YOUNGER v. HARRIS

Syllabus

YOUNGER, DISTRICT ATTORNEY OF LOSANGELES QOUNTY v. HARRIS ET AL.

APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTFr-P COURT FOR THE

CENTRAL DISTRICT OF CALIFORNIA

No: 2. Argued April 1, 1969-Reargued April 29 and November 16,1970-Decided February 23, 1971

Appellee Harris, who had been indicted for violating the CaliforniaCriminal Syndicalism Act, sued in-the Federal District Court toenjoin tppellant, the county District Attorney from prosecutinghim, contending that the Act is unconstitutional on it face andinhibits him in exercising his free-speech,.rights. Appellees Danand Hirsch, claiming that the prosecution of Harris would "inhibit"them from peacefully advocating the program-of the political partyto which they belonged, and appellee Broslawsky, a college pro-fessor, claiming that the prosecution made him "uncertain" as'towhether his teaching and reading practices would subject him toprosecution, intervened as plaintiffs. All asserted that' they wouldsuffer irreparabld injury unless a federal injunction was issued. Athree-judge court, relying on Dombrowski v. Pfister, 380.U. S. 479,held the Act void for vagueness and overbreadth, and enjoinedHarris' prosecution. Held:

1. 'There is no basis for equitable jurisdiction based on the alle-gations of appellees other than Harris, who have not been indicted,arrested, or threatened with prosecution, and the normal -courseof a- state criminal prosecution cannot be blocked on the basis offears of prosecution that are merely speculative. Pp. 41-42.

2. Federal courts will not enjoin pending state criminal prose-cutions except under extraordinary circumstances where the dangerof irreparable loss is both great and immediate in that (unlike thesituation affecting Harris) there is a threat to the plaintiff's fed-erally protected rights that cannot be eliminated by his defenseagainst a single prosecution. The decision in Dom browski, supra,which involved alleged bad-faith harassment and is factually dis-tinguishable from this case, does not substantially broaden theavailability of injunctions against state criminal prosecutions. Pp.43-54.

281 F. Supp. 507, reversed.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U.S

BLAcK, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which BuRGER,C. J., and HARLAN, STEWART, and BLAcmuN, JJ., joined. STEwART,J., filed a concurring opinion, in which HARLAN, J., joined, post, p.54. BRENNAN, J., filed an opinion concurring in the result, inwhich WHITE and MARSHALL, JJ., joined, post, p. 56. DouGLAS,

J., filed a dissenting opinion, post, p. 58.

Clifford K. Thompson, Jr., Deputy Attorney Generalof California, argued the cause for appellant on thesecond reargument. Albert W. Harris, Jr., Assistant At-torney General, argued the cause for appellant on theoriginal argument and on the first reargument. Withthem on the briefs were Thomas C. Lynch, AttorneyGeneral, and Evelle J. Younger, pro se.

A. L. Wirin argued the cause for appellees on therearguments. With him on the briefs were Fred Okrandand Frank S. Pestana. Sam Rosenwein argued the causefor appellees on the original argument.. With him onthe brief was Mr. Pestana.

MR. JusTice BI~cK delivered the opinion of the Court.

Appellee, John Harris, Jr., was indicted in a Californiastate court, charged with violation of the CaliforniaPenal Code §§ 11400 and 11401, known as the CaliforniaCriminal Syndicalism Act, set out below.' He then filed

I "§ 11400. Definition"'Criminal syndicalism' as used in this article means any doctrine

or precept advocating, teaching or aiding and abetting the com-mission of crime, sabotage (which word is hereby defined as meaningwilful and malicious physical damage or injury to physical property),or unlawful acts of force and violence or unlawful methods ofterrorism as a means of accomplishing a change in industrial owner-ship or control, or effecting any political change."

"§ 11401. Offense; punishment* "Any person who:

"1. By spoken or written words or personal conduct advocates,'teaches or aids and abets criminal syndicalism or the duty, necessityor propriety of committing crime, sabotage, violence or any unlawful

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 Opinion of the Court-

a complaint in the Federal District Court, asking thatcourt to enjoin the appellant, Younger,-the DistrictAt-torney of Los Angeles County, from prosecuting him,-and alleging that the prosecution and even the presenceof the Act inhibited him in the exercise of his rights offree speech and press, rights guaranteed him by the Firstand Fourteenth Amendments. Appellees Jim Dan andDiane Hirsch intervened as plaintiffs in the suit, claimingthat the prosecution of Harris would inhibit them asmembers of the Progressive Labor Party from peacefullyadvocating the program of their party, which was to re-place capitalism with socialism and to abolish the profitsystem of production in this country. Appellee FarrellBjroslawsky, an instructor in history at Los Angeles Val-ley College, also'intervened claiming that the prosecutionof Harris made him uncertain as to whether he could

method of terrorism as a means of accomplishing a change in indus-trial ownership or control, or effecting any political change; or

"2. Wilfully and deliberately by spoken or written words justifiesor attempts to justify criminal syndicalism or the commission orattempt to commit crime, sabotage, violence or unlawful methodsof terrorism with intent to approve, advocate or further the doctrineof criminal syndicalism; or

"3. Prints, publishes, edits, issues or circulates or publicly displaysany book, paper, pamphlet, doument, poster or written or printedmatter in any other. form, containing or carrying written or printedadvocacy, teaching, or 'aid and abetment of, or advising, 'criminalsyndicalism; or

"4. Organizes or assists in. organizing, or is or knowingly becomesa member of, any organization, society, group or assemblage ofpersons organized or assembled to advocate, teach or aid and abetcriminal syndicalism; or

"5. Wilfully by personal act or conduct, practices or commits anyact advised, advocated, taught or aided and abetted by the doctrineor precept of criminal syndicalism, with intent to accomplish achange in industrial ownership or control, or effecting any politicalchange;

"Is guilty of a felony and punishable by imprisonment in thestate prison not less than one nor more than 14 years."

