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Answer

Define Anatomy

Describe the different topics in anatomy

Define Physiology

Describe the main focus of Physiology

Function always follows structure

Integumentary: The skin (protection)

Anatomical and Physiological Terminology

Anatomy studies the structure of the body parts and their relationship to one another

Gross anatomy, Regional anatomy, Systemic Anatomy, surface anatomy, microscopic anatomy and developmental anatomy

Physiology concerns the function of the body and how it carries out life sustaining activities

The operation of major organ systems – focussing on events at the cellular/molecular level.

Describe the complimentary nature of structure and function

What a function can do depends on it's specific form (structure)

How does it unite the discipline of Ana and Phys?

Name the different levels of structural organization

Chemical level, Cellular Level, Tissue Level, Organ Level and Organismal Level.

What are their relationships to each other?

Chemical Level: Atoms, building blocks, molecules eg H20 and Proteins

Cellular Level: Function Specific

Tissue Level: Group of cells with a smilar function

Organ level: Composed of at least 2 tissue types and is complex functions

Organ System: Organs working together to accomplish a common purpose

Organismal level: Sum total of all levels working together to promote life

List the organ systems in the body and their major structures

Skeletal: Bones (Protections, framework, support, locomotion, posture)

Muscular: Muscles (Manipulation of the environment, locomotion, heat producing)

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Nervous: PNS, CNS (Nerves, Spinal Cord, Brain – Electrical control system, responds to internal and external stimuli)

Endocrine: Pineal gland, pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Thymus, Adrenal, Pancreas, Ovaries, Testis (Hormone secretion)

Cardiovascular: Blood, Veins, Arteries, blood vessels, heart (Transport of blood carrying h20, 02and co2 plus other gasses, nutrients and wastes)

Lymphatic: Red Bone marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels/tissue, thoracic duct, spleen and lymphnoids (immunity)

Respiratory system: Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus and lungs (Keeps blood supplied with gasses 02 and removal of CO2

Digestive: Oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus (Breaks down food into absorbital units)

Urinary: Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra (eliminates nitrogenous waste)

Reproductive: Male: prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum and ducus defrens. Female: Mammary Glands, ovary, uterus, vagina and uterine tube (production of offspring)

Describe the anatomical position and its importance for terminology

The body is erect with feet slightly apart, palms facing outwards, thumbs pointing away from the bodyGives a standard reference point for body position.

Define directional terms as they relate to the body

Superior (cranial): Towards the head or upper part of the structureInferior (caudal): Away from the head or upper part of a structureVentral (anterior): Towards to the front of the body; in front ofDorsal (posterior): Towards the back of the body; behind.Medial: Towards the midline of the body; on the inner side ofLateral: Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of

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Define the regional terms of the body

Appendicular: Appendages (limbs)Photocopy page 14

Identify the body planes

Name other body cavities

Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body part, or point of attachment of a limb to the body trunkDistal: Farther from the origin of a body part; or the point of attachment of a limb to the trunkIntermediate: Between a more medial and more lateral structureSuperficial (external): toward or at the body surfaceDeep (internal): Away from the body surface.

Axil: Main axis of our body – head, neck, trunk

Sagital: This is a vertical plane dividing our body from front to back into left and right piecesMedian: Sagital plane that dives right in the middle – also called a midsagitalParasagital: Are all other offset sagital cutsFrontal (coronal): Vertical cut that divides the body into anterior and posterior sectionsTransverse (Horizontal/cross section): Runs horizontally from right to left dividing the body into superior and inferior partsOblique: Diagonal cut – very confusing and seldom used

Describe the body cavities and their relationships to one another

Dorsal: Protects the nervous system and consists of two smaller cavities, the cranial cavity (superior to the ventral cavity) and the spinal cavity (caudal to the ventral cavity). sits on top of the ventral cavityVentral: Anterior body cavity consisting of two smaller cavities, thoracic and abdominopelvicThoracic cavity splits into the superior mediastinum, pleural cavity, pericardial cavity (which is within the mediastinum)The abdominal cavity attaches to the pelvic cavity

oral and digestive cavity, Nasal cavity, orbital cavity, middle ear cavity, synovial joint cavity

