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Yes, You Can: Appropriately Assess and Intervene at the Early

Elementary Level

Barb Cirigliano

in-demand events innovative publishing inspired professional development www.solution-tree.com

Yes, You Can: Appropriately Assess and Intervene

at the Early Elementary Level

Barb Cirigliano [email protected]

Kildeer Countryside School District 96 Buffalo Grove, Illinois


The Key Story


Session Outcomes

Understand how assessments drive instruction and interventions in an early elementary setting.

  Build a balanced and coherent system of assessment.

  Understand how data teams analyze data.

  Develop guidelines for interventions.

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PLC Essential Questions

  What do we want students to know and be able to do?

  How will we know if they can?   What will we do if they can’t?   What will we do if they already can?

(DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010, p. 119)


Critical Conversations

“What knowledge and skills do this year’s students need so they will enter the next grade with confidence and a readiness for success?”

—Ainsworth, 2003


Deciding What to Teach Within Time Allotted

“Given the limited time you have with your students, curriculum design has become more and more an issue of deciding what you won’t teach as well as what you will teach. You cannot do it all. As a designer, you must choose the essential.”

—Heidi Hayes Jacobs, quoted in Ainsworth, 2003

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Why Power Standards?

Power standards:   Are what students spend the majority

of instructional time doing.

  Are what students are assessed on.

  Drive discussions about instruction based on student data.

  Help identify which students receive interventions.


Power standards are paced by grading period.

Learning targets within each standard are identified and listed in the quarter they are taught and assessed.

Assessments are developed by learning target.

Power Standards and Pacing


Literature

1.a. With prompting and support, ask and answer questions about key details in a text.

1.b. With prompting and support, ask questions about key details in a text.

1.c. With prompting and support, answer questions about key details in a text.

Kindergarten Literacy Power Standards and Targets

Handout


Unpacking Example Common Core Standard 2: Determine a theme or central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details; provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments.

Target Instruction Assessment

Determine a theme or central idea of a text and how it is conveyed through particular details. Explicit target

Direct instruction, modeling, and group work.

Selected response– multiple choice; short constructed response

Provide a summary of the text distinct from personal opinions or judgments. Explicit target

Direct instruction, modeling, and opinions-versus- judgments lesson.

Short constructed response; write a summary

Define the concept of the theme or central idea. Implicit target

Direct instruction followed by group practice.

Selected response; multiple choice

Identify the steps for writing a quality summary. Implicit target

Direct instruction followed by individual and group practice.

Selected response; identify steps; short constructed response; identify and give example of each step


4.0 - Extends 3.0 - Meets 2.0 - Below Resources

Target #1aSummarize or paraphrase

events from text, referring to explicit text.

Answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text referring

explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers.

Answer questions to demonstrate understanding

of a text when given options

Assessment Strategies -Items short response selected response

Target #5a

Using knowledge of a character, explain what action the character may have taken to cause a given hypothetical

event.

Explain how characters’ actions contribute to the sequence of events

Given the character's actions identify the event that happens as a result.

Assessment Strategies -Items

Target #6a

What would happen if an author were to write a different story?

(what might it be about?) OR

Take a position on the author's style. (This author creates

characters that are _________. Do you agree or disagree, why? Use

text to support.)

Compare and contrast the themes, settings, and plots of stories written by

the same author about the same or similar characters

Identify similarities and differences in themes,

settings, or plots of stories written by the same author

or about the same or similar characters.

Assessment Strategies -Items story map, short response

short response (name a way the settings are similar or different, name a way the problem is

similar or different, etc.)

selected response (How are the settings in these stories similar?

Choice a,b,c,d)


Target #7aDraw conclusions/inferences from the text, referring explicitly to text to support ideas.

Answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text referring

explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers.

Identify answer to questions to demonstrate understanding of a text,

when given choices.


extended written response OR oral retelling short response selected response

(multiple choice)

Target #8a Use key details from the text to support the main idea Recount the key details of a text Identify key details from

text Assessment

Strategies -Itemsgraphic organizer (main idea-details-why) selected response

Target #9aCreate a new sentence using knowledge of meaning of a word.