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U. S.

teach about the doctrines of Karl Marx or read from theCommunist Manifesto as part of his classwork. Allclaimed that unless the United States court restrainedthe state prosecution of Harris each would suffer imme-diate and irreparable injury. A three-judge Federal Dis-trict Court, convened pursuant to 28 U. S. C. § 2284,held that it had jurisdiction and power to restrain theDistrict Attorney from prosecuting, held that the State'sCriminal Syndicalism Act was void for vagueness andoverbreadth in violation of the First and FourteenthAmendments, and accordingly restrained the DistrictAttorney from "further prosecution of the currentlypending action against plaintiff Harris for alleged viola-tion of the Act." 281 F. Supp. 507, 517 (1968).

The case is before us on appeal by the State's DistrictAttorney Younger, pursuant to 28 U. S. C. § 1253. Inhis notice of appeal and his jurisdictional statementappellant presented two questions: (1) whether the deci-sion of this Court in Whitney v. California, 274 U. S.357, holding California's law' constitutional in 1927 wasbinding on the District Court and (2) whether the State'slaw is constitutional on its face. In this Court the brieffor the State of California, filed at our request, alsoargues that only Harris, who was indicted, has standing.to challenge the State's law, and that issuance of theinjunction was a violation of a longstanding judicialpolicy and of 28 U. S. C. § 2283, which provides:

"A court of the United States may not grant aninjunction to stay proceedings in a State court exceptas expressly authorized by Act of Congress, or wherenecessary in aid of its jurisdiction, or to protect oreffectuate its judgn.ents."

See, e. g., Atlantic Coast Line R. Co. v. Engineers, 398U. S. 281, 285-286 (1970). Without regard to the ques-

YOUNGER v. HRRIS

37 Opinion of the Court

tions raised about Whitney v. California, supra, sinceoverruled by Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U. S. 444 (1969),or the constitutionality of the state law, we have con-cluded that the judgment of the District Court, enjoin-ing appellant Younger from prosecuting under theseCalifornia statutes, must be reversed as a violation ofthe national policy forbidding federal courts to stay orenjoin pending state court proceedings except under spe-cial circumstances.2. We express no* view about thecircumstances under which federal courts may act whenthere is no prosecution .pending in -state courts at thetime the federal proceeding is begun.

I

Appellee Harris has been indicted, and was actuallybeing prosecuted by California for a violation of itsCriminal Syndicalism Act at the time this suit was filed.He thus has an acute, live controversy with the Stateand its prosecutor. But none of the other parties plain-tiff in the District Court, Dan, Hirsch, or Broslawsky, hassuch a controversy. None has been indicted, arrested, oreven threatened by the prosecutor. About these threethe three-judge "court said:

"Plaintiffs Dan and Hirsch allege that they aremembers of the Progressive Labor Party,. whichadvocates change ifi industrial ownership and polit-ical change, and that they feel inhibited in advo-

2 Appellees did not explicitly ask for a declaratory judgment intheir complaint. They did, however, ask the District Court to grant"such other and -further relief as to the Court may-seem just andproper," and the District Court in fact granted a declaratoryjudgment. For the reasons stated in our opinion today in Samuelsv. Mackell, post, p. 66, we hold that declaratory relief is also im-proper when a prosecution involving the challenged statute is pendingin state court at the time ,the federal .suit is initiated.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U.-S

cating the program of their political party throughpeaceful, non-violent means, because of the presenceof the Act 'on the books,' and because of the pendingcriminal prosecution against Harris. Plaintiff Bros-lawsky is a history instructor, and he alleges that heis uncertain as to whether his normal practice ofteaching his students about the doctrines of KarlMarx and reading from the Communist Manifesto-and other revolutionary works may subject him toprosecution for violation of the Act." 281 F. Supp.,at 509.

Whatever right Harris, who is being prosecuted under thestate syndicalism law may have, Dan, Hirsch, and Bros-lawsky cannot share it with him. If these three hadalleged that they woifld be prosecuted for the conductthey planned to engage in, and if the District Court hadfound this allegation to be true-either on the admissionof the State's district attorney or on any other evidence-then a genuine controversy might be said to exist. Buthere appellees Dan, Hirsch, and Broslawsky do not claimthat they have ever been threatened with prosecution,that a prosecution is likely, or even that a prosecution isremotely possible. They claim the right to bring thissuit solely because, in the language of their complaint,they "feel inhibited." We do not think this allegation,even if true, is' sufficient to bring the eqfiitable jurisdictionof the federal courts into play to enjoin a pending stateprosecution. A federal lawsuit to stop a prosecution in astate court is a serious matter. And persons having nofears of state prosecution except those that are imaginaryor speculative, are not to be accepted as appropriate plain-tiffs in such cases. -See Golden v. Zwickler, 394 U. S.103 (1969)." Since Harris is actually being prosecutedunder the challenged laws, however, we proceed with himas a proper party.

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 Opinion of the Court

II

Since the beginning of this country's history Congresshas, subject to few exceptions, manifested a desire topermit state courts to try state cases free from inter-ference by federal courts. In 1793 an Act uncondition-ally provided: "[N]or shall a writ 6f injunction begranted to stay proceedings in any court of a state...."1 Stat. 335, c. 22, § 5. A comparison of the 1793Act with 28 U. S. C. § 2283, its present-day successor,graphically illustrates how few and minor have been theexceptions granted from the flat, prohibitory languageof the old Act. During all this lapse of years from 1793to 1970 the statutory exceptions to the 1793 congressionalenactment have been only three: (1) "except 'as ex-pressly authorized by Act of Congress"; (2) "wherenecessary in aid of its jurisdiction"; and (3) "to protector effectuate its judgments' In addition, a judicialexception to the longstanding policy evidenced by thestatute has been made where a person about to be prose-cuted in a state court can show that he will, if theproceeding in the state court is not enjoined, suffer irrep.arable damages. See Ex parte Young, 209 U. S. 123(1908).3

The precise reasons for this longstanding public policyagainst federal court interference with state court pro-ceedings have never been specifically identified .but theprimary sources of the policy are plain. One is the basicdoctrine of equity jurisprudence that courts of equityshould not act, and particularly should not act to restraina criminal prosecution, when the moving party has an-adequate remedy at law and will not suffer irreparable.

3 Foi an interesting discussion of the history of this congressionalpolicy up to 1941, see Toucey v. New York Life Ins. Co., 314 U. S.118 (1941).