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Identify 3 lining membranes

Name the organs they are associated with

Homeostasis

Define homeostasis

Returns systems to their 'ideal'

Describe positive feedback

ArthrologyDefine a joint Site where two articular bones meet

Classify joints structurally 3x classifications for joints1: Fibrous2: Cartilaginous3: Synovial

Membranes simple organs – consists of These include muscous (exposed cavities – stratifies squamous or simple columnar), serous (line hollow body cavities – simple squamous) and the cutaneous (skin – stratified squamous) membrane

What are their relationships to each other?

They are all continuous multicellular sheets composed of at least two tissue types

Serous = Hollow organs, Muscous = Exposed cavities, Cutaneous = Skin

A state of body equilibrium or a stable internal environment in the body

List the components of the Homeo-s control system

receptor, feedback cycle initiated, stimulus, afferent, control center, efferent, feedback cycle ends

Describe the mechanics of negative feedback

the output of the system shuts off the initial stimulus or reduces its intensity mechanics as above (seesaw action)

Why is Negative feedback important to Homeo-s?

Enhancing the original stimulus so the output is accelerated

Describe the structural characteristics of a fibrous joint and give an example

Occurs where bones are connected by fibrous tissue, no joint cavity, nearly all joints are synarthrotic (no movement)Suture (cranium) and syndesmosis (between tibia and fibula) Gomphoses (teeth)

Describe the structural characteristics of a cartilaginous joint and give an example

Bones are united by cartilage, there is no joint cavity present. These are Synarthrotic and Amphiarthrotic

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5 distigusing features1: Articular cartillage (hyaline)2: Synovial cavity (contians fluid)

Also can contain fatty pads and menisci

Muscle tone – stabilize

Tying shoelaces, writing, lifting

MyologyDescribe Skeletal muscle

Describe Cardiac Muscle

Describe smooth muscle

List the four functions of Muscle MovementPosture

Synchondrosis (immoviable joint between the first rib and the manubrium of the sternum), Symphyses (intervertibral joints)

Describe the structural characteristics of a synovial joint

3: Articular capsule ( 2 layers, first layer is tough fiberuos capsule of CT and is continuos with the periostea of the articulating bones. Second inner layer is the synovial membrane)4: Synovial fluid (occupies all free spaces of the joint)5: Reinforcing ligaments (either extrcapsular or intracapsular

Name six types of synovial joints and an example of each

Plane (carpels), hinge (elbow), pivot(radias and ulna), condyloid (wrist), saddle (thumb), ball and socket (sholder)

List the three factors that stablise synovial joints

Articular surfaces – large surfaces and deep socketsLigaments – prevent undesirable movement

Describe common body movements allowed by synovial joints

striated, many nuclei, elongated cell, and is controlled voluntarily

striated, one nuclei, branching cell and is controlled involuntarily

unstriated, spindle shaped cell, single nuclei and is controlled involuntarily

List the four functional characteristics of Muscle tissue

Excitability/responsiveness/irritability – ability to receive and respond to a stimulusContractibility – Shortens when stimulatedExtensibility – ability to stretch beyond its relaxed stateElasticity – ability to resume resting length

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Stability of jointsGenerating heat

Describe endomysium

Describe perimysium

Describe the epimysium

Outline the prime movers: AntagonistAgonistSynergistFixators

What is the function of the antagonist

Agonist

What is the function of the synergist

What is the function of Fixators

Describe the gross anatomy of skeletal muscle including CT coverings and attachments

Protected and strengthened by CT coverings. Epimysium – covers the whole muscle, Perimysium covers whole groups of fascicles, Endomysium covers fascicle which contains the sarcolemma which contains the myofibrils o which one section is called a sarcomereSkeletal muscle attachments (origins/insertions) may be direct or indirect via tendons or aponeuroses. Indirect is better at withstanding friction

Surrounds the elongated muscle fiber (cell)

