipcapabilities of youth with disabilities.

Definitions: Youth Development and Youth LeadershipOften, and mistakenly, the terms “youth development”and “youth leadership” are used interchangeably. Inorder to differentiate between these two conceptsclearly, NCWD/Youth reviewed a range of sources onyouth development and youth leadership, includingcurrent literature, curricula, and program models, andexamined different definitions and descriptions ofprogram components of each. (For a comparative chartof the major youth development models reviewed, seeAppendix A: Comparison of Youth DevelopmentModels.). The goal was to identify a single workingdefinition of each term.

Definitions of youth development typicallycharacterize it as a process or approach in which youngpeople become competent or develop competenciesnecessary to be successful and meet challenges (Centerfor Youth Development and Policy Research, 1996;National Collaboration for Youth, 2003; Pittman, 1991;Youth Development Institute, n.d.; Youth DevelopmentBlock Grant, 1995). Most definitions also identify eitherspecific desired outcomes that young people need toachieve or critical tasks they must accomplish in orderto achieve these positive outcomes (Astroth, Brown,Poore, & Timm, 2002; US Department of Heath andHuman Services, 1996; Center for Youth Developmentand Policy Research, 1996; Youth DevelopmentInstitute, n.d.; Youth Development Block Grant, 1995;Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989).The Search Institute’s definition differs slightly in itsfocus on assets, defined as factors – both internal andexternal – that promote positive development;however, its explanation of youth development coverssimilar developmental needs and challenges as otherdefinitions (Search Institute, 1996). Most sourcesidentify similar and overlapping competencies andoutcomes that young people need to develop orachieve. In each instance, these competencies oroutcomes encompass a wide range of areas such ascognitive, social, civic, cultural, spiritual, vocational,physical, emotional, mental, personal, moral, orintellectual development. Based on its research ofexisting definitions, NCWD/Youth has adopted thefollowing working definition of youth developmentadapted from NYEC and National Collaboration forYouth: youth development is a process which prepares

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young people to meet the challenges of adolescenceand adulthood through a coordinated, progressiveseries of activities and experiences which help them tobecome socially, morally, emotionally, physically, andcognitively competent. Positive youth developmentaddresses the broader developmental needs of youth,in contrast to deficit-based models that focus solely onyouth problems.

The concept of youth leadership was also examinedwith the goal of identifying a working definition. Somedefinitions of youth leadership describe it as the abilityto lead others or get others to work together toward acommon goal or vision (Rutgers CooperativeExtension, 2003; US Department of Health and HumanServices, 1996; National Order of the Arrow, 1992; WingSpan Youth Empowerment Services, n.d.). More oftenthan not, definitions of youth leadership focused on theability to lead oneself and work with others, while notnecessarily influencing others to act (ERICClearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education,1990; Youth Leadership Support Network, n.d.; UrbanThink Tank Institute, 2002;.Karnes & Bean, 1997).Definitions frequently characterize youth leadership asthe ability to envision a goal or needed change, to takeinitiative or action to achieve the goal, to takeresponsibility for outcomes, and to work well with,relate to, and communicate effectively with others. Inthe review of definitions, it has become apparent thatyouth leadership can be defined as both an internaland external capability. Therefore, NCWD/Youth haschosen to adopt a two-part working definition of youthleadership, as follows: youth leadership is (1) “Theability to guide or direct others on a course of action,influence the opinion and behavior of other people,and show the way by going in advance” (Wehmeyer,Agran, & Hughes, 1998); and (2) “the ability to analyzeone's own strengths and weaknesses, set personal andvocational goals, and have the self-esteem to carrythem out. It includes the ability to identify communityresources and use them, not only to live independently,but also to establish support networks to participate incommunity life and to effect positive social change”(Adolescent Employment Readiness Center, Children’sHospital, n.d.).

Using these definitions, one can begin to distinguishyouth leadership from youth development. Youth

development, while including youth leadershipcompetencies, encompasses a broader, more holisticprocess of developmental growth that occurs duringadolescence, one that will determine both adolescentand adult behavior. Although leadership ability is partof the full range of competencies or outcomes achievedthrough the youth development process, youthleadership is a distinct area of youth development witha primary focus on mastery of certain competenciesnecessary for effective leadership, includingresponsibility, teamwork, and vision. These distinctunderstandings of youth development and youthleadership will be used throughout this paper.

Supporting Research: Youth Development and Youth LeadershipNCWD/Youth also conducted an extensive review ofresearch on youth development and youth leadershipprograms and on what strategies and practices havebeen found to shape the development of young peoplein positive ways. Unfortunately, according to a recentreport by the White House Task Force forDisadvantaged Youth (2003), the amount of highquality research on outcomes of youth programs islimited. Still, some valuable information about theimpact of youth development and leadership programscan be gleaned from existing research.

For example, the Search Institute, an independent,national nonprofit organization dedicated to advancingthe wellbeing of adolescents and children bygenerating knowledge and promoting its application,has conducted extensive research on how youngpeople are affected by the presence or absence of the 40developmental assets they have identified as essentialto youth development. They surveyed more than350,000 6th- to 12th-graders in more than 600communities between 1990 and 1995 to learn about thedevelopmental assets they experienced, the risks theytook, the deficits they had to overcome, and the waysthey thrived (Search Institute, n.d.). Their researchfound that the presence of developmental assets bothprotects youth from negative behaviors and increasesthe chances that young people will have positiveattitudes and behaviors (Benson, Leffert, Scales, &Blyth, 1998).

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A study by Scales and Leffert (1999) found that thefollowing outcomes were associated with theparticipation of young people in youth developmentsettings:

• Increased self esteem, increased popularity, increasedsense of personal control, and enhanced identitydevelopment;

• Better development of such life skills as leadershipand speaking in public, decision-making, andincreased dependability and job responsibility;

• Greater communications in the family;

• Fewer psychosocial problems, such as loneliness,shyness, and hopelessness;

• Decreased involvement in risky behaviors such asdrug use, and decreased juvenile delinquency;

• Increased academic achievement; and

• Increased safety (youth feel safe at home, in school,and in their neighborhood).

Through an extensive review of developmental scienceresearch, the National Research Council and Institute ofMedicine (2002) identified eight program featuresknown to promote positive youth development. Theyrecommend that community programs incorporate thefollowing features when designing and planningprograms for youth:

• Physical and psychological safety;

• Appropriate structure;

• Supportive relationships;

• Opportunities to belong;

• Positive social norms;

• Support for efficacy and mattering;

• Opportunities for skill building; and

• Integration of family, school, and community efforts.

In their review of findings from experimentalevaluations, the National Research Council andInstitute of Medicine found that participation incommunity programs for youth was associated withincreases in positive outcomes such as motivation,academic performance, self-esteem, problem-solving

abilities, positive health decisions, and interpersonalskills, as well as decreases in negative behaviors suchas alcohol and tobacco use and violence. While theycould not determine from the studies what programfeatures were responsible for effectiveness, they didfind that many of the programs demonstrating positiveoutcomes included the recommended programfeatures.

Gambone, Klem, and Connell (2002) identified asimilar set of supports and opportunities ascontributing to the healthy development of youngpeople. Specifically, they described the followingfactors as “what matters in any setting for achievingdevelopment outcomes”:

• Relationships that are emotionally supportive withadults showing interest in youth’s time and activities,and providing practical support, for example, onschoolwork or personal problems;

• Activities that are challenging, interesting, and relat-ed to everyday life; and

• Opportunities for youth to participate in decision-making in developmentally appropriate ways, relat-ing to things they care about.