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U. S.

injury if denied equitable relief. The doctrine may orig-inally have grown out of circumstances *peculiar to theEnglish judicial system and-not applicable in this country,but its fundamental purpose of-restraining equity juris-diction within narrow limits is equally important underour Constitution, in order to prevent erosion of the role ofthe jury and avoid a duplication of legal proceedings andlegal sanctions where a -single suit'would be adequate toprotect the rights asserted. This underlying reason for.restraining courts. of equity from interfering, with crim-inal prosecutions is reinforced by' an even 'more vitalconsideration, the notion of "comity," that is, a proper

.respect for state functions, a recognition of the fact, thatthe entire country is made up of a Union of separatestate governments, and a continuance of the belief thatthe National Government will fare best if the States andtheir institutions are left free to perform their separatefunctions in their separate ways. This, perhaps forlack of a better and clearer way to describe it, is referredto by many as "Our Federalism,"' and one familiar withthe profound debates that ushered our Federal Con-stitution into existence is bound to respect those whoremain loyal to the ideals and dreams of "Our Fed-eralism." -The concept does not mean blind deference to"States' Rights" any more than it means centralizationof control 'over every important issue in our NationalGovernment and its courts. The Framers rejected boththese courses. What the concept does" represent is asystem in which there is sensitivity to the legitimateinterests of both State and National Governments, andin which the National Government, anxious though itmay be to vindicate and protect federal rights and federalinterests, always endeavors to do so in ways that willnot unduly interfere with the legitimate activities of the

'States. It should never be forgotten that- this slogan,"Our Federalism," born in. the early struggling dayp of

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 Opinion of the Court

our Union of States, occupies a highly important placein our Nation's history and its future.

This brief discussion should be enough. to .suggestsome of the reasons why it has been perfectly naturalfor our cases to repeat time and time again that thenormal thing to do when federal courts are asked toenjoin pending proceedings in state courts is not to issuesuch injunctions. In Fenner v. Boykin, 271 U. S. 240(1926), suit had been" brought in the Federal DistrictCourt seeking to enjoin state prosecutions under a recentlyenacted state law that allegedly interfered with the freeflow of interstate commerce. The Coui't, in a unanimousopinion made clear that such a suit, even with respectto state criminal proceedings not yet formally instituted,could be proper only under very special circumstances:

"Ex parte Young, 209 U. S. 123, and followingcases have established the doctrine that when abso-lutely necessary for protection of constitutionalrights courts of the United States have power to en-join state officers from instituting criminal actions.But this may not be done.except under extraordinarycircumstances where the danger of irreparable lossis both great and immediate. .Ordinarily, thereshould be no interference with such officers; pri-marily, they are charged with the duty of prosecutingoffenders against the laws of the State and mustdecide when and how this is to be done. Theaccused should first set up and rely upon his defensein the state courts, even though this involves achallenge of the validity of some statute, unlessit plainly appears that this course would not affordadequate protection." Id., at 243-244.

These principles, made clear in the Fenner case, have beelirepeatedly followed and reaffirmed in other cases involv-ing threatened prosecutions. See, e. g., Spielman Motor

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U. S.

Sales Co. v. Dodge, 295 U. S. 89 (1935); Beal v. MissouriPac. R. Co., 312 U. S. 45 (1941); Watson v. Buck, 313U. S. 387 (1941); Williams v. Miller, 317 U. S. 599(1942); Douglas v. City of Jeannette, 319 U. S. 157(1943).

In all of these cases the Court stressed the importanceof showing irreparable injury, the traditional prerequisiteto obtaining an injunction. In addition, however, theCourt also made clear that in view of the fundamentalpolicy against federal interference with state criminalprosecutions, even irreparable injury is insufficient un-less it is "both great and immediate." Fenner, supra.Certain types of injury, in particular, the cost, anxiety,and inconvenience of having to defend against a singlecriminal prosecution, could not by themselves be con-sidered "irreparable" in the special legal sense of thatterm. Instead, the threat to the plaintiff's federallyprotected rights must be one that cannot be eliminatedby his defense against a single criminal prosecution. See,e. g., Ex parte Young, supra, at 145-147. Thus, in theBuck case, supra, at 400, we stressed:

"Federal injunctions against state criminal stat-utes, either in their entirety or with respect to theirseparate and distinct prohibitions, are not to begranted as a matter of course, even if such statutesare unconstitutional. 'No citizen or member of thecommunity is immune from prosecution, in goodfaith, for his alleged criminal acts. The imminenceof such a prosecution even though alleged to beunauthorized and hence unlawful is not alone groundfor relief in equity which, exerts its extraordinarypowers only to prevent irreparable injury to theplaintiff who seeks its aid.' Beal v. Missouri PacificRailroad Corp., 312 U. S. 45, 49."

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 Opinion of the Court

And similarly, in Douglas, supra,, we made clea, afterreaffirming this rule, that:

"It does not appear from the record that petitioners.have been threatened with any injury other thanthat incidental to every criminal proceeding broughtlawfully and in good faith ... ." 319 U. S., at 164.

This is where the law stood when the Court decidedDombrowski v. Pfister, 380 U. S. 479 (1965), and heldthat an injunction against the enforcement of -certainstate criminal statutes could properly issue under thecircumstances presented in that case.4 , In Dombrowski,

. 4 Neither the cases dealing with standing to raise claims of vague-ness or overbreadth, e. g., Thornhill v. Alabama, 310 U. S. 88 (1940),nor the loyalty oath cases'. e. g., Baggett v. Bullitt, 377 U. S. 360(1964), changed the basic principles governing the propriety ofinjunctions against state criminal prosecutions. In the standingcases we allowed attacks on overly broad or vague statutes in theabsence of any showing that the defendant's conduct could not beregulated by some properly drawn statute. But -in each of thesecases the statute was not merely vague or overly broad "on itsface"; the statute was held to be vague or overly broad as construedand applied to a particular defendant in a particular case. If thestatute had been too vague as written but suffi.ciently narrow as ap-plied, prosecutions and convictions under it .would ordinarily havebeen permissible. See Dombrowski, supra, at 491, n. 7.