Determine the meaning of general and academic domain/specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 3

topic or subject area

Identify meaning of general and academic

domain/specific words and phrases in a text relevant

to a grade 3 topic or subject area.


written definition and utilize in a meaningful sentence short response matching definition and

word close statement

4.0 - Extends 3.0 - Meets 2.0 - Below ResourcesTarget #16a

Based on 4.0 comprehension questions

Read on-level text with purpose and understanding.

Based on 2.0 comprehension questions


Target #17a

N/ARead on-level prose or poetry orally with accuracy, appropriate rate, and

expressionUse Charts



Target #18a

Explain which words or sentences help determine the meaning of the word, OR Identify Complex Context Clues,

Use sentence-level context as a clue to the meaning of a word or phrase

Using context clues select from a list the synonym of

a word or phrase


Graphic organizer (Definition, Antonym, Synonym, Inference)

Determine the missing word using context clues, using cloze passage

selected response

Target #21a

Produce compound and complex sentences



Target #22a Spells words correctly on Weekly Spelling Test.

Assessment Strategies -

Items

Page 2 of 2

3rd Grade Literacy Pacing Guide - T3Page 2 of 2 Assessment Schedule: May 21-25

Language

Spelling - Scaling needs to be completed

3rd Grade Literacy Pacing Guide - T3May 21-25

Literature

Informational Text

Page 1 of 2 Assessment Schedule:

Page 1 of 2

Foundational Skills - Fluency

Handout





  How will we know if they can?   What will we do if they can’t?   What will we do if they already can?

(DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010, p. 119)


How do your school or district teams currently answer question 2?

Put Your Heads Together Group Talk



What Do We Assess?

Assessments are directly aligned to the curriculum framework (developed from the Illinois State Standards or Common Core).

Backward design from the learning targets on the pacing guides

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Why Assess?

  Informs and guides instruction

  Provides feedback about student learning

  Evaluates programs and monitors progress

  Ensures accountability (internal and external)

  Focuses and paces the curriculum



Crucial Distinction

Assessment FOR Learning How we use assessment to help students learn more

Assessment OF Learning How much students have learned

at a particular point in time


Research Support

“In reviewing 250 studies from around the world, published between 1987 and 1998, we found that a focus by teachers on assessment for learning, as opposed to assessment of learning, produced a substantial increase in students’ achievement.”

—Black & William, 1998

Handout (Thomas W. Many, Kildeer Countryside CCSD 96)



External Assessments Most Summative

State Exams (ISAT)   Highly visible

  Validity

  District comparisons

  Desire for more information


MAP Testing   Replaced IOWA testing

  Assesses growth once a year

  Computerized

  Not timed

  Individualized tests and results

External Assessments … Most Summative




District-Level Assessments More Summative

District Benchmark Assessments

  Determine programming opportunities.

  Ensure districtwide standardized curriculum.

  Ensure that curriculum reflects state standards.

  Ensure that we keep our promises.


Development of District Benchmarks

  Made possible by collaborative teams

  Made possible by commitment from district to provide common time for teachers to work together

  Starting point for critical conversations between teachers to improve student learning

  Ever changing and developing as curriculum continues to evolve


District-Level Assessments Kindergarten Schedule

  Writing

  LNF letter naming fluency

  ISEL alphabet recognition

  Phonemic awareness

  Word recognition

  LSF letter sound fluency

  MAP this is new!




Common Formative Assessment All students are asked periodically to participate in assessments that are:

1. Common at each grade level at each building

2. Linked to “essential learnings”

3. Used to guide instruction

4. Used to initiate interventions

5. Used to measure, monitor, and report student progress

6. Created by teams of teachers through a collaborative process

Common Assessments … More Formative


Development of Common Formative Assessments

  Are developed by teachers at the building level.

  Provide frequent feedback about student learning.

  Guide and monitor the pace of instruction as students move through the curriculum.

There is a danger of creating an overwhelming amount of testing unless we substitute common formative assessments for traditional end-of-chapter tests, quizzes, and writing assignments.




Daily Classroom Assessment

  Ticket out the door

  Anecdotal

  Think, pair, share

  Conferencing with students

  Checklists

  Slate assessment

  Use of clicker system

Classroom Assessments … Most Formative


From “Measuring” to “Diagnosing” …



From Measuring to Diagnosing …

© Kildeer Countryside CCSD 96 May not be reprinted without written permission



How Do We Analyze Data?