The muscle fibers in the endomysium are bundled into fascicles, surrounding these fascicles is the perimysium

The dense CT that surrounds the entire muscle

Outline the 4 common patterns of fascicle arrangements

Parallel – the long axis of the fascicle runs with the long axis of the muscleConvergent – muscle has a broad origin and the fascicles converge towards a single tendonCircular – Fascicles arranged in concentric ringPennate – Fascicles are short and they attach obliquely to a central tendon (appear feather-like) that runs the length of the muscle

Reverse or oppose the action of another muscle

aid a prime mover by effecting the same direction, stabilizing joints or prevents undesirable movement

Function to immobilize a bone or a muscles origin

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Outline the sliding filament theory

Define action Potential

Define motor units

Explain how contraction is stimulated

Outline the microscopic structure of skeletal muscle and the functions of its components

Long, striated and mutinucleate. Myofibrils (which are chains or sarcomeres) are a contractile element that occupies most of the cell volume. The banded appearance comes from the dark A and light I bands. each sarcomere contains a thick myofiliment (myosin) and a thin myofiliment (actin). The heads of thick myosin filiments form cross bridges to interact with the thin myosin filliments.The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) surrounds each myofibril, this releases and sequesters calcium ionsThe T tubules are invaginations of the sarcolemma that run between the terminal cisternae of the SR. This allows for electrical stimulus to be delivered quickly to deep cell regions.

Influx of calcium from Sarcoplasmic reticulum into the t – tubules and then into the cytoplasm (depolarizing to allow for diffusion) binds to troponin which moves the tropomyosin exposing the myosin binding sites on the actin molecules. This binding site opens up for a cross bridge to be formed.

during contraction the myofibrals thin filaments (actin) slide past thick filaments (myosin) (this one myosin unit is called a sarcomere) so the actin and the myosin filaments overlap to a greater degree. From the myosin heads cross bridge attachments are formed by attaching to the now open binding sites, these cock, attach and break several times during a contraction to generate tensionTo release the actin from the myosin requires atp which then become adp and cocks the myosin head.

Polarized resting state, -70 mV, hits -55 then depolarization is self propagating Peak of +30mV. Depolarization changes the membrane to become more permeable to NA, re-polarization decreases NA permeability and increases K permeability through sodium potassium pump.

A motor neuron and all the muscle cells it stimulates

When a motor neuron fires (transmitting and electrical impulse) all the muscle fibers contract

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Define Muscle Twitch

Describe isometric contraction

Describe Isotonic Contraction

Define and outline oxygen debt

Define and outline Muscle fatigue

Reflex Arc when the stimulus reacts on the afferent nerve, and singnal is sent through the ganglion root (dorsal) into the spinal chord. This then travels through the action nerve which in turn exits through the ventral nerve efferently to effect the muscle the stimulus is working on

The response of a motor unit to a single Action Potential (AP) of its motor neuron

Describe the events occurring in the three main phases

Latent period – preparatory vents happeningPeriod of contraction – muscles tense and may shortenPeriod of relaxation – muscle tension declines and muscles resume their resting length

How is a smooth graded contraction produced

Responses of muscle to rapid stimuli in wave summation(second twitch riding on the shoulders of the first) and unfused and fused tetanus

When muscle tension produces neither shortening nor lengthening of the muscle

When the muscle shortens or lengthens as a load is moved, concentric – muscles shorten and eccentric – muscle lengthen

Outline the three different pathways for providing muscle energy (ATP)

Aerobic – 95% of ATP usage. occurs in the mitochondria via the breakdown of glucoseCoupled reaction of creatine phosphate - creatine phosphate that is stored in muscles is tapped until the other pathways become availableAnaerobic metabolism - Catabolism of the blood glucose or glycogen breakdown which is stored in the muscle

The volume of O2 required after exercise to replenish stores of O2, ATP, Creatine Phosphate and glycogen plus oxidize the lactic acid formed during exercise.