In Baggett and similar cases we enjoined state officials fromdischarging employees who failed to take certain loyalty oaths. Weheld that the States were without power to exact the promisesinvolved, with their vague and uncertaincontent concerning advocacyand political association, as a condition of employment. Apart fromthe fact that any plaintiff discharged for exercising his constitu-tional right to refuse to take the oath would have had no adequateremedy at law, the relief sought was of course the kind that raisesno special problem-an injunction against allegedly unconstitutionalstate action (discharging the employees) that is not part of a crim-inal prosecution.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U. S.

unlike many of the earlier cases denying injunctions, thecomplaint made substantial allegations that:

"the threats to enforce the statutes against appel-lants are not made with any expectation of securingvalid convictions, but rather are part of a plan toemploy arrests, seizures, and threats of prosecutionunder color of the statutes to harass appellants anddiscourage them and their supporters from assertingand attempting to vindicate the constitutional rightsof Negro citizens of Louisiana." 380 U. S., at 482.

The appellants in Dombrowski had offered to prove thattheir offices had been raided and all their files and recordsseized pursuant to search and arrest warrants that werelater summarily vacated by a state judge for lack of prob-able cause. They also offered to prove that despite thestate court order quashing the warrants and suppressingthe evidence seized, the prosecutor was continuing tothreaten to initiate new prosecutions of appellants underthe same statutes, was holding public hearings at whichphotostatic copies of the illegally seized documents werebeing used, and was threatening to use other copies ofthe illegally seized documents to obtain grand jury in-dictments against the appellants on charges of violatingthe same statutes. These circumstances, as viewed bythe Court sufficiently establish the kind of irreparableinjury, above and beyond that associated with the defenseof a single prosecution brought in good faith, that hadalways been considered sufficient to justify federal in-tervention. See, e. g., Beal, supra, at 50. Indeed,after quoting the Court's statement in Douglas concern-ing the very restricted circumstances under which aninjunction could be justified, the Court in Dombrowskiwent on to say:

"But the allegations in this complaint depict asituation in which defense of the State's criminal

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 Opinion of the Court

prosecution will not assure adequate vindication ofconstitutional rights. They suggest that a substan-tial loss of or impairment of freedoms of expressionwill occur if appellants must await the state court'sdisposition and ultimate review in this Court of anyadverse determination. These allegations, if true,clearly show irreparable injury." 380 U. S., at 485-486.

And the Court made clear that even under these circum-stances the District Court issuing the injunction would

- have continuing power to lift it at any time and remitthe plaintiffs to the state courts if circumstances war-ranted. 380 U. S., at 491, 492. Similarly, in Cameronv. Johnson, 390 U. S. 611 (1968), a divided Court deniedan injunction after finding that the record did not estab-lish the necessary bad faith and harassment; the dissent-ing Justices themselves stressed the very limited role tobe allowed for federal injunctions against state criminalprosecutions and differed with the Court only on thequestion whether the particular facts of that case weresufficient to show that the prosecution was brought inbad faith.

It is against the background of these principles that wemust judge the propriety of an injunction under the cir-cumstances of the present case. Here a proceeding wasalready pending in the state court, affording Harris anopportunity to raise his constitutional claims. Thereis no suggestion that this single prosecution againstHarris is brought in bad faith or is only one of a seriesof repeated prosecutions to which he will be subjected.In other words, the injury that Harris faces is solely"that incidental to every criminal proceeding broughtlawfully and in good faith," Douglas, supra, and there-fore under the settled doctrine we have already describedhe is not entitled to equitable relief "even if such statutesare unconstitutional," Buck, supra.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U. S.

The District Court, however, thought that the Dom-browski decision substantially broadened the availabilityof injunctions against state criminal prosecutions and thatunder that decision the federal courts may give equitablerelief, without regard to any showing of bad faith orharassment, whenever a state statute is found "on itsface" to be vague or overly broad, in violation of the FirstAmendment. We recognize that there are some state-ments in the Dombrowski opinion that would seem tosupport this argument. But, as we have already seen,such statements were unnecessary to the decision ofthat case, because the Court found that the plaintiffs hadalleged a basis for equitable relief under the long-estab-lished standards. In addition, we do not regard the rea-sons adduced to support this position as sufficient to jus-tify such a substantial departure from the establisheddoctrines regarding the availability of injunctive relief.It is undoubtedly true, as the Court stated in Dombrow-ski, that "[a] criminal prosecution under a statute regu-lating expression usually involves imponderables andcontingencies that themselves may inhibit the full exer-cise of First Amendment freedoms." 380 U. S., at 486.But this sort of "chilling effect," as the Court called it,should not by itself justify federal intervention. In thefirst place, the chilling effect cannot be satisfactorilyeliminated by federal injunctive relief. In Dombrowskiitself the Court stated that the injunction to be issuedthere could be lifted if the State obtained an "acceptablelimiting construction" from the state courts. The Courtthen made clear that once this was done, prosecutionscould then be brought for conduct occurring before thenarrowing construction was made, and proper convictionscould stand so long as the defendants were not deprivedof fair warning. 380 U. S., at 491 n. 7. The kind ofrelief granted in Dombrowski thus does not effectivelyeliminate uncertainty as to the coverage of the state

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 Opinion of the Court

statute and leaves most citizens with virtually the samedoubts as before regarding the danger that their conductmight eventually be subjected to criminal sanctions.The chilling effect can, of course, be eliminated by aninjunction that would prohibit any prosecution whateverfor conduct occurring prior to a satisfactory rewriting ofthe statute. But the States would then be stripped ofall power to prosecute even the socially dangerous andconstitutionally unprotected conduct that had been cov-ered by the statute, until a new statute could b6 passedby the state legislature and ipproved by the federalcourts in potentially lengthy trial andappellate proceed-ings. Thus, in Dombrowski itself the Court carefullyreaffirmeA the principle that even in the direct prosecu-tion in the State's own courts, a valid narrowing con-struction can be applied to conduct occurring prior tothe date when the narrowing construction was made, inthe absence of fair warning problems.