Without Data …

You’re just another person with an opinion.


Data Analysis Protocols Help Us Examine and Respond to Assessment Data

Various protocols are used to analyze common formative assessment data and district benchmark data.   Protocols help teams analyze data.

  Protocols help teams make instructional decisions based on data.

  Protocols help teams identify students who are not meeting standards before it is too late.


What Is the Data Teams Protocol?

  A tool to help teams analyze data

  A tool to help teams make instructional decisions based on data

  A process that helps teams identify students who are not meeting standards before it is too late



One Protocol We Use Data Teams …

  Are small grade-level or department teams that examine individual achievement and student work generated from common formative assessments.

  Conduct collaborative, structured, scheduled meetings that focus on the effectiveness of teaching and learning.


Using the Data From Common Formative Assessments

  Evaluate the results to determine the needs of all learners in the classroom.

  Design instruction to meet the needs of all learners in the classroom to differentiate instruction.


The Five Steps of … Data Team Process

  Step 1: Collect and chart data.

  Step 2: Analyze strengths and obstacles.

  Step 3: Establish goals: set, review, revise.

  Step 4: Select instructional strategies.

  Step 5: Determine results indicators.


Grading Period Cycle


Managing Assessment Results


Rules of Data

1.  Easily accessible   Data accessibility is improved.

2.  Purposefully arranged   Data are presented in a complete, accurate, and

straightforward manner.

3.  Publicly discussed   Teachers benefit from the collective wisdom of

their team.

  Teachers sharpen their pedagogy and deepen their content knowledge.

(Griffiths, 2006)



Points to Ponder Table Talk

Three Rules to Help Manage Assessment Data Thomas W. Many

All: Intro and last section

Group 1: Easy access

Group 2: Purposeful

arrangement

Group 3: Public discussion

Handout


Mastery Manager

  Scoring report

  Item analysis

  Item analysis by standard

Learning Objectives Mastery Roster Report


Naomi’s Progress


Take a Look

  Data-driven conversation

  Utilizes the results of benchmark assessments

  Includes opportunities for teacher input

  One piece of the puzzle

What Do They Know?



Naomi’s Writing


Naomi’s Writing


Collect and Chart the Data

  Arrange papers from most proficient to least proficient.

  Chart the data by teacher.

  Identify proficiency levels.



Handout

Handout




Analyze Strengths and Needs

  List strengths of students who were proficient and higher by examining student work.

  List needs or reasons why students did not achieve proficiency.


Select Instructional Strategies

  Team members brainstorm and examine effective teaching strategies and techniques.

  Determine which techniques, when implemented appropriately, will have the desired outcome.

  Try to avoid considering strategies outside your sphere of influence.




  How will we know if they can?

  What will we do if they can’t?

  What will we do if they already can?

(DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010)



Remediation vs. intervention

What is remediation?

What is intervention?

Put Your Heads Together Table Talk


Remediation vs. Intervention

  Is more reactive

  Is long term

  Addresses big issues   Provides no

understanding of larger concepts

  Is identified through summative assessments

  Addresses skill deficit

  Is not linked to curriculum

  Is more proactive

  Is short term

  Addresses small issues   Provides support in

specialized skill within a larger concept

  Is identified through common assessments

  Helps refine a skill

  Is linked closely to curriculum


What Is an Intervention?

An intervention is a specific and systematic response to a student need.

1.  It can be academic, social, or emotional support.

2.  It is short term.

3.  It can include organizational help.

4.  It can include adult support or supervision.



Guidelines for Interventions

1. Offer interventions during the school day.

2. Make interventions mandatory!

  Students cannot opt out.

  Teachers and parents cannot waiver out.

3. Make interventions flexible.

  Students need an incentive to work their way out of the intervention.

  Flexible interventions serve more students.


Creating Commitment to Interventions

Necessary cultural shifts:

1. From a focus on teaching to a focus on learning

2. From fixed time to flexible time

3. From average learning to individual learning

4. From punitive to positive

5. From recognizing the elite to creating opportunities for many winners

(DuFour, Eaker, & DuFour, 2005)

Core Principles of RTI

We can effectively teach all children!