When your muscle has run of of ATP and can no longer move – different from mental fatigue

Describe the three types of skeletal muscle fibers

Slow oxidative fibers (slow – endurance activities – aerobic)Fast oxidative fibers (intermediate – walking - Aerobic)

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The Blood

Describe the composition of blood

List the 6 functions of blood

Prevention of blood lossPrevention of infection

Name the Function of Erythrocytes

Fast glycolytic fibers (fast – short term intense work eg hitting a baseball – Anaerobic - Glycolysis)

Describe the factors that influence force, velocity and duration of muscle contraction

Force – Number of muscle fibers stimulated, size of muscle fibers stimulated, frequency of stimulation and degree of muscle stretchVelocity – Muscle fiber type (slow or fast fibers)Duration – Load and recruitment (how many units are working together)

Compare the gross microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle and skeletal muscle

Skeletal: Long striated and multinucleate Sr developed, good CT. Have T Tubules and sarcomeresSmooth: Spindle shaped, uninucleate and have no striations, SR is poorly developed, arranged in sheets and have poor CT. T Tubules are absent, sarcomeres are not present

Compare the different functions of skeletal muscle and smooth muscle Skeletal: Posture, support, mobility

Smooth: contracts for long periods of time at low energy cost without fatigue. Automatic and based in hollow organs.

Cellular components: Erythrocytes (RBC 45%) Leukocytes (WBC 1%) Platelets. Liquid Components: Plasma 55%

Describe the physical characteristics of the blood

Sticky, opaque, metallic taste, O2 rich is bright red, O2 poor is dark red, viscous.

Transportation of O2 and nutrients and waste productsTransportation of hormones from the endocrine systemRegulation of body temp plus distributing heatRegulation and maintaining PH in body tissuesRegulation and maintaining the fluid volume

Name the structural characteristics of Erythrocytes

Bi-Concave disc, Ability to flex, no nucleus

Carries O2 for gaseous exchange plus CO2 and waste products

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Describe the production of Erythrocytes

Nucleated, usual organelles

Name the function of Leukocytes Immunity

Describe the production of Leukocytes

Name the function of Platelets Clotters – work in hemostasis

Describe the production of Platelets

Outline the process of Hemostasis

Outline ABO blood AB blood contains no antibodiesB blood contains A antibodiesA blood contains B antibodies

Outline the rhesus Blood system 45 types of RH bloodonly 3 have antigens C, D and ERH+ can take either RH + or – bloodRH – can only take RH – blood

Cardiovascular

Name the coverings of the heart

Produced in the red bone marrow from the stem cell hemocytoblast once committed it goes through 5 stages to become a RBC at the end stages it ejects its nucleus

Name the structural characteristics of Leukocytes

Made in the red bone marrow from the stem cell Hemocytoblast that then becomes either a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell. Once committed the Myeloid stem cell goes through 5 stages, the lymphoid 4 stages

Name the structural characteristics of Platelets

Fragments of a large, multinucleate, megakaryocyte

Formed in the red bone marrow, stem cell is hemocytoblast which once committed becomes a megakaryocytes that break up into the smaller platelets

Three steps occur, vascular spasms, platelet plug formation, coagulation

O blood contains anti A and anti B antibodiesThis is based on the presence of agglutinogens

Name the size shape of the heart and its orientation and location Size: Your clenched fist

Shape: Orientation and location: Located Obliquely within the mediastinum of the thorax

Serous pericardium (visceral pericardium – outer layer and parietal pericardium – inner layer). plus the pericardial space filled with serous fluid

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Describe the functions of the coverings To protect and act as a lubricant

Name the four heart chambers

Name the location of heart Valves

Name the function of heart valves To stop blood backflowing

Left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle

Describe the structure and outline the function of the right atrium

Small protruding appendages called the auricles. Two Vena cava enter here, this accepts low O2 blood

Describe the structure and outline the function of the right ventricle

The internal walls are marked by irregular ridges called trabeculae carne and conelike papillary muscles. Accepts blood from the RA and pumps it up to the pulmonary trunk

Describe the structure and outline the function of the left atrium

Small protruding appendages called the auricles. 4 pulmonary arteries from the lungs discharge O2 rich blood here.