Child Trends, a national nonprofit researchorganization, has compiled an online index of researchthat demonstrates that youth development programsare yielding positive outcomes for youth. The index,called What Works: Research Tools to Improve YouthDevelopment (available online at www.childtrends.org/youthdevelopment_intro.asp), summarizes availableresearch and evaluations and categorizes it into whatworks, what doesn't work, and what are some best betsfor designing, administering, or funding services foryoung people (Child Trends, 2004). Research briefs andreports are available on a wide range of youthdevelopment outcomes from sexual health to academicachievement to social skills. For example, one researchstudy cited in the Child Trends index found that youthwho participated in a youth development programproviding training in stress management, self-esteemenhancement, problem-solving, health, assertiveness,and the use of social support networks reported bettercoping, stress management, problem-solving, andconflict resolution skills than youth who were not in

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the program (Caplan, Weissberg, Grober, Sivo, Grady,& Jacoby, 1992).

NCWD/Youth also looked at research about the impactof youth leadership programming by reviewingavailable studies and surveys of practitioners andyoung people who have participated in leadershipprograms. Woyach and Cox (1996) surveyed 25 leadingpractitioners of youth leadership programs anddeveloped a list of 12 agreed-upon principlesimportant for youth leadership programs (Woyach,1996). These principles, listed below, speak to both theoutcomes and the content of leadership programs aswell as to the process of leadership development.

1. Help youth learn specific knowledge and skills relat-ed to leadership.

2. Enable youth to understand the history, values, andbeliefs of their society.

3. Facilitate the development of individual strengthsand leadership styles.

4. Facilitate the development of ethics, values, and ethi-cal reasoning.

5. Promote awareness, understanding, and tolerance ofother people, cultures, and societies.

6. Embody high expectations of, confidence in, andrespect for youth served.

7. Emphasize experiential learning and provide oppor-tunities for genuine leadership.

8. Involve youth in service to others – to their commu-nity, their country, and their world.

9. Facilitate self-reflection and processing of learningboth individually and cooperatively.

10. Involve youth in collaborative experiences, team-work, and networking with peers.

11. Involve youth in significant relationships with men-tors, positive role models, and other nurturingadults.

12. Be developed around stated purposes and goals.

In a 2001 study, Boyd looked at the impact of a 4-Hteen leadership program in Fort Worth, Texas, whichengaged youth in weekly sessions on different conceptsrelated to leadership followed by experiential learning

activities. Through the course of the program, youthapplied their newly acquired skills and concepts, whilecompleting service projects in the community. Boyddescribes experiential learning as “when a person isinvolved in an activity, looks back at it critically,determines what was useful or important to remember,and uses this information to perform another activity”(Boyd, 2001). He found that the combination ofexperiential learning and service learning significantlyincreased youth participants’ knowledge of leadershipskills, such as decision-making, setting goals, workingwith others, and community service.

Sipe, Ma, and Gambone (1998) studied the level of self-efficacy among youth in three communities whoparticipated in three forms of youth leadershipactivities:

• Formal role includes being a team captain or coachof a team and serving as a group or club officer orleader;

• Informal role includes helping to plan activities, set-ting rules or procedures for a group, and being incharge of equipment or supplies; and

• Representation includes fundraising and making apresentation on behalf of a group.

They found that the youth who participated in thehighest number of leadership activities also reportedthe highest level of self-efficacy and the youth with noleadership activities reported the lowest level of self-efficacy.

Research shows that young people most often developleadership skills during structured extracurricular(recreational and social development) activities, such asclubs, service organizations, sports programs, and finearts (Wehman, 1996). Because youth with disabilitiesare less likely to participate in these types of activitiesand groups (Moon, 1994), practitioners can play animportant role in ensuring that youth with disabilitiesbecome engaged in meaningful leadershipdevelopment activities, including activities involvingpeers with and without disabilities (Zygmunt, Larson,& Tilson, 1994). Self-advocacy and determination skillbuilding have been found to be important componentsof leadership development for youth with disabilities(Agran, 1997; Sands & Wehmeyer, 1996; Van Reusen,

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Bos, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1994; Wehmeyer, Agran, &Hughes, 1998). Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) foundthat students with disabilities who have self-determination skills are more likely to be successful inmaking the transition to adulthood, includingemployment and community independence, and haveincreased positive educational outcomes, than studentswith disabilities who lack these skills. These skills areespecially important for young people with disabilitiesto develop in order to be able to advocate on their ownbehalf for adult services and basic civil and legal rightsand protections (Sands & Wehmeyer, 1996; Wehmeyer,Agran, & Hughes, 1998), and workplace andeducational accommodations.

Areas of Development: Youth Development and Youth LeadershipDuring the review of definitions and current research,some common competencies and outcomes emerged inboth youth development and youth leadership (SeeAppendix A: Comparison of Youth DevelopmentModels). The Forum for Youth Investment modelorganizes these common competencies and outcomesinto five developmental areas. The Forum is “a nationalnonprofit organization dedicated to increasing thequality and quantity of youth investment and youthinvolvement by promoting a big picture approach toplanning, research, advocacy, and policy developmentamong the broad range of organizations that helpconstituents and communities invest in children, youth,and families” (Forum for Youth Investment, 2001). Thefive developmental areas identified by the Forum areworking, learning, thriving, connecting, and leading(Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002). NCWD/Youth haschosen to highlight these developmental areas as aneffective framework for understanding youthdevelopment and youth leadership.

In the following section, NCWD/Youth draws upon itsextensive review of the literature and existing practicesto outline intended outcomes and examples of programactivities that fit within each of the five areas ofdevelopment. Although program activities may varywith each program and organizational focus, the areasof development and outcomes should remain constant.Within each area of development, there are manyspecific outcomes that must be achieved. Youthleadership programs typically produce outcomes that

fit within the leading and connecting areas ofdevelopment (see Chart A: Five Areas of Developmentwith Related Outcomes).

WorkingPositive attitudes, skills, and behaviors aroundvocational direction characterize the area ofdevelopment known as working (Ferber, Pittman, &Marshall, 2002). Young people should be activelyinvolved in activities that will expose them to and offerthe opportunity to practice not only the actual skillsneeded for a particular career, but also the workreadiness skills needed to find and maintainemployment. Some of the intended outcomes for thisarea of development include the following:

• Meaningful engagement in one’s own career devel-opment process;

• Demonstrated skill in work readiness;

• Awareness of options for future employment, careers,and professional development;

• Completion of educational requirements or involve-ment in training that culminates in a specific vocationor opportunity for career advancement;

• Established involvement in meaningful work thatoffers advancement, satisfaction, and self-sufficiency;and

• Positive attitude about one’s ability and future inworking in a particular industry or the opportunitiesto grow into another.

Program activities that would support development inthe area of working include the following:

• Career exploration activities, including career interestassessments, job shadowing, job and career fairs, andworkplace visits and tours;

• Career-related goal setting and planning;

• Internships;

• Work experience, including summer employment;

• Information on entrepreneurship;

• Networking activities;

• Mock interviews;

• Work readiness workshops;

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• Visits from representatives of specific industries tospeak to youth participants about the employmentopportunities and details of working within theirindustry;

• Mock job searches, including locating positionsonline and in the newspaper, “cold-calling,” prepar-ing resumes, and writing cover letters and thank-youletters;

• Visits to education or training programs;

• Job coaching or mentoring; and

• Learning activities using computers and other cur-rent workplace technology.

LearningPositive basic and applied academic attitudes, skills,and behaviors characterize the area of developmentknown as learning (Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002).Often, this is as simple as giving young people theopportunity to use the skills they have acquired inschool or other training programs in a different context.Youth should be encouraged to develop not only ahigher aptitude for academic achievement, but also theability to approach learning with a strategy forachieving success.