  Intervene early.

  Use multi-tier models of service.

  Use problem-solving methodology.

  Use research-based, scientifically validated interventions and instruction.

  Monitor student progress to inform instruction.

  Use data to make decisions.

  Use assessments for screening, diagnostics, and progress monitoring.


Tier 2

Targeted: Tier 1 Plus Secondary Prevention

Specialized group systems for at-risk students

Tier 1

Universal:

Primary Prevention

Schoolwide and classroom wide systems for all students, staff, and settings

Tier 3

Intensive:

Tiers 1 & 2 Plus Tertiary Prevention

Specialized, individualized systems for high-risk students

80% of students

15 %

5 %

Continuum of Schoolwide Instructional and Positive

Behavior Support


Elementary Intervention Examples

•  Intervention block

•  Math lab

•  Math 4:1; math 9:1

•  Reading support

•  LEAP

•  After-school programs

SPEED Intervention Criteria Systematic   Is schoolwide   Is independent of individual teachers   Is communicated in writing (who, why, how, where, and when)

to all Practical   Is affordable with the school’s available resources (time, space, staff,

and materials)   Is sustainable and replicable so that programs and strategies

can be used in other schools Effective   Makes a difference for students before they fall behind   Provides clear entrance and exit criteria designed to respond

to student needs Essential   Focuses on agreed-upon standards and essential outcomes of district

curriculum   Is targeted to students’ specific learning needs determined by formative

and summative assessments Directive   Is mandatory: not invitational (no opt outs)   Occurs during students’ regular school day

(DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010) Handout



As a Professional Learning Community … Intervention Is Essential

Thank You!

To schedule professional development, contact Solution Tree

at 800.733.6786.

Barb Cirigliano [email protected]

Solution Tree


Kindergarten Literacy Power Standards and Targets

Literature: Key Ideas and Details 1a. With prompting and support, ask and answer questions about key details in a text. 1b. With prompting and support, ask questions about key details in a text. 1c. With prompting and support, answer questions about key details in a text.

2a. With prompting and support retell familiar stories including key details. 2a. With prompting and support, retell familiar stories including key details.

Informational Text: Key Ideas and Details 3a. With prompting and support, ask and answer questions about key details in a text. 3b. With prompting and support, ask questions about key details in a text. 3c. With prompting and support, answer questions about key details in a text.

4a. With prompting and support, identify the main topic and retell key details of a text. 4b. With prompting and support, identify the main topic of a text. 4c. With prompting and support, retell key details of a text.

Foundational Skills: Print Concepts 5a. Recognize and name all upper- and lowercase letters of the alphabet. 5b. Recognize all uppercase letters. 5c. Recognize all lowercase letters. 5d. Name all uppercase letters. 5e. Name all lowercase letters.

Phonological Awareness 6a. Produce rhyming words. 6a. Produce rhyming words.

7a. Blend syllables in spoken words. 7a. Blend syllables in spoken words. 8a. Isolate and pronounce the initial and final sounds in three-phoneme words.


Third-Grade Literacy Pacing Guide—T3

Assessment Schedule: May 21–25

Literature

4.0—Extends 3.0—Meets 2.0—Below Resources

Target 1a Summarize or paraphrase events from text, referring to explicit text.

Answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text for answers.

Answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text when given options.

Assessment strategies and Items

Short response Selected response

Target 5a Using knowledge of a character, explain what action the character might have taken to cause a given hypothetical event.

Explain how characters’ actions contribute to the sequence of events.

Given the character's actions, identify the event that happens as a result.

Assessment strategies and items

Target 6a

What would happen if an author were to write a different story? (What might it be about?) or Take a position on the author’s style. (This author creates characters that are _________. Do you agree or disagree, why? Use text to support.)

Compare and contrast the themes, settings, and plots of stories written by the same author about the same or similar characters.

Identify similarities and differences in themes, settings, or plots of stories written by the same author or about the same or similar characters.


Story map, short response

Provide short response (name a way the settings are similar or different; name a way the problem is similar or different).

Selected response (How are the settings in these stories similar? Choose a, b, c, d.)