Describe the structure and outline the function of the left ventricle

The internal walls are marked by irregular ridges called trabeculae carne and conelike papillary muscles. the LV Pumps blood into the aorta

Name and outline the general route from the blood through the heart

O2 poor blood enters through the 2 Vena Cava into the Left Atrium which then drains down to the left ventricle. This is them pumped up through the pulmonary trunk through the lung and is drained as O2 rich blood by the 4 pulmonary arteries into the Right Atrium. This then drains down into the right ventricle that then pumps the blood up into the aorta and back out into the body

Trace the pathway of the blood through the heart (draw)

Outline the major coronary vessels and their distribution

Aorta – has blood pumped into it from the Right VentricleVena Cava (2 – superior and inferior) drain into the left atrium4 Pulmonary Veins – drain into the right atrium1 Pulmonary trunk – has blood pumped into it from the Left Ventricle

Atrioventricular valves - Tricuspid Valve – between the left atrium and the left ventricle. Mitral Valve – between the right atrium and the right ventricle. Semilunar Valves - Aortic valve – between the right ventricle and the Aorta. Pulmonary Valve – between the left ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.

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Name the mechanism of heart valves

0 – 50 milliseconds SA node depolarizes

Describe normal heat sounds

Outline cardiac output

Collagen cords anchor the valves to stop blowing inside out for the atricentricular valves or semilunar valve.

Describe the structural properties of cardiac muscle and how it differs from skeletal muscle

Skeletal: Long striated and multinucleate Sr developed, good CT. Have T Tubules and sarcomeresCardiac: Branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells, contain myofibrils with sarcomeres and T – Tubules, abundent mitochondria

Describe the functional properties of cardiac muscle and how it differs from skeletal muscle

Cardiac: Involuntary movements, prolonged refractory period that prevents tetanus, most energy from mitochondriaSkeletal: Has tetanus, voluntary, most energy from mitochondria

Name the components of the conduction system of the heart and trace the pathway

Spontaneous depolarization by the heart which in turn depolarizes the SA (Sinoatrial) node the fastest. This sends out an electrical current (contracting) across and down the heart hitting the Av (Atrioventricular) node. This is turn continues down the AV bundle (HIS) which split out either side of the bottom of the heart to the pukinje fibers, hence contracting the bottom of the heart.

Outline a normal electrocardiograph tracing, name each wave and relate them to cardiac events

Draw in: P = Atrial depolarization, R = Ventricular depolarization, S = end of contractions, T = Ventricular repolarization (QRS = contracting period)

Describe the timing and events of the cardiac cycle

25-100 milliseconds Atrial Muscle contracts50 – 150 milliseconds AV node depolarizes150 – 350 milliseconds Ventricular muscle contracts (this is brought down by the HIS and Purkinje fibers)

Lub-Dub – associated with the closing of the heat valves

The amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in one minute, typically 5l/min

What factors regulate stroke volume and heart rate

Degree of stretch of the heart muscle by venous return (preload), exercise, hormones, ions,

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Describe the structure of capillary beds

Describe the function of capillary beds

Outline blood flow

Outline blood pressure

Outline resistance (blood)

BP is regulated by the CNSBP is regulated by hormonesBP is regulated by the kidneys

Describe pulmonary circulation

Name the three main layers of the blood vessels

Viens and Arteries have 1. Tunica intima,2. Tunica Media, 3. Tunica externa. Capillaries though only have Tunica intima only

Very thin walled vessels with clefts which aid in the exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid. Flows for capillary beds are through the arteriole to the venule (called microcirculation). The beds consists of two types of vessels – vascular shunt (short vessel connecting directly to the arteriole) and true capillaries

Exchange of nutrients, wastes and gases between the blood and interstitial fluid.