Some of the intended outcomes for learning are similarto those found in traditional education settings.Outcomes include the following:

• Basic aptitude in math and reading;

• Rational problem solving skills;

• Ability to think critically toward a positive outcome;

• Logical reasoning based on personal knowledge;

• Ability to determine one’s own skills and areas ofacademic weakness or need for further education andtraining;

• Sense of creativity; and

• Appreciation and the foundation for lifelong learn-ing, including a desire for further training and educa-tion, the knowledge of needed resources for thattraining, and willingness to participate in additionalplanning.

Supporting program activities for the area of learninginclude the following:

• Initial and ongoing skills assessment, both formaland informal;

• Initial and ongoing career and vocational assessment,both formal and informal;

• Identification of one’s learning styles, strengths, andchallenges;

• Creation of a personal development plan;

• Contextualized learning activities such as service-learning projects in which youth apply academicskills to community needs;

• Monitoring of and accountability for own grades andcreation of a continuous improvement plan based ongrades and goals;

• Showcase of work highlighting a youth’s learningexperience — an essay, painting, algebra exam, etc.;

• Development of a formal learning plan that includeslong- and short-term goals and action steps;

• Group problem-solving activities;

• Preparation classes for GED, ACT, SAT, etc.; and

• Peer tutoring activities that enhance the skills of thetutor and the student.

ThrivingAttitudes, skills, and behaviors that are demonstratedby maintaining optimal physical and emotionalwellbeing characterize the area of development knownas thriving (Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002). Notonly must a young person have intellectual and socialcompetencies to achieve success in adulthood, but heor she must also have the wherewithal to maintain hisor her physical and emotional health at its highestlevel. This includes having the social and intellectualcompetencies to identify environments and situationsthat would potentially compromise one’s physicalhealth; however, the core of this area of development isthe ability to identify and access those situations thatenhance one’s physical and mental health. Thriving isthe optimal relationship between physical andemotional wellbeing, as determined by each youth’sparticular circumstances and range of abilities.

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Outcomes for this area of development range fromobvious to obscure. Of the five areas of development,thriving may require the most individualized attentionfor youth in order for them to achieve successfuloutcomes. Since each youth brings differentexperiences to the program, his or her reactions tosituational factors will vary. In addition, each youthwill have different physical and emotional abilities andneeds. Youth must develop knowledge of their ownphysical and emotional abilities, as well as how toaccess supports and services to meet their specificneeds. Therefore, positive outcomes for thriving mayinclude the following:

• Understanding of growth and development as bothan objective and a personal indicator of physical andemotional maturation;

• Knowledge and practice of good nutrition andhygiene; and

• Developmentally appropriate exercise (will varydepending on a youth’s age, maturity, and range ofphysical abilities).

In addition to the core physical and emotionalcompetencies, one must also consider theenvironmental conditions that support wellbeing.Outcomes for this aspect of thriving would include thefollowing:

• Ability to identify situations of safety and upholdthose standards in daily life;

• Ability to assess situations and environments inde-pendently;

• Ability to identify and avoid unduly risky conditionsand activities; and

• Ability to learn from adverse situations and avoidthem in the future.

Finally, each youth should be able to demonstrateconfidence and a sense of self-worth as he or sheachieves the outcomes that increase the ability topreserve his or her own optimum physical andemotional welfare. To help youth achieve all theseoutcomes, youth programs may want to consider thefollowing program activities:

• Workshops on benefits and consequences of varioushealth, hygiene, and human development issues,including physical, sexual, and emotional develop-ment;

• Role playing activities that hypothesize adverse situ-ations and how to resolve them;

• Personal and peer counseling;

• Training in conflict management and resolution con-cerning family, peer, and workplace relationships;

• Community mapping to create a directory ofresources related to physical and mental health, suchas health and counseling centers, personal physicians,insurance companies, parks with accessible paths forrunning and walking, grocery stores, drug stores, etc.;

• Meal planning and preparation activities, includingplanning the meal, shopping for groceries, and cook-ing the meal;

• Social activities that offer opportunities to practiceskills in communication, negotiation, and personalpresentation;

• Sports and recreational activities;

• Training in life skills such as how to manage money,find transportation, shop on a budget, buy a car,obtain insurance, etc.

ConnectingConnecting refers to the development of positive socialbehaviors, skills, and attitudes (Ferber, Pittman, &Marshall, 2002). Relationships with elders, peers,supervisors, family, and other community memberscommonly influence these behaviors, skills, andattitudes. The level to which a young person hasdeveloped in this area will also dictate how he or shecontinues to build varied relationships later on in life.Further, maintaining these relationships in a way thatwill positively benefit the young person is the goal ofthis area of development. Outcomes for the area ofconnecting include the following:

• Quality relationships with adults and peers;

• Interpersonal skills, such as the ability to build trust,handle conflict, value differences, listen actively, andcommunicate effectively;

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• Sense of belonging and membership, (e.g. valuingand being valued by others and being a part of agroup or greater whole);

• Ability to empathize with others;

• Sense of one’s own identity apart from and in rela-tion to others;

• Knowledge of and ability to seek out resources in thecommunity; and

• Ability to network in order to develop personal andprofessional relationships.

Outcomes for this area are based on the party withwhom the youth is connecting. Given the subjectivityof this area of development, a youth’s outcome levelcan be based on the number and character ofrelationships with peers and adults, the skills used tostart and maintain these relationships, and the degreeto which the youth feels acceptance and belongingtoward the individual or group. For instance, if a youthfeels that he or she has an extremely supportiverelationship with an adult mentor, but still has veryfew positive peer relationships, he or she needs to bedirected to programming that builds interpersonalskills with peers. Program activities that wouldenhance a young person’s ability to connect include thefollowing:

• Mentoring activities that connect youth to adult men-tors to provide guidance and support and build inter-personal skills that are needed to relate to older peo-ple and those in roles of authority;

• Tutoring activities that engage youth as tutors or inbeing tutored, since both types of tutoring activitiesadvance a young person’s ability to work on groupprojects, communicate with others, teach, and learn;

• Research activities in which youth identify resourceswithin the community through activities that allowthem to practice conversation and investigation skillswith those individuals who they do not know verywell;

• Letter writing to friends, family members, and penpals to build language and communication skills andencourage connecting to others;

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• Attendance at job and trade fairs to begin building anetwork of contacts in particular career fields of inter-est;

• Role-playing of interview and other workplace sce-narios;

• Positive peer and group activities that build cama-raderie, teamwork, and belonging, such as team-building exercises, sports and recreation, designing t-shirts or other apparel that signifies group affiliation,etc.; and

• Cultural activities that promote understanding andtolerance.

Connecting is an important area of development foryouth leadership. Youth leadership programsemphasize this area by focusing on building skills thatfurther connect youth to the larger world. For instance,whereas a youth development program will work oninterpersonal skills, a youth leadership program mighttake another step and focus on helping youth gainspecific interpersonal skills as they concern thedevelopment of leadership abilities:

• Ability to communicate to get a point across;

• Ability to influence others;

• Ability to motivate others;

• Ability to seek out role models who have been lead-ers; and

• Ability to be a role model for others.

Activities that could enhance the connecting area ofdevelopment in the context of leadership developmentinclude the following:

• Workshops in public speaking;

• Research on historical or current leaders;

• Contact with local leaders; and

• Strategic planning to change something in the com-munity or within the youth program.