Moreover, the existence of a "chilling effect," even inthe area of First Amendment rights, has never beenconsidered a sufficient basis, in and of itself, for pro-hibiting state action. Where a statute does not directlyabridge free speech, but--while regulating -a subjectwithin the State's power-tends to have the incidentaleffect of inhibiting First Amendment rights, it is wellsettled that the statute can be upheld if the effect onspeech is minor in relation to the need for control ofthe conduct and the lack of alternative means for doingso. Schneider v. State, 308 U. S. 147 (1939); Cantwellv. Connecticut, 310 U. S. 296 (1940); Mine Workers v.Illinois Bar Assn., 389 U. S. 217 (1967). Just as theincidental "chilling effect" of such statutes does not auto-matically render them unconstitutional, so the chillingeffect that admittedly can result from the very existenceof certain laws on the statute books does not in itselfjustify prohibiting the State from carrying out the in-"

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

Opinion of the Court 401 U. S.

portant and necessary task of enforcing these laws againstsocially harmful conduct that the State believes ingood faith to be punishable under its laws and theConstitution.

Beyond all this is another, more basic consideration.Procedures for testing the constitutionality of a statute"on its face" in the manner apparently contemplated byDombrowski, and for then enjoining all action to enforcethe statute until the State can obtain court approvalfor a modified version, are fundamentally at odds withthe function of the federal courts in our constitutionalplan. The power and duty of the judiciary to declarelaws unconstitutional is in the final analysis derived fromits responsibility for resolving concrete disputes broughtbefore the courts for decision; a statute apparentlygoverning a dispute cannot be applied by judges, con-sistently with their obligations under the SupremacyClause, when such an application of the statute wouldconflict with the Constitution. Marbury v. Madison,1 Cranch 137 (1803). But this vital responsibility, broadas it is, does not amount to an unlimited power to surveythe statute books and pass judgment on laws beforethe courts are called upon to enforce them. Ever sincethe Constitutional Convention rejected a proposal forhaving members of the Supreme Court render adviceconcerning pending legislation 5 it has been clear that,even when suits of this kind involve a "case or contro-versy" sufficient to satisfy the requirements of Article IIIof the Constitution, the task of analyzing a proposedstatute, pinpointing its deficiencies, and requiring cor-rection of these deficiencies before the statute is put intoeffect, is rarely if ever an appropriate task for the judi-

SSee 1 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, p. 21 (Far-rand ed. 1911).

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 Opinion of the Court

ciary. The combination of the relative remoteness ofthe controversy, the impact on the legislative processof the relief sought, and above all the speculative andamorphous nature of the required line-by-line analysisof detailed statutes, see. e. g., Landry v. Daley, 280 'F.Supp. 938 (ND Ill. 1968), rev'd sub nom. Boyle v.Landry, post, p. 77, ordinarily results in a kind- of casethat is wholly unsatisfactory for deciding -constitutionalquestions, whichever way they might be decided. Inlight of this fundamental conception of the Framersas to the proper'place of the federal courts in the govern-mental processes of passing and enforcing laws, it canseldom be appropriate for these courts to exercise anysuch power of prior approval or veto over the legislativeprocess.

For these reasons, fundamental not only to our federalsystem but also to the basic functions of the JudicialBranch of~the National Government under our Constitu-tion, we hold that, the Dombrowski decision should notbe regarded as having upset the settled doctrines thathave always confined very narrowly the availability ofinjunctive relief against state criminal prosecutions. Wedo not think that opinion stands for the propositionthat a federal court ca:n properly enjoin .enforcementof a statute solely on the basis of a showing that thestatute "on its face" abridges First Amendment rights.There may, of course, be extraordinary circumstances inwhich the necessary irreparable injury can be shown evenin the-absence of the usual prerequisites of' bad faithand harassment. For example, as long ago as the Buckcase, supra, we indicated:

"It is of course conceivable that a statute mightbe flagrantly and patently violative of express con-stitutional prohibitions in every clause, sentence andparagraph, and in whatever manner and against

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

S'mwART, J., concurring 401 U.S.

whomever an effort might be made to apply it."313 U. S., at 402.

Other unusual situations calling for federal interventionmight also arise, but there is n6 point in our attemptingnow to specify what they might be.. It is sufficient forpurposes of the present case to hold, as we do, thatthe possible unconstitutionality of a statute "on its face"does not in itself justify an injunction against good-faith attempts to enforce it, and -that appellee Harrishas failed to make any showing of bad faith, harassment,or any other unusual circumstance that would call forequitable relief. Because our holding rests on the ab-sence of the factors necessary under equitable principlesto justify federal intervention, we have no occasion toconsider whether 28 U. S. C. § 2283, which prohibitsan injunction against state'court proceedings "except asexpressly authorized by Act of Congress" would in andof itself be controlling under the circumstances of thiscase.

The judgment of the District Court is reversed, andthe case is remanded for further proceedings not incon-sisteni with this opinion.

Reversed.

MR. JUSTIcE STEWART, with whom MR. JUsTICE HARLTjoins, concurring.*

The questions the Court decides today are importantones. Perhaps as important, however, is a recognitionof the areas into which today's holdings do not neces-sarily extend. In all of these cases, the Court deals only

*[This opinion applies also to No. 7, Samuels et al. v. Mackell et

al., and No. 9, Fernandez v. Mackell et al., post, p. 66; No. 41,Dyson et al. v. Stein, post, p. 200; and No. 83, Byrne et al. v. Kara-lexis et al., post, p. 216.]

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 STEWART, J., concurring

with the proper policy to be followed by a federal courtwhen asked to intervene by injunction or, declaratoryjudgment in a criminal prosecution which is contempo-raneously pending in a state court.

In basing its decisions on policy grounds, the Courtdoes not reach any questions concerning the independentforce of the federal anti-injunction statute, 28 U. S. C.§ 2283. Thus we do not decide whether the word "in-junction" in § 2283 should be interpreted to include adeclaratory judgment, or whether an injunction to stayproceedings in a state court is "expressly authorized" by§ 1 of the Civil Rights Act of 1871, now 42 U. S. C.§ 1983.1 And since all these cases involve state criminalprosecutions, we do not deal with the considerations thatshould govern a federal court when it is asked to intervenein state civil proceedings, -here, for various reasons,, thebalance might be struck differently.2 Finally, the Courttoday does. not resolve the problems involved when afederal court is asked to give injunctive or declaratoryrelief from future state criminal prosecutions,

'See also Cameron v. Johnson, 390 U. S. 611, 613-614, n:3; Dom-browski v. Pfister, 380 U. S. 479, 484 n. 2.