The volume of blood flowing through a vessel, and organ or the entire circulation at a given time

Force exerted by blood against a unit area of the unit walls; differences in blood pressure between different areas of the circulation provide the driving force for blood circulation

Is opposition to blood flow and is a measure of the amount of friction blood encounters as it passes through a vessel

Summarize the maintenance of blood pressure

BP is regulated by autonomic (nervous system) neural reflexes involving baroreceptors or chemoreceptors. The vasomotor center (a medullary center that regulates blood vessel diameter), and sympathetic vasomotor fibers, which act on vascular smooth muscle.

BP in indirectly regulated by the renal system

System of veins that serve to exchange gases in the lunges to bring enriched O2 blood back to the heart. Pulmonary trunk – Right and left pulmonary arteries – lobar arteries – pulmonary capillaries – pulmonary veins

Describe the difference between an open and closed circuit system

Open: has a beginning and an end – the fluid levels can change as fluids are allowed inClosed: In a loop, no beginning no end – no change in fluid levels

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Describe the function of the Hepatic portal

Lymphatic System

Describe the function of lymphatic vessels

What is the function of the lymph system?

Describe the source of lymph

Name and give the location of the major arteries in the trunk

Aorta, Subclavian Artery, Femoral Artery, The brachial Artery,Coronary artery, Iliac artery.

Describe the structure of the Hepatic portal

Triangular cross grid branching from the cystic vein and near the liver – between two capillary beds

Takes blood from the digestive organs to the liver

Name the position of major structures (veins/arteries) within the thorax

Jugular vein, subclavian vein, axillary vein, antebrachial vein, basilic vein, radial vein, cephalic vein, superior venacava vein

Describe the structure of lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic capillaries begin as blind ended tubes. Adjacent endothelial cells in a lymphatic capillary overlap each other forming flap-like mini valves

one way system in which lymph flows towards the heart starting from blind ended lymphatic capillaries. Empty into ducts at the subclavian vein and jugular vein

1. The lymphatic system has three primary functions. First of all, it returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood. 2. absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the digestive system and the subsequent transport of these substances to the venous circulation. 3. defense against invading microorganisms and disease.

fluid that has been leaked from the blood vascular system into the interstitial fluid/ stomach in the form of chyle from the lacteals

Describe the transport of Lymph back to the heart

Skeletal muscle, pressure changes in the thorax, contraction of smooth muscle around it, back-flow prevented by valves and contraction of the lymphatic vessel

Outline the structure of Lymph Nodes and draw

Each lymph node has a fibrous capsule, a cortex and a medulla. It contains both diffuse and dense reticular tissue. Lymph nodes cluster along lymphatic vessels.

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Outline the function of the lymph node

Outline the spleen

Outline the Thymus

Outline the tonsils

Outline Peyers patch In the intestinal wall to engulf pathogens

Cells

Nucleus: Control center of activities

Filter of lymph and helps activate the immune system. The cortex contains mostly lymphocytes which act in immune responses. The medulla contains macrophages, which engulf and destroy bacteria, viruses and other foreign debris as well as lymphocytes and plasma cells

The spleen provides a site to destroy old/damaged blood cells and blood-born pathogens

Most functional during youth – the hormones it produces causes T-lymphocytes to become immunocompetent

3 different tonsils in the oral cavity, nasal cavity and the back of the throat. Engulf pathogens as they are taken in

Describe the generalized cell and list the three main parts of the cell with their general function

Cells are generally composed of carbon, hydrogen, O2, and trace elements. They all have the same basic parts and end goalPlasma membrane: Fragile barrier to the outer boundary of the cellCytoplasm: Intercellular fluid packed with organelles/small structures

Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate these to structure and function

Fluid Mosaic model: contains a bi-layer of lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids) within which proteins are insertedThe lipids have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions that organize aggregation and self repair. The lipids form the structural part of the membraneMost of the proteins extend entirely through the membrane. Some, appended to integral proteins, are peripheral proteins

The proteins are responsible for the specialized membrane functions, some are enzymes, some are receptors and some mediate membrane transport

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What is the structure of a tight junction