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• Resource-mapping activities in which youth take thelead in planning and carrying out a search of com-munity resources for youth;

• Voter registration and voting in local, state, and fed-eral elections;

• Participation in town hall meetings;

• Community volunteerism such as organizing a parkclean-up or building a playground;

• Participation in a debate on an issue;

• Training to be a peer mediator;

• Participation in a letter-writing campaign;

• Opportunities to meet with local and state officialsand legislators;

• Participation in a youth advisory committee withinthe program, school, or community;

• Learning activities or courses about leadership prin-ciples and styles;

• Participation in group activities that promote collabo-ration and team work;

• Mentoring relationships with positive role models;and

• Opportunities to serve in leadership roles such asclub officer, board member, team captain, or coach.

While youth development programs seek to develop ayoung person’s capabilities in the area of leading aswell as the other four areas of development, youthleadership programs place a heavier emphasis onleading and spend more time and resources on thisarea of development. Outcomes that youth leadershipprograms are likely to emphasize include thefollowing:

• Ability to motivate others;

• Ability to share power and distribute tasks;

• Ability to work with a team;

• Ability to resolve conflicts;

• Ability to create and communicate a vision; and

• Ability to manage change and value continuousimprovement.

LeadingLeading is the area of development that centers onpositive skills, attitudes, and behaviors around civicinvolvement and personal goal setting (Ferber, Pittman,& Marshall, 2002). Youth who are civically engaged in apositive manner, willing to participate in publicactivity, and able to navigate the civic arena are likelyto become adults who participate in civic upkeep. Inthis case, the term “civic” can refer to an entire city, aneighborhood, a community, and anything else thatimplies public environs. Similarly, a youth whodevelops the inner strength and vision to set and meetgoals will benefit not only himself or herself, but alsohis or her workplace as well as society as a whole.

Outcomes for the area of leading include the following:

• Ability to articulate one’s personal values;

• Awareness of how one’s personal actions impact thelarger communities;

• Ability to engage in the community in a positivemanner;

• Respect and caring for oneself and others;

• Sense of responsibility to self and others;

• Integrity;

• Awareness of and appreciation for cultural differ-ences among peers and within the larger community;

• High expectations for self and community;

• Sense of purpose in goals and activities; and

• Ability to follow the lead of others when appropriate.

It is important to note that a young person is capable ofshowing leadership even without a “followership.”Showing responsibility for oneself and demonstratingthe ability to make personal change is often as criticalas leading a group of individuals or altering the largercommunity.

Program activities that would increase a youngperson’s development in leading might include thefollowing:

• Development of a personal plan with goals, actionsteps, and deadlines;

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To encourage the development of these outcomes,youth leadership programs may choose to provide thefollowing activities:

• Mediation or conflict resolution training;

• Training in team dynamics; and

• Training in project management.

Organizational and Program Components: Youth Development and Youth LeadershipActivities that foster positive youth development havebecome the basis for most youth serving programs.Even programs that do not view themselves as “youthdevelopment” programs may include components thatfoster a variety of aspects of identity and a range ofabilities in young people. A component is a practice orcharacteristic of an organization or program — it canbe a staff philosophy (e.g. youth are partners), it can bea standard operating procedure (e.g. let youth have avoice in their own development plan) or it can refer tothe type of activities being carried out (e.g. hands-on,youth-led). NCWD/Youth found that programsfocused on youth development and youth leadershipshare many of the same components, while youthleadership programs place an additional emphasis onparticular components central to leadershipdevelopment. The key components of youthdevelopment and youth leadership programs can bedivided into two levels: organizational andprogrammatic. Organizational components are thepractices and characteristics of the organization as awhole that are necessary to providing effective youthprograms. Programmatic components are the practicesand characteristics of a specific program that make iteffective for young people.

On the organizational level, both youth developmentand youth leadership programs should be supportedby an organization with a clear mission, vision, andgoals related to the development of young people (USDepartment of Health and Human Services, 1996;National Collaboration for Youth, n.d.; Search Institute,1995). All staff should be trained in youth developmentprinciples and practices, conduct themselvesprofessionally, support each other and the mission ofthe program, and relate to all young people in amanner that is welcoming and caring. Youth

development and youth leadership programs provideyouth with a safe and structured environment in whichthey feel comfortable, cared for, and challenged toreach their potential (Center for Youth Developmentand Policy Research, 1996). Further, both should haveobvious connections to the community at large andrelationships with other youth-serving organizations.While both value youth involvement, youthdevelopment programs may not necessarily involveyouth at all levels of organizational operations. Youthleadership programs, on the other hand, emphasize theimportance of youth involvement in every facet of theorganization as a means of practicing leadership skills.In other words, those programs that emphasize youthleadership as a goal and a desired outcome will tend toinvolve youth in every level of the organizationalstructure.

On the programmatic level, youth development andyouth leadership programs often include the followingcomponents (Astroth, Brown, Poore, & Timm, 2002;Center for Youth Development and Policy Research,1996; Youth Development Block Grant, 1995):

• Focus on each young person’s individual needs,assets, and interests;

• Varied hands-on and experiential activities;

• Opportunities for youth to succeed;

• Opportunities for youth to take on various roles inthe program (leader, organizer, speaker, evaluator,etc.);

• Youth involvement in developing and implementingthe program activities;

• Responsibility on the part of the youth to the program;

• Family involvement;

• Opportunities to interact with a mentor or rolemodel; and

• Opportunities to develop self-awareness, personalidentity, and values.

While both youth development and youth leadershipprograms involve active participation by youth, youthleadership programs place a particular emphasis on therole of the youth participant. Just as they involve youth

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in all levels of organizational operations, youthleadership programs tend to involve youth heavily inevery aspect of program delivery by providing youthwith the following experiences (Urban Think TankInstitute, 2002; PEPNet Index of Effective Practices,n.d.):

• Multiple opportunities to observe, practice, anddevelop leadership skills;

• Progressive roles of leadership ranging from leadinga small group to planning an event;

• Education on the history and values of the communi-ty and program; and

• Assessment of each individual’s own strengths andweaknesses.

When thinking about youth leadership as a componentthroughout the organization of a program it isimportant to take note of the three different modelsavailable (National Youth Employment Coalition“Youth Notes” March-April 2004).

• The “For Youth” program: In this model, youth areserved by a program designed, run, evaluated, anddriven by adults. Youth participate in the services,but the opinions of youth are rarely if ever solicited.These are often well-established programs with a setorganizational structure and programs that have beenrunning the same way (and with some success) foryears. The program structure exists as a solid corethat is not penetrated by the values, opinions, creativ-ity, and talent of the youth that participate from yearto year. The model is very paternalistic in the sensethat youth are “taken care of” by the program andmay not be seen as capable of providing meaningfuldirection to the programs that serve them. Thesemodels may often have recruitment and retentionproblems, because adults may not understand how tomake the program attractive to today’s youth. Whilethese models can have positive outcomes in terms ofemployment and work related skill building, they dolittle to truly support the leadership potential or thefull development of the participating youth. Theyalso miss out on many creative program develop-ments that often come from having youth moreengaged in the program itself.

• The “With Youth” Program: In this model, youth notonly participate in the program services but theirvoices are also sought as a way to get a perspectiveon the program. This model is adult driven, but theadults are conscious of the need to listen to youthand use their input to influence the program designand services. The mechanisms for getting the voice ofyouth are largely informal and may not be done on aconsistent basis. In this model, youth may be hired asstaff, but they are generally not given supervisory orleadership roles. A hallmark of this model is thatthere are elements of the program that have beeninfluenced to some degree by the voice of youth.However, while the culture of this model may drawon the opinions of youth, providing a consistent wayof making this happen could strengthen the structure.The program is influenced by youth, but youth donot necessarily develop leadership skills as an inten-tional component of the program.