2 Courts of equity have traditionally shown greater reluctance tointervene in criminal prosecutions than in civil cases. See ante, at43-44; Douglas v. City of Jeannette, 319 U. S. 157, 163-164. Theoffense to state interests is likely to be less in a civil proceeding. AState's decision to classify conduct as criminal provides some indica-cation of the importance it 'has ascribed to prompt and unencum-bered enforcement of its law. By contrast, the State might not evenbe a party in a proceeding under a civil statute.

Cf. Law- Students 'Civil Rights Research Qouncil v. Wadmond,post, p. 154; Wisconsin v. Constantineau, 400 U. S. 433; Rosado v.Wyman, 397 U. S. 397.

These considerations would not, to -be sure, support any distinctionbetween civil and criminal proceedings should the ban of 28 U. S. C.§ 2283, which makes no such distinction, be held unaffected by 42U. S. C. § 1983.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

BRENNANo J, concurring in result 401 U. S.

The Court confines itself to deciding the policy con-siderations that in our federal system must prevail whenfederal courts are asked to interifere with pending stateprosecutions. Within this area, we hold that a federalcourt must not, save in exceptional and extremely limitedcircumstances, intervene by way of either injunction ordeclaration in an existing state criminal prosecution.'Such circumstances exist only when there is a threat ofirreparable injury "both great and immediate." A threatof this nature might be shown if the state criminal stat-ute in question were patently and flagrantly unconsti-tutional on its face, ante, at 53-54; cf. Evers v. Dwyer, 358U. S. 202, or if there 'has been bad faith and harass-ment-official lawlessness--in a statute's enforcement,ante, at 47-49. In such circumstances the reasons ofpolicy for deferring to state adjudication are outweighedby the injury flowing from the very bringing of the stateproceedings, by the perversion of the very process thatis supposed to provide vindication, and by the need forspeedy'and effective action to protect federal rights. Cf.Georgia v. Rachel, 384 U. S. 780.

MR. JusTICE BRENNAN, with whom MR. JUSTICEWHiTE and MR. JusTiCE MARSHALL join, concurring inthe result.

I agree that the judgment of the District Court shouldbe reversed. Appellee Harris had been indicted for viola-tions of the California Criminal Syndicalism Act beforehe sued in federal court. He has not alleged that theprosecution was brought in bad faith to harass him.His constitutional contentions may be adequately adjudi-

3 The negative pregnant in this sentence-that a federal court may,as a matter of policy, intervene when such "exceptional and extremelylimited circumstances" are found-is subject to any further limita-tions that may be placed on such intervention by 28 U. S. C. § 2283.

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 BRENNAN, J., concurring in result

cated in the state criminal proceeding, and federal inter-vention at his instance was therefore improper.*

Appellees Hirsch and Dan have alleged that they "feelinhibited" by the statute and the prosecution of Harrisfrom advocating the program of the Progressive LaborParty. Appellee Broslawsky has alleged that he "is un-certain" whether as an instructor in college history hecan under the statute give instruction relating to theCommunist Manifesto and similar revolutionary works.None of these appellees has stated any ground for a rea-sonable expectation that he will actually be prosecutedunder the statute for taking the actions contemplated.The court below expressly declined to rely on any finding"that ...Dan, Hirsch or Broslawsky stand[s] in anydanger of prosecution by the [State], because of theactivities that they ascribed to themselves in the com-

*The District Court erroneously interpreted Zwickler v. Koota,389 U. S. 241" (1967), as authorizing federal court consideration of aconstitutional claim at issue in a pending state proceeding, whether ornot the federal court plaintiff had presented his claim to the statecourt. It suffices here to note that in Zwickler no state proceedingwas pending "at the time jurisdiction attached in the federal court.The court below also thought it significant that appellee Harris hadraised his constitutional claim in the state courts in a motion to dis-miss the indictment and in petitions in the state appellate courts fora writ of prohibition. It was questioned at oral argument whetherconstitutional issues could properly be raised by the procedures in-voked by Harris, and it was sujg6tet4l that-A 'denial of Harris'motions did not necessarily involve rejection of his constitutiiAlclais, Hqweyfer, qyjn ifthe California ewuts hKd at-hat Anter-locutory -stage rejected HarrW>constitutional 'argnnpnts, haij.re-jectin would npt have provided -ustification for i terening by$tle Distint Cotlrt. Arso aye sough direct review of that~ejecif dif his1 ifitibaffoa ~44fi ~l~'n~~claims in requ s& for imfriicti6, anh 6idir ' aii:V°.oh-victio. in, the st.ae cpurts;andjn thi4.,o'i-, Thesge,-we iEeipropermodes for presentation and these the proper forums for-considerationof, the constitutiona issues' , , j lll -, "

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

DoVGLAs, J., dissenting 401 U. S.

plaint .... ." 281 F. Supp. 507, 516. It is true, as thecourt below pointed out, that "[w] ell-intentioned prose-cutors and judicial safeguards do hot neutralize the viceof a vague law," Baggett v. Bullitt, 377 U. S. 360, 373(1964), but still there must be a live controversy underArt. III. No threats of prosecution of these appelleesare alleged. Although Dan and Hirsch have alleged thatthey desire to advocate doctrines of the Progressive LaborParty, they have not asserted that their advocacy will beof the same genre as that which brought on the prosecu-tion of Harris. In short, there- is no reason to think thatCalifornia has any ripe controversy with them. SeeGolden v. Zwickler, 394 U. S. 103 (1969); Perez v.Ledesma, post, p. 93 (BRENNAN, J., concurring anddissenting).

MR. JusTIcE DOUGLAS, dissenting.*The fact that we are in a period of history when

enormous extrajudicial sanctions are imposed on thosewho assert their First Amendment rights in unpopularcauses emphasizes the wisdom of Dombrowski v. Pfister,380 U. S. 479. There we recognized that in times of re-pression, when interests with powerful spokesmen gener-ate symbolic pogroms against nonconformists, the federaljudiciary, charged by Congress with special vigilance forprotection of civil rights, has .special responsibilities toprevent an ,,erosion of the individual's constitutional'rights. N: "

Dombrowski represents ;a ii exception to the generalrule :that' federal ioult1should not 'interfere with state

I-rhinal pros&eutniohs. The excption does not arise

merely becausesprosecuons are threatened to which thejFirst, Amendmen: will be the proffered defense. Dom-browski governs: statutes, which -are' a blunderbuss by

*[This opinion also applies to No. 4, Bofyle, Judg8, et al. v. Landryet al., post, p. 77.]