Informational Text

4.0—Extends 3.0—Meets 2.0—Below Resources


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Target 7a Draw conclusions from or make inferences about the text, referring explicitly to text to support ideas.

Answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers.

Identify answer to questions to demonstrate understanding of a text when given choices.


Extended written response or oral retelling Short response

Selected response (multiple choice)

Target 8a Use key details from the text to support the main idea. Recount the key details of a text.

Identify key details from text.


Graphic organizer (main idea, details, why)

Selected response


Three Rules Help Manage Assessment Data

Best Practices/Tom W. Many, Ed.D.

During the course of a career spanning more than 30 years, Dr. Tom W. Many has served as a classroom teacher, principal and superintendent—all at the elementary level. With a passion for promoting the development of high performing schools, his district was recently recognized as one of the highest achieving - lowest spending elementary school districts in Illinois.

► page 9

TEPSA News www.tepsa.org 7

We live in the Information Age, when never before has so much data on student learning been so readily available. It is the best of times...

And yet, to harried principals struggling to make sense of the mountains of assessment data, the Information Age may feel like the worst of times...

Mining those data mountains for information that teachers can use to improve student learning is a daily challenge for principals. The problem is not a lack of data, but rather managing all the data in a way that is meaningful to teachers. I am not aware of any guidelines about how to process all the information—that is, how to decide exactly what information is needed or who needs the information to make decisions; however, I did encounter “rules” for using data during a conversation with Damon Lopez, former principal of Los Penasquitos Elementary School in San Diego.

Lopez believes that in order for teachers to maximize the impact of data gleaned from assessments, principals should honor three rules and ensure that data is 1) easily accessible, 2) purposefully arranged, and 3) publicly discussed. In those schools where “making meaning” of assessment data is a powerful experience, principals take responsibility for creating the necessary structures associated

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness...” -Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

with the first two rules and insist that teachers commit to the last. Rather than working individually to make meaning of assessment data, the most successful principals have discovered it is far more productive to create the conditions under which teams of teachers can make meaning of the data.

Easy Access For data to add value to our efforts to improve student learning, teachers’ access to the data must be timely. In addition to figuring out who needs to know what and when, the key question for principals to ask is, “What is the most efficient way to get assessment data back to teachers?”

As Kim Marshall, publisher of the highly regarded Marshall Memo, suggests, “When turnaround time after interim assessments is long, the results are stale and outdated by the time teachers sit down and discuss them.” Data loses its impact whenever it takes more than 48 hours to return the results of a common assessment to teachers.

Outdated information makes it more difficult for teachers to be effective in adjusting instruction, identifying students who need more time and support or coordinating remedial or

enrichment programs among teachers on the team. To improve the accessibility of data, principals need to shorten the turnaround time for reporting data.

28© Thomas W. Many 2009. Do not duplicate

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TEPSA News www.tepsa.org 9

► Manage Assessment Data continued from page 7Purposeful Arrangement The second rule for maximizing the impact of data calls for assessment data to be purposefully arranged, that is,

for the assessment data delivered to teacher teams to be presented in a format that is complete, accurate, and straight-forward.

Data should be organized in simple—not simplistic—ways. There are many software packages that quickly, almost instantaneously, provide assessment results in tables, charts, or graphs and make it easy for teachers to digest the results of interim assessments. Author D. M. Griffith observed, “If the message the information is trying to communicate fails to get through to the reader, [the information] is useless. It’s better to be simple and understood than complex and ignored.” What is important is that the data is returned to teachers in a format conducive to further discussion.

From time to time, teachers may create their own tables or graphs or request additional formats for organizing assessment results, but the initial data should be received in an arrangement that allows teachers to focus on the results —not the presentation format.

Public Discussion While principals can address the logistics of making data easily accessible and arranging it purposefully, teacher teams are uniquely equipped to meaningfully engage in the public discussion of assessment data. Indeed, teachers and principals need to embrace the critical importance of publicly discussing the results

of assessments. Each time they discuss an assessment together, teachers benefit from the collective wisdom of their team. Not only do they gain deeper insight into how their students are learning, but also reviewing results as a team has the added benefits of allowing teachers to deepen their content knowledge and to sharpen their pedagogy.