• The “Youth-Driven” Program: This model may ormay not be actually run by youth. When adults runthese models, the voice of youth is so strong that it isoften the dominant force over the influence of adults.For example, in the adult run versions of this model,adults may go along with something that they are notsure would work because the young people make astrong enough case to justify the risk. In this model,there are frequent structured opportunities for youthto evaluate the program through survey-type evalua-tions, focus groups, peer-to-peer interviews and otherformats. Youth are frequently not only hired as staff,but become supervisors and managers. Youth areinvolved in the hiring and evaluation of peer andadult staff. Youth representatives can be found on theboard, involved in fund raising, and serving on com-mittees. There are many aspects of the program thatcan be identified as having been shaped by youth.There is a formal leadership development processusing adult and peer mentors designed to createyoung leaders within the program and community.Strategic planning is conducted with the full involve-ment of youth. Economic development throughyouth self-employment and business creation is val-ued. The youth involved in this program model expe-rience a culture that promotes and demonstrates ahigh degree of youth ownership of the program.

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Although some success can be achieved with each ofthe three models, the youth driven model will yield themost comprehensive results. The move toward youth-driven models is challenging, time consuming, anddoes not guarantee automatic success of the program.However, the more a model is youth-driven, the morepotential it provides for youth to develop not only asprogram participants, but also as empowered leaderslearning how to change the institutions that servethem. This experience can carry over into many otheraspects of their lives and will create a new level ofyouth engagement in our communities.

Disability FocusIn addition to its review of youth development andyouth leadership, NCWD/Youth also researchedleadership development programs that specificallytarget youth with disabilities in order to identifyadditional components of such programs and toexamine how such programs should be structured.

NCWD/Youth found that the essential elements of anyyouth development or youth leadership program areapplicable to all youth, both with and withoutdisabilities. Developmental milestones are consistentfor all, even though some youth may demonstratethem in different ways and reach them at differenttimes. Youth development and youth leadershipprograms for youth with disabilities vary only slightlyfrom programs designed for the general population.Therefore, NCWD/Youth includes disability issues asan additional focus for youth development andleadership programs.

In addition to the components described in theprevious section, some additional organizational andprogrammatic components should be included in bothyouth development and youth leadership programsthat serve youth with disabilities. On theorganizational level, youth programs must ensure thatthey are both physically and programmaticallyaccessible to youth with disabilities. This means thatthe physical space as well as the programs and servicesoffered should be designed in a way that allows ayoung person with a disability to participate in andbenefit from them fully, regardless of disability. Staffmembers must be aware of how to accommodateyouth with disabilities and be willing, prepared, and

encouraged to make such accommodations. Theorganization’s staff must also be knowledgeable aboutboth national and community resources for youth withdisabilities, and should seek out partnerships andcollaborations with other agencies that serve youthwith disabilities.

On the programmatic level, youth programs seeking toserve youth with disabilities effectively should includethe following components within the program:

• Role-modeling and mentoring by peers and adultswith disabilities;

• Self-advocacy skill building;

• Disability history, law, culture, policies, and practices; and

• Independent living information and assessment.

While important for all youth, initial and ongoingassessments for independent living that center oncareer and employment, training and education,transportation, recreation and leisure, communityresources, life skills, and financial independence andbenefits planning are especially critical in effectiveprogramming for youth with disabilities.

Basic principles for youth development and youthleadership programs are essentially the same for youthwith and without disabilities. Yet, few programs foryouth with disabilities include all disability-relatedcomponents necessary for youth to participate fully inall aspects of their lives and society. In order to serve allyouth effectively, practitioners should incorporate theadditional components identified in the “disabilityfocus” into youth development and youth leadershipprograms (see Chart B: Organizational and ProgramComponents).

Measuring Outcomes of Youth Development and Youth LeadershipBecause they seek to address a broad range ofdevelopmental needs among the youth that they serve,and because the desired outcomes typically take a longtime to achieve, youth development programsfrequently struggle to measure the impact that theirprograms have on young people. At the same time,tracking and measuring the outcomes of youth

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participants is important in making the case that aprogram is effective in meeting its goals. Therefore, avariety of initiatives have begun the challenging yetvital work of researching and developing strategies formeasuring the outcomes of youth developmentstrategies in various settings.

In an effort to address the need for a comprehensivemodel to track both short- and long-term outcomes,researchers with the 4-H Youth Developmentdepartment at Purdue University developed the Four-Fold Youth Development Model encompassing 47development skills that youth need to become healthyand successful adults (Barkman & Machtmes, 2000).Based on an extensive literature search of boththeoretical and empirical research, the model wascreated by combining four existing skill models: theSCANS Workforce Preparation Model developed bythe US Department of Labor, NNST Science ProcessSkill Model developed by the National Network forScience and Technology, Iowa State University’sTargeting Life Skills Model, and the Search Institute’sInternal Assets. An accompanying website (www.four-h.purdue.edu/fourfold) was developed withresources and tools that practitioners can use to linkprogram design to program evaluation. Practitionersdesigning programs can use the website to identifyskills sets and corresponding activities that match aparticular development skill they want to target in theirprogram. Practitioners seeking to measure outcomesrelated to a targeted skill can download an evaluationinstrument from the website, enter their own data,have it analyzed, and print a report. This resource wasdeveloped to be a cost effective, easy-to-use, andreliable means of measuring youth outcomes.

The National Youth Employment Coalition began theIndicators of Youth Economic Achievement project in1999 to develop a measurement instrument that reflectsdevelopmental outcomes young people attain as aresult of participation in soundly conceivedemployment training programs, one that couldeventually be used widely by states and communities.With assistance from Youth Development Strategies,Inc. (YDSI) and the Center for Applied Research andTechnical Assistance (CARTA), a youth survey andweb-based analysis system has been piloted withprogram sites and found to be a reliable indicator of

youth development outcomes (Youth DevelopmentStrategies, Inc., 2004). It will soon be available for useby youth programs. These and other efforts to createmethods of measuring youth development outcomesare essential to building both understanding andrecognition of the impact of the youth developmentapproach on the experiences and outcomes of youthwho participate in youth development programs.

NCWD/Youth identified only one resource relevant toassessing youth leadership programs. The CO-SAMM(Cause and Outcome, Skill and Action, Membershipand Modeling) conceptual map was created byresearchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison asa tool for planning, evaluating, and reflecting on youthleadership programs. Based on their work asevaluators of five different youth leadership programs,the researchers created CO-SAMM as a frameworkuseful for defining and assessing youth leadership invarious program settings (Zeldin & Camino, 1999). CO-SAMM conceptualizes youth leadership as “occurringin the context of a cause, chosen by young people;gearing youth programs toward an explicit set ofoutcomes; and developing in the context of certain day-to-day experiences, such as skill building, action,membership, and modeling” (Zeldin & Camino, 1999).Organizations with youth leadership programs mayfind it useful to review the available literature on CO-SAMM, which points to some key program features aswell as challenges that played a role in the impact ofthe youth leadership programs they studied. Theresearchers suggest exercises for data collection andanalysis and have created a self-assessment tool(Camino, 2002) that practitioners can use for programevaluation and development.

Based on the limited amount of information found onassessing outcomes of youth leadership programs, itmay be that some organizations are creating their owntools and methods for tracking and measuringoutcomes, while others may not be assessing youthleadership outcomes in any formal manner.