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 DouGLAs, J., dissenting

themselves or when used en masse-those that have an"overbroad" sweep. "If the rule were otherwise, thecontours of regulation would have to be hammered outcase by case-and tested only by those hardy enoughto risk criminal prosecution to determine the proper scopeof regulation." Id., at 487. It was in the context ofoverbroad state statutes that we spoke of the "chillingeffect upon the exercise of First Amendment rights"caused by state prosecutions. Ibid.

As respects overbroad statutes we said at least as earlyas 1940 that when dealing with First Amendment rightswe would insist on statutes "narrowly drawn to preventthe supposed evil." Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U. S.296, 307.

The special circumstances when federal intervention ina state criminal proceeding is permissible are not re-stricted to bad faith on the part of state officials or thethreat of multiple prosecutions. They also exist wherefor any reason the state statute being enforced is uncon-stitutional on its face. As Mr. Justice Butler, writingfor the Court, said in Terrace v. Thompson, 263 U. S.197, 214:

"Equity jurisdiction will be exercised to enjointhe threatened enforcement of a state law whichcontravenes the Federal* Constitution wherever it isessential in order effectually to protect propertyrights and the rights of persons against injuriesotherwise irremediable; and in such a case a person,who as an officer of the State is clothed with theduty of enforcing its laws and who threatens and isabout to conunence proceedings, either civil orcriminal, to enforce such a law against parties af-fected, may be enjoined from such action by a fed-eral court of equity."

Our Dombrowski decision was only another facet ofthe same problem.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

DoUGLAs, J., dissenting 401 U. S.

In Younger, "criminal syndicalism" is defined sobroadly as to jeopardize "teaching" that socialism is

preferable to free enterprise.Harris' "crime" was distributing leaflets advocating

change in industrial ownership through political action.The statute under which he was indicted was the oneinvolved in Whitney v. California, 274 U. S. 357, a de-cision we overruled in Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U. S. 444,449 1

If the "advocacy" which Harris used was an attemptat persuasion through the use of bullets, bombs, andarson, we would have a different case. But Harris ischarged only with distributing leaflets advocating po-litical action toward his objective. He tried unsuccess-fully to have the state court dismiss the indictment onconstitutional grounds. He resorted to the state ap-pellate court for writs of prohibition to prevent the trial,but to no avail. He went to the federal court as amatter of last resort in an effort to keep this unconsti-tutional thal from being saddled on him.

The "anti-injunction" statute, 28 U. S. C. § 2283,2 isnot a bar to a federal injunction under these circum-stances. That statute was adopted in 1793, § 5, 1 Stat.335,3 and reflected the early view of the proper role of thefederal courts within American.federalism.

LSec Linde, "Clear and Present Danger" Reexamined: Dissonancein the Brandenburg Concerto, 22 Stan. L-Rev. 1163 (1970).

2 "A court of the United States may not grant an injunction to stay

proceedings in a State court except as expressly authorized by Actof Congress, or where necessary in aid of its jurisdiction, or to pro-tect or effectuate its judgments." (Emphasis added.)

3 In its initial form the "anti-injunction" Act provided: "[N]or shalla writ of injunction be granted [by any court of the United States]to stay proceedings in any court of a state." There were no excep-tions. In 1874 it was subsequently modified oy an insertion of the

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 DouGLAs, J., dissenting

Whatever the balance of the pressures of localism andnationalism prior to the Civil War, they were funda-mentally altered by the war. The Civil War Amend-ments made civil rights a national concern. ThoseAmendments, especially § 5 of the Fourteenth Amend-ment, cemented the change in American federalismbrought on by the war. Congress immediately com-menced to use its new powers to pass legislation. Justas the first Judiciary Act, 1 Stat. 73, and the "anti-injunc-tion" statute represented the early views of Americanfederalism, the Reconstruction statutes, including theenlargement of federal jurisdiction,' represent a later viewof American federalism.

One of the jurisdiction-enlarging statutes passed dur-ing Reconstruction was the Act of April 20, 1871. 17

Revisers to read: "The writ of injunction shall not be granted by anycourt of the United States to stay proceedings in any court of a State,except in cases where such injunction may be authorized by anylaw relating to proceedings in bankruptcy." Rev. Stat. § 720.

In Toucey v. New York Life Ins. Co., 314 U. S. 118, 133-134,in discussing the statutory exceptions to the "anti-injunction" Actwe noted that, while only bankruptcy was the explicit exception,there were others. (1) The "Removal Acts qualify pro tanto theAct of 1793." (2) The Act, of 1851 limiting shipowners' liability"[b]eing a 'subsequent statute' to the Act of 1793 . . .operates asan implied legislative amendment to it." We also added (3) the In-terpleader Act of 1926 and (4) the Frazier-Lcmke-Act_7 Stat. 1473.Toucey limited a line of cases dealing with nonstatutory exceptionsto the "anti-injunction" Act. Shortly thereafter the current lan-guage of § 2283 was written into the. Judicial Code. The Reviser'sNote states: "[T]he revised section restores the basic law as generallyunderstood and interpreted prior to the Toucey decision." Bothpre-Toucey and post-Toucey decisions recognize implied legislativeexceptions to the "anti-injunction" Act. See Porter v. Dicken, 328U. S. 252; Leiter Minerals v. United States, 352 U. S. 220.4 What is now 28 U. S. C. § 1343 (3) was added in 1871, 17 Stat.

13, and the federal-question jurisdiction of 28 U. S. C. § 1331 wasadded in 1875. 18 Stat. 470.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

DOUGLAS, J., dissenting 401 U. S.

Stat. 13. Beyond its jurisdictional provision that statute,now codified as 42 U. S. C. § 1983, provides:

"Every person who, under color of any statute,ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage, of any Stateor Territory, subjects, or causes to be subjected, anycitizen of the United States or other person withinthe jurisdiction thereof to the deprivation of anyrights, privileges, or immunities secured by the Con-stitution and laws, shall be liable to the party in-jured in an action at law, suit in equity, or otherproper proceeding for redress." (Emphasis added.)