To paraphrase Griffith, assessment data and information on student achievement are relevant, and therefore needed, only if they are used to make a decision. In fact, nothing justifies the giving of an interim assessment—and with it the associated loss of instructional time—unless teachers discuss the results of the assessment and adjust their instruction accordingly.

The Age of Wisdom or Foolishness? To be sure, the ready availability and discerning management of assessment data can go a long way in contributing to making this the Age of Wisdom for educators seeking to improve students’ learning. Principals who are successful focus their energies on ensuring that the data is 1) easily accessible and 2) purposefully arranged and insist that teachers spend their time 3) publicly discussing the results to ensure that all students learn.

ReferencesMarshall, K. (2008, September). “Interim Assessments:

A User’s Guide.” Phi Delta Kappan. pp.64-68.Griffiths, D. M. (2006, March). “Are You Drowning

in a Sea of Information? Managing Information: A Practical Guide.” Available at www.managing-

information.org.uk.

29© Thomas W. Many 2009.

Do not duplicate

Data Collection Communication

To: All Kindergarten Teachers

From: Svetlana

Message: Hello friends. As you know, this is data week. Please have all your scan forms in by Friday at 3:00 p.m. Please also place your data information form in my mailbox by Monday at 3:00 p.m. Thanks!

Date: _____________ Grade: K_________________________________

Assessments theme: __________________________________________

Teacher’s Name

# Students Who Took

Assessment

# Students Proficient

And Higher

% Students Proficient

and Higher

# Students

Not Proficient

% Students

Not Proficient

LR

PA

WR

LR: Letter recognition PA: Phonemic awareness WR: Word recognition


Common Assessment Team Protocol

Team:________ Assessment:_______________ Date given:___________

Overall Assessment 1. What worked well?

2. What changes need to be made (if any)?

Examine Student Work 1. As a team, on which learning targets did most or all students

show mastery? Celebrate!

2. As a team, which learning targets require more attention?

3. As a team, which students did not master which targets?

4. As a team, which classrooms require additional support?

Plan for Action As a team, what we do for students who: Need time Are on target Need challenge and support


SPEED Intervention Goals

DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, and Many (2010, p. 100) note that: When the leaders of Kildeer Countryside School District 96 in suburban Chicago asked each of its schools to create a ‘system of intervention’ to provide students with additional time and support for learning, district leaders were interpreting the term in different ways. Therefore district leaders worked with representatives of the schools to create the SPEED Intervention Criteria to guide the process. According to the criteria, interventions must be: Systematic: The intervention plan is schoolwide, independent of the individual teacher, and communicated in writing (who, why, how, where, and when) to everyone: staff, parents, and students. Practical: The intervention plan is affordable with the school’s available resources (time, space, staff, and materials). The plan must be sustainable and replicable so that its programs and strategies can be used in other schools. Effective: The intervention plan must be effective and available and operational early enough in the school year to make a difference for the student. It should have flexible entrance and exit criteria designed to respond to the ever-changing needs of students. Essential: The intervention plan should focus on agreed-upon standards and the essential learning outcomes of the district’s curriculum and be targeted to a student’s specific learning needs as determined by formative and summative assessments. Directive: The intervention plan should be directive. It should be mandatory—not invitational—and a part of the student’s regular school day. Students should not be able to opt out, and parents and teachers cannot waive the student’s participation in the intervention program.

32DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, Learning by Doing: A Handbook for Professional Learning Communities at Work, 2010.

© Solution Tree Press. Do not duplicate.

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References and Resources

Ainsworth, L. (2003). Power standards: Identifying the standards that matter the most. Englewood, CO: Advanced Learning Press.

Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in

Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7–73. DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & Many, T. (2010). Learning by doing: A

handbook for professional learning communities at work (2nd ed.). Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

DuFour, R., Eaker, R., & DuFour, R. (Eds.) (2005). On common ground: The power

of professional learning communities. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Griffiths, D. M. (2006, March). Are you drowning in a sea of information? Managing

information: A practical guide. Retrieved from www.managing-information. org.uk/


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34© Thomas W. Many, Kildeer Countryside CCSD 96.

Do not duplicate.

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