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Curricula for Youth Development and Youth LeadershipA first step for programs seeking to implement a youthdevelopment approach is to invest in training forprogram staff in the principles and practices of youthdevelopment. The Advancing Youth Development(AYD) curriculum developed by the Center for YouthDevelopment and Policy Research at the Academy forEducational Development (AED) provides a thoroughintroduction to youth development. AED’s NationalTraining Institute for Community Youth Work (NTI)has piloted delivery of the 28-hour curriculum inselected local sites under its BEST (Building ExemplarySystems for Training Youth Workers) Initiative, whichprovides national “train the trainer” instruction toindividuals who offer the curriculum to youth servicepractitioners at the local level. AYD provides an easilydelivered, accessible, and inexpensive option fortraining in youth development. To learn more aboutthe AYD training provided by NTI and the 14 localBEST sites, visit the NTI website at www.nti.aed.org/.

One leadership development curriculum specificallydesigned for youth with disabilities was developed byProject LEEDS (Leadership Education to EmpowerDisabled Students) at the University of Minnesota.Igniting the Power of Disability: A LeadershipCurriculum prepares students with disabilities toenhance their leadership capacities (Aune, Chelberg,Stockdill, Robertson, Agresta, & Lorsung, 1996).

Another leadership development curriculum for youthwith disabilities is the Youth Leadership Forum forStudents with Disabilities (YLF). YLF is a unique careerleadership-training program for high school juniorsand seniors with disabilities. By serving as delegatesfrom their communities at a four-day event in theirstate capital, young people with disabilities cultivateleadership, citizenship, and social skills. The modelprogram, and the one that remains most widelyrecognized, was developed by the CaliforniaGovernor’s Committee for Employment of DisabledPersons in 1992. In response to the belief that it iscritical for youth with disabilities who are growing intoadulthood to learn to identify themselves with pride asindividuals and as members of the very accomplisheddisability community, YLF offers peers with commonchallenges and experiences the opportunity to learn

from one another through peer-to-peer mentorship. Inaddition, successful men and women with and withoutdisabilities serve as role models in helping youthrealize their ability, right, and obligation to pursuemeaningful employment and to contribute to society.YLF alumni take with them an obligation to followthrough on goals outlined in “personal leadershipplans” that they have written for themselves. Oftenalumni return to the YLF in later years as volunteerstaff.

Programs seeking to implement a youth leadershipdevelopment curriculum may find it useful to look atsome of the models used by other organizations andprograms (available online at <www.disabilityemployment.org/yp_ylf.htm). Other models identifiedby NCWD/Youth include the Fire Starter Youth PowerCurriculum, the Prudential Youth Leadership InstituteCurriculum, and the Tavis Smiley Foundation’s Youth 2Leaders Program. These are models for all youth, whilethose in the next paragraph are for youth withdisabilities

Recipients of ODEP’s youth grants have recentlycreated two additional curricula: the Y.I.E.L.D. (Youthfor Integration through Education, Leadership andDiscovery) the Power Project curriculum created byAccess Living of Metropolitan Chicago, and the Self-Advocacy and Leadership Training curriculum createdby the Imua Project at Hilo High School in Hilo,Hawaii. Both are designed to help youth withdisabilities develop a range of youth development andyouth leadership competencies. Both curricula includeactivities that help youth develop knowledge and self-awareness related to having a disability; educate youthabout disability history, law, and social policies; andconnect youth to resources and opportunities in theircommunities. More information on the curricula citedcan be found in the reference section.

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ConclusionSince the implementation of WIA in 1998, youthdevelopment and youth leadership have begun toemerge as central elements of workforce developmentprograms for youth. The increasing recognition of theirimportance for all youth provides both promise andchallenge. There is promise in the emergence ofcommon definitions and program components acrossthe fields of youth development, workforcedevelopment, and disability. An ever-growing body ofresearch has validated the effectiveness of qualityyouth development and youth leadership programs.New tools are being developed to further documentthe impact programs have on youth outcomes.

However, this growing consensus also presents achallenge: ensuring that all youth, including youthwith disabilities, have access to high quality programsfocused on youth development and youth leadership.In order to meet this formidable challenge,stakeholders at all levels of the workforcedevelopment, youth development, and disability fields

must be involved. As a technical assistance centerfunded by DOL, NCWD/Youth is in a unique positionto promote the core areas of development and programcomponents of effective youth development and youthleadership programs. NCWD/Youth is developingresources and materials for the following groups:

1. Youth service practitioners and administrators tosupport development of programming targeted foryouth and youth with disabilities;

2. Federal and state level legislators to support devel-opment of legislation and policy that supports thecreation or funding of programs; and

3. Youth and families, the direct recipients of services.

In order to move this work forward, NCWD/Youthseeks to work with organizations, programs, andindividuals interested in providing quality youthdevelopment and youth leadership opportunities to allyouth. The challenge is great but the promise is greater.

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Working

Learning

• Meaningful engagement in own careerdevelopment process

• Demonstrated skill in work readiness• Awareness of options for future employment,

careers, and professional development• Completion of educational requirements or

involvement in training that culminates in aspecific vocation or opportunity for careeradvancement

• Established involvement in meaningful workthat offers advancement, satisfaction, and self-sufficiency

• Positive attitude about one’s ability and futurein working in a particular industry or theopportunities to grow into another

• Career exploration activities including careerinterest assessment, job shadowing, job andcareer fairs, and workplace visits and tours

• Internships • Work experience, including summer

employment• Information on entrepreneurship• Networking activities• Mock interviews• Work readiness workshops• Visits from representatives of specific industries

to speak to youth about the employmentopportunities and details of working withintheir industry

• Mock job searches, including locating positionsonline and in the newspaper, “cold-calling,”preparing resumes, and writing cover letters andthank-you letters

• Visits to education or training programs• Career goal setting and planning• Job coaching or mentoring• Learning activities using computers and other

current workplace technology

• Basic aptitude in math and reading• Rational problem solving• Ability to think critically toward a positive

outcome• Logical reasoning based on personal experience • Ability to determine one’s own skills and areas

of academic weakness or need for furthereducation and training

• Sense of creativity• Appreciation and the foundation for lifelong

learning, including a desire for further trainingand education, the knowledge of neededresources for said training, and willingness forfurther planning

• Initial and ongoing skills assessment, formal andinformal

• Initial and ongoing career and vocationalassessment, formal and informal

• Identification of one’s learning styles, strengths,and challenges

• Creation of a personal development plan• Contextualized learning activities such as

service-learning projects in which youth applyacademic skills to community needs

• Monitoring of and accountability for own gradesand creation of a continuous improvement planbased on grades and goals

• Showcase of work that highlights a youth’slearning experience (e.g. an essay, a painting, analgebra exam, etc.)

• Development of a formal learning plan thatincludes long- and short-term goals and actionsteps

• Group problem-solving activities• Preparation classes for GED, ACT, SAT, etc.• Peer tutoring activities that enhance the skills of

the tutor and the student

INTENDED YOUTH OUTCOMES SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

CHART A: Five Areas of Development with Related Outcomes and Activities

In the table above, column one outlines the five areas of development identified by Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall (2002). Columns two and threelist specific intended outcomes and suggested program activities identified by NCWD/Youth through its extensive review of the literature andexisting practices.