A state law enforcement officer is someone acting under"color of law" even though he may be misusing hisauthority. Monroe v. Pape, 365 U. S. 167. And prose-cution under a patently unconstitutional statute is a"deprivation of . . . rights, privileges, or immunitiessecured by the Constitution." "Suit[s] in equity" obvi-ously includes injunctions.-

I hold to the view that § 1983 is included in the "ex-pressly authorized" exception to § 2283,6 a point notraised or considered in the much-discussed Douglas v.City of Jeanwnette, 319 U. S. 157. There is no more goodreason for allowing a general statute dealing with fed-eralism passed at the end of the 18th century to controlanother statute also dealing with federalism, passedalmcst 80 y-ars later, than to conclude that the earlyconcepts of federalism were not changed by the CivilWar.

5 We have already held that § 1983 require.- no exhaustion of stateremedies. McNeese v. Board of Education, 373 U. S. 668.

, In accord with the view are Honey v. Goodman, 432 F. 2d 333

(CA6), and Cooper v. Hutchinson, 184 F. 2d 119 (CA3). Opposedare Goss v. Illinois, 312 F. 2d 257 (CA 7), and Baines v. City ofDanville, 337 F. 2d 579 (CA4).

And see Maraist, Federal Injunctive Relief Against State CourtProceedings: The Significance of Dombrowski, 48 T6x. I.. Rev. 535,591 et seq. (1970).

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 DOUGAS, J., dissenting

That was the view of Judge Will in the Boyle case,Landry v. Daley, 288 F. Supp. 200, 223. In speaking ofthe Civil War Amendrnents as "a constitutional revolu-tion in the nature of American federalism" he said:

"This revolution, in turn, represents a historicaljudgment. It emphasizes the overwhelming concernof the Reconstruction Congresses for the protectionof the newly won rights of freedmen. By inter-posing the federal government between the statesand their inhabitants, these Congfesses sought toavoid the risk of nullification of these rights by thestates. With the subsequent passage of the Act of1871, Congress sought to implement this plan byexpanding the federal judicial power. Section 1983is, thei efore, not only an expression of the importanceof protecting federal rights from infringement bythe states but also, where necessary, the desire toplace the national government between the state andits citizens." Ibid.

In Boyle the statute makes "intimidation" to "commitany criminal offense" an offense. The three-judge courtsaid:

"It . . . makes criminal threats such as the follow-ing: (1) threats by dissentient groups to engagein disorderly conduct, threats by residents of ahigh-crime neighborhood to carry concealed weaponsfor their own protection, and threats by mothers toblock a dangerous state highway to demonstrate theneed for increased safety measures. Indeed, thephrase 'commit any criminal offense' is so broad as

'''to include threats to commit misdemeanors punish-•'ble by fine' only. These evils are not so substantialthat the statems iterest in prohibiting the threat ofthem outweighs the publid interest in giving legiti-mate political discussion a wide berth." Landi-y v.Daley, 280 F. Supp. 938, 964.

OCTOBER TERM, 1970

DOUGLAS, J., dissenting 401 U. S.

Landry and others brought a class action challengingthe constitutional validity of five sections of the Illinoisstatutes. They alleged arrests under all but two of thechallenged sections. Just before trial they abandonedtheir challenge of two of the five sections. The DistrictCourt held one of the remaining sections constitutionaland the "mob action" and "intimidation" sections uncon-stitutional. Appellants have not appealed the deter-mination that the "mob action" section of the Illinoisstlatutes is unconstitutional.

The Court dismisses this case because there is noshowing of irreparable injury on what it describes as"flimsy allegations." Post, at 81. The Court states:"There is nothing contained in the allegations of thecomplaint from which one could infer that any one ormore of the citizens who brought this suit is in anyjeopardy of suffering irreparable injury if the Stateis left free to prosecute under the intimidation statutein the normal manner." Ibid. Landry and his asso-ciates, however, allege that appellants are using theintimidation section along with several other sectionsto harass them, not to prosecute them in the normalmanner. They allege that appellants are arresting themwithout warrants or probable cause, and detaining themon excessive bail. They allege that the arrests are madeduring peaceful demonstrations and without any expecta-tion of securing valid convictions. In sum, Landry andhis group allege that the "intimidation" section is oneof several statutes which appellants are using en masdeas part of a plan to harass them and discourage theirexercise of their First Amendment rights. There is thusa lively and existing case or controversy ,concerningFirst Amendment rights. And I beJlieve that the fed-eral court acted in'or finest tradition when i issuedthe stay. , . J 2

k-* J

YOUNGER v. HARRIS

37 DOUGLAS, J., dissenting

As the stafidards of certainty in statutes containingcriminal sanctions are higher than those in statutes con-taining civil sanctions, so are the standards of certaintytouching on freedom of expression higher than those inother areas. Winters v. New York, 333 U. S. 507, 515-516. "There must be ascertainable standards of guilt.Men of common intelligence cannot be required to guessat the meaning of the enactment. The vagueness maybe from uncertainty in regard to persons within the scopeof the act . . . or in regard to the applicable tests toascertain guilt."

Where freedom of expression is at stake these require-ments must be more sedulously enforced.

In Younger there is a prosecution under an unconsti-tutional statute and relief is denied. In Boyle there isharassment but as yet no prosecution. Allegations ofa prosecution or harassment under facially unconstitu-tional statutes should be sufficient for the exercise offederal equity powers.

Dombrowski and 42 U. S. C. § 1983 indicate why ihBoyle federal intervention against enforcement of thestate laws is appropriate. The case of Younger is evenstronger. There the state statute challenged is the proto-type of the one we held unconstitutional in Brandenburgv. Ohio, supra.

The eternal temptation, of course, has been to arrestthe speaker rather than to correct the conditions aboutwhich he complains. I see no reason why these ap-pellees should be made to walk the treacherous groundof these statutes. They, like other citizens, need theumbrella of the First Amendment as they study,analyze, discuss, and debate the troubles of these days.When criminal prosecutions can be leveled against thembecause they express unpopular views, the society of thedialogue is in danger.