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INTENDED YOUTH OUTCOMES SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

CHART A: Five Areas of Development with Related Outcomes and Activities

Connecting • Quality relationships with adults and peers• Interpersonal skills such as ability to build trust,

handle conflict, value differences, listen actively,and communicate effectively

• Sense of belonging and membership (i.e.,valuing and being valued by others, being a partof a group or greater whole)

• Ability to empathize with others• Sense of one’s own identity apart from and in

relation to others• Knowledge of and ability to seek out resources

in the community• Ability to network to develop personal and

professional relationships

• Mentoring activities that connect youth to adultmentors

• Tutoring activities that engage youth as tutors orin being tutored

• Research activities identifying resources in thecommunity to allow youth to practiceconversation and investigation skills

• Letter writing to friends, family members, andpen pals

• Job and trade fairs to begin building a networkof contacts in one’s career field of interest

• Role plays of interview and other workplacescenarios

• Positive peer and group activities that buildcamaraderie, teamwork, and belonging

• Cultural activities that promote understandingand tolerance

• Ability to communicate to get a point across• Ability to influence others• Ability to motivate others• Ability to seek out role models who have been

leaders• Ability to be a role model for others

• Workshops in public speaking• Research on historical or current leaders• Contact with local leaders• Strategic planning to change something in the

community or within the youth program

Thriving • Understanding of growth and development asboth an objective and a personal indicator ofphysical and emotional maturation

• Knowledge and practice of good nutrition andhygiene

• Developmentally appropriate exercise (will varydepending on age, maturity, and range ofphysical abilities)

• Ability to identify situations of safety and makesafe choices on a daily basis

• Ability to assess situations and environmentsindependently

• Capacity to identify and avoid unduly riskyconditions and activities

• Ability to learn from adverse situations andavoid them in the future

• Confidence and sense of self-worth in relation totheir own physical and mental status

• Workshops on benefits and consequences ofvarious health, hygiene, and humandevelopment issues, including physical, sexual,and emotional development

• Role playing adverse situations and how toresolve them

• Personal and peer counseling• Training in conflict management and resolution

concerning family, peer, and workplacerelationships

• Community mapping to create a directory ofresources related to physical and mental health

• Meal planning and preparation activities• Social activities that offer opportunities to

practice skills in communication, negotiation,and personal presentation

• Sports and recreational activities• Training in life skills

YOUTH LEADERSHIP PROGRAM SPECIFIC:

In the table above, column one outlines the five areas of development identified by Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall (2002). Columns two and threelist specific intended outcomes and suggested program activities identified by NCWD/Youth through its extensive review of the literature andexisting practices.

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INTENDED YOUTH OUTCOMES

CHART A: Five Areas of Development with Related Outcomes and Activities

In the table above, column one outlines the five areas of development identified by Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall (2002). Columns two and threelist specific intended outcomes and suggested program activities identified by NCWD/Youth through its extensive review of the literature andexisting practices.

Leading • Ability to articulate personal values• Awareness of how personal actions impact the

larger communities• Ability to engage in the community in a positive

manner• Respect and caring for oneself and others• Sense of responsibility to self and others• Integrity• Awareness of cultural differences among peers

and the larger community• High expectations for self and community• Sense of purpose in goals and activities• Ability to follow the lead of others when

appropriate

• Personal plan development with goals, actionsteps, and deadlines

• Resource mapping activities in which youth takethe lead in planning and carrying out a search ofcommunity resources for youth

• Voter registration and voting in local, state, andfederal elections

• Participation in town hall meetings• Community volunteerism such as organizing a

park clean-up or building a playground• Participation in a debate on a local social issue• Training to be a peer mediator• Participation in a letter-writing campaign• Opportunities to meet with local and state

officials and legislators• Participation in a youth advisory committee of

the city, school board, training center, or otherrelevant organization

• Learning activities or courses about leadershipprinciples and styles

• Group activities that promote collaboration andteam work

• Mentoring relationships with positive rolemodels

• Opportunities to serve in leadership roles suchas club officer, board member, team captain, orcoach

• Ability to motivate others• Ability to share power and distribute tasks• Ability to work with a team• Ability to resolve conflicts• Ability to create and communicate a vision• Ability to manage change and value continuous

improvement

• Mediation and conflict resolution training• Training in team dynamics• Training in project management

YOUTH LEADERSHIP PROGRAM SPECIFIC:

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

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Components of YouthDevelopment Programs

Additional Components of Youth Leadership Programs

Additional Components forDisability Focus

CHART B: Organizational & Program Components

• Clear mission and goals• Staff are trained, professional,

supportive, committed, and youth-friendly

• Safe and structured environment

• Youth involvement at all levelsincluding administration and theBoard of Directors

• Physically and programmaticallyaccessible

• Staff are aware, willing, prepared,and supported to makeaccommodations

• Connections to community andother youth-serving organizations

• Knowledge of resources (nationaland community-specific) for youthwith disabilities

• Partnerships and collaboration withother agencies serving or assistingyouth with disabilities

• Focus on each young person’sindividual needs, assets, andinterests

• Hands-on experiential and variedactivities

• Youth involvement in developingand implementing activities

• Hands-on involvement at allprogrammatic levels such asplanning, budgeting, implementing,and evaluating programs

• Opportunities for success• Opportunities to try new roles• Youth leadership

• Multiple opportunities to developand practice leadership skills

• Varied, progressive leadership rolesfor youth: small group, large group,event, program

• Mentoring/role models • Ensure peer and adult role modelsand mentors include people withdisabilities

• Personal responsibility • Self-advocacy skills building• Independent living information and

assessment (career, employment,training, education, transportation,recreation, community resources, lifeskills, financial, benefits planning)

• Family involvement and support

• Opportunities for youth to developself-awareness, identity, and values

• Education on community &program values and history

• Disability history, law, culture,policies, and practices

PROGRAMMATIC LEVEL

Components of YouthDevelopment Programs

Additional Components of Youth Leadership Programs

Additional Components forDisability Focus

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Aptitude — The readiness to become proficient in atype of activity, given the opportunity; may refer to anindividual's capacity or potential to learn a type ofwork (Sallie Mae, n.d.).

Area of Development — One of a range of areas inwhich a young person needs to learn and grow inorder to become a fully prepared and fully engagedadult (Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002).

Autonomy — The ability and opportunity to operateindependently.

Belonging and Membership — An individual’s sensethat he or she values, and is valued by, others in thefamily and surrounding community (Center for YouthDevelopment and Policy Research, 1996); connection toanother individual or group of individuals on the basisof common interest, formal affiliation, etc.

Conflict Resolution — The process of becoming awareof conflict, diagnosing its nature, and employing anappropriate problem-solving method in such a waythat it simultaneously achieves the goals of all involvedand enhances the relationships among them (Dettmer,Thurston, & Dyck, 1993).

Connecting — The area of development that focuseson developing positive social behaviors, skills, andattitudes (Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002).

Interpersonal Skills — The ability to communicatewith another individual or group on a social orprofessional basis. Level of aptitude is based on easeand comfort of all parties involved.

Leading — The area of development that focuses ondeveloping positive civic attitudes, skills, andbehaviors (Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002).

Learning — The area of development that focuses ondeveloping positive basic and applied academicattitudes, skills, and behaviors (Ferber, Pittman, &Marshall, 2002).

Lifelong Learning — The interest and skill to maintaineducation, formal or informal, beyond the basicrequirements for academic achievement or vocationalattainment.

Mentorship — A supportive relationship between ayouth or young adult and someone more senior in ageand experience that offers support, guidance, andconcrete assistance as the younger partner enters a newarea of experience (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott, 1995).

Opportunities — Chances for young people to learnhow to act in the world around them, to explore,express, earn, belong, and influence. Opportunitiesgive young people the chance to test ideas andbehaviors and to experiment with different roles. It isimportant to stress that young people, just like adults,learn best through active participation and thatlearning occurs in all types of settings and situations(Center for Youth Development and Policy Research,1996).

Peer Mentoring — A relationship where both partiesare acknowledged as equal contributors to therelationship and to one another’s well being. Thesepartnerships constitute horizontal, rather than vertical,power relationships. Neither party brings nor attemptsto display any “role” power over the other, nor doesone member give away his or her personal power tothe other (Moyer deRosenroll, n.d.). Peer mentoringinvolves matching up young people who are believedto have relevant and accessible knowledge for eachother.

Personal Leadership — The ability to surpassoneself—previous performance and accomplishments(Sanborn, M., 1997).

Quality Services — Services that offer (1) relevantinstruction and information; (2) challengingopportunities to express oneself, to contribute, to take onnew roles, and to be part of a group; and (3) supportiveadults and peers who provide respect, high standards,guidance, and affirmation to young people (Center forYouth Development and Policy Research, 1996).

Resiliency — The ability and wherewithal to recoverfrom adverse situations through having learned how toavoid such situations in the future or how to maintaina positive mode of coping.

Risk Management — An ongoing process towardavoiding or coping with certain threats in one’senvironment. This includes the ability to identify

GlossaryNOTE: Definitions without citations were developed by NCWD/Youth.

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negative risk that will prove to be a detriment to one’swell-being and positive risk that could benefit anindividual’s status.

Self-Knowledge — The ability to recognize and gaugeone’s own skills, tastes, capabilities, needs, etc.realistically.

Self-Advocacy — The act of understanding one’s owndisability; being aware of the strengths and weaknessesresulting from the limitations imposed by the disability,and the ability to articulate reasonable need foraccommodations (Hartman, 1993); the attitudes andabilities required to act as the primary causal agent inone’s life and make choices and decisions regardingone’s actions free from undue external influence orinterference (Wehmeyer, 1992); the ability of anindividual to set goals that are important to him or herand possession of the skills necessary to achieve thesegoals (Field & Hoffman, 1996).

Service-Learning — “a method under which studentslearn and develop through active participation inthoughtfully organized service experiences that meetactual community needs and that are coordinated incollaboration with the school and community; that isintegrated into the students' academic curriculum orprovides structured time for a student to think, talk, orwrite about what the student did and saw during theactual service activity; that provides students withopportunities to use newly acquired skills andknowledge in real-life situations in their owncommunities; and that enhances what is taught inschool by extending student learning beyond theclassroom and into the community and helps to fosterthe development of a sense of caring for others”(National and Community Service Act of 1990).

Supports — Ongoing relationships through whichyoung people become connected to others and tocommunity resources. Supports can be motivational,emotional, and strategic. The supports can take manydifferent forms, but they must be affirming, respectful,and ongoing. The supports are most powerful whenthey are offered by a variety of people, such as parentsand close relatives, community social networks,teachers, youth workers, employers, health providers,and peers who are involved in the lives of young

people (Center for Youth Development and PolicyResearch, 1996).

Thriving — The area of development focused ondeveloping physically healthy attitudes, skills, andbehaviors (Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002).

Vision — The ability to see beyond current conditionsto future possibilities and to create actions to makethose possibilities into realities.

Work Readiness — Those skills and qualities thatworkers must have to learn and adapt to the demandsof any job. These include personal attributes,interpersonal skills, thinking and problem-solvingabilities, communication skills, and the use oftechnology (SCANS,1991; CCSSO Workplace ReadinessAssessment Consortium, 1993).

Working — The area of development focused ondeveloping positive vocational attitudes, skills, andbehaviors (Ferber, Pittman, & Marshall, 2002).

Youth Development — A process which preparesyoung people to meet the challenges of adolescenceand adulthood through a coordinated, progressiveseries of activities and experiences which help them tobecome socially, morally, emotionally, physically, andcognitively competent. Positive youth developmentaddresses the broader developmental needs of youth,in contrast to deficit-based models that focus solely onyouth problems (adapted from the National YouthEmployment Coalition and the National Collaborationfor Youth).

Youth Leadership — (1) “The ability to guide or directothers on a course of action, influence the opinion andbehavior of other people, and show the way by goingin advance” (Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998); (2)“The ability to analyze one's own strengths andweaknesses, set personal and vocational goals, andhave the self-esteem to carry them out. It includes theability to identify community resources and use them,not only to live independently, but also to establishsupport networks to participate in community life andto effect positive social change” (AdolescentEmployment Readiness Center, Children’s Hospital,n.d.).

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Access Living of Metropolitan Chicago. (n.d.). Y.i.e.l.d.(Youth for Integration through Education,Leadership and Discovery) the Power Project.Retrieved December 12, 2003 from www.yieldthepower.org/.

Adolescent Employment Readiness Center, Children’sHospital. (n.d.). D.C. Youth Leadership Forum.Washington, DC. Author

Agran, M. (Ed.). (1997). Student-directed learning:Teaching self-determination skills. Pacific Grove,CA: Brooks/Cole.

Aune, B., Chelberg, G., Stockdill, S., Robertson, B.,Agresta, S., & Lorsung, T. (1996). Project LEEDS:Leadership education to empower disabled stu-dents. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.

Astroth, K. A., Brown, D., Poore, J., & Timm, D. (2002).Avenues to adulthood or avenues to civic anemia.CYD Anthology 2002. Sudbury, MA: Institute forJust Communities.

Barkman, S. J. & Machtmes, K. L. (2000). Measuring theimpact of youth development programs: The four-fold youth development model. CYD Journal, 1 (4),42-45.

Benson, P. L., Leffert, N., Scales, P. C., & Blyth, D. A.(1998). Beyond the “village” rhetoric: Creatinghealthy communities for children and adolescents.Applied Developmental Science, 2(3), 138-159.

Boyd, B. L. (2001, August). Bringing leadership experi-ences to inner-city youth. Journal of Extension, 39(4). Retrieved January 21, 2004 from www.joe.org/joe/2001august/a6.html.

Camino, L. A. (2002). CO-SAMM: A tool to assessyouth leadership. CYD Journal, 3 (1), 39-41.

Caplan, M., Weissberg, R. P., Grober, J. S., Sivo, P. J.,Grady, K., & Jacoby, C. (1992). Social competencepromotion with inner-city and suburban youngadolescents: Effects on social adjustment and alco-hol use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,60, 56-63.

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989).Turning points: Preparing American youth for the21st century. New York, N.Y.: Carnegie Corporationof New York.

Center for Youth Development and Policy Research.(1996). Advancing youth development: A curricu-lum for training youth workers. Washington, DC:Academy for Educational Development.

Child Trends. (2004). What Works: Research Tools toImprove Youth Development. Retrieved January21, 2004 from www.childtrends.org/youthdevelop-ment_intro.asp.

Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO)Workplace Readiness Assessment Consortium.(1993). Consensus framework for workplace readiness assessment. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.

Dettmer, P., Thurston, L.P., & Dyck, N. (1993).Consultation, collaboration, and teamwork for students with special needs. Boston, MA: Allynand Bacon.

ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and GiftedEducation. (1990). Developing leadership in giftedyouth. Retrieved January 21, 2004 fromhttp://ericec.org/digests/e485.html.

Ferber, T. & Pittman, K., with Marshall, T. (2002). Stateyouth policy: Helping all youth to grow up fullyprepared and fully engaged. Takoma Park, MD:The Forum for Youth Investment.

Field, S., & Hoffman, A. (1996). Steps to self-determina-tion: A curriculum to help adolescents learn toachieve their goals. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Fletcher, A. (2001). FireStarter participant guidebook.Olympia, Washington: The Freechild Project.Retrieved December 12, 2003 fromwww.freechild.org/Firestarter/home.htm.

Forum for Youth Investment. (2001). Aligning YouthAgendas: A Rationale for the Forum for YouthInvestment. Takoma Park, MD: International YouthFoundation.

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Hartman, R. (1993). Transition to higher education. In S. Kroeger & J. Schuck (Eds.), Responding to disability issues in student affairs (pp. 31-43). New Directions for Student Services, No. 64. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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