What is the function of a tight junction Impermeable junction, stability

What is the structure of a desmosome

What is the function of a desmosome

What is the function of a gap junction

What is the structure of a gap junction

Outline the cytoskeleton

Lipid Bi layer contains lipids, cholesterol and H20. Glycoprotein sucks in H20 and is good for cushioning, Glycocalyx – cell recognizing marker

A series of integral protein molecules in adjacent cells plasma membranes fuse together forming an impermeable junction – joined by proteins

This is an anchoring junction with mechanical couplings like rivets along the sides of abutting cells to prevent their separation – joined by proteins

Distributes tension throughout the cell so it can undergo stresses through strong guy wires

Allows for the passage of ions from cells to cell to help synchronies their electrical activity

The adjacent plasma membranes are very close and the cells are connected by hollow cylinders called 'connexons'

Elaborate series of rods running through the systoles supporting the cellular structure. These types of rods are the microtubules (shape), microfilaments (mobility to change form) and intermediate filaments (tensile strength)

Describe the structure and function of the cytoplasmic organelles

Mitochondria – Produces ATP through aerobic pathway – sausage shapedRibosomes – Protein synthesis – two globular subunits that fit togetherEndoplasmic retictulum – Rough ribosomes that manufacture the proteins – Rough interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled cavities – rough has ribosomes on itSmooth Endoplasmic Reticulaum – Catalyses reactions for 1. Lipid metabolism and cholesterol synthesis 2. Synthesis of a steroid based hormone. 3. Absorption, synthesis and transport of fats. - Rough interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing fluid filled cavities – smooth has no ribosomes on itGolgi – Traffic director – stacked and flattened membranous sacsLyosomes – Demolition – spherical

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Outline diffusion

Outline osmosis

Outline the structure of the nucleus

Name the function of the nucleus

Outline the structure of DNA

Outline the replication of DNA DNA helix uncoils

The tendency of molecules or ions to scatter evenly throughout the environment Molecules move away from areas of high concentration to low concentration. They diffuse along the concentration gradient by kinetic energy

The diffusion of a water through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmosis occurs when water concentration differs on each side of a membrane. High pressure to low pressure.

Outline the 4 different plasma membrane transport systems

1. Simple diffusion: non polar and lipid soluble substances diffuse directly through the lipid bi-layer2. Facilitated diffusion: Diffuse through binding to a carrier protein or moves through water filled protein channels3. Carrier diffusion occurs through a specific transmembrane carrier protein4. Osmosis: Movement of water, nutrients and gases

Usually spherical, but the shape often conforms to the shape of the cell. It has a nuclear envelope, nuclei and chromatin

Contains the DNA and is the control center for the cell. Dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized in response to signals acting on the cell.

Tightly coiled double helix – with ATCG – A – adenine which always links with T - Thymine. C – Cytosine always links with G – Guanine. All held together with histone proteins

Hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are brokeneach nucleotide strand of DNA acts as a template for the construction of a complimentary strand of DNAPolymers work in one direction only to the two strands (leading and lagging) are synthesized in opposite directionsDNA ligase enzymes that join DNA fragments on the lagging strandEach DNA molecule consists of one old one (template) and one new one and this creates a chromatid of a chromosome

Outline the lifecycle and the main events of cell division

Mitoses – 4 phases, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.Prophase: DNA replication

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Describe the process of transcription

Describe protein synthesis

Tissues

Outline types of Epithelia

Metaphase: arrangement of chromosomes along the midway line of a cellAnaphase: Chromosomes split, cell elongatesTelophase: Chromosomes become chromatin's and the cell splits

One of the two major steps in the transfer of genetic code information involving the transfer of information from a DNA gene's base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of an mRNA moleculeBinding of RNA polymerase to a DNA promoter; initiation of transcription of the template DNA strand; elongation of the mRNA chain and termination of transcription accompanied by the release of RNA polymerase ad completed mRNA from the DNA template

A base sequence of exon DNA provides the information for protein structure. Each three base sequence calls for a particular amino acid to be built into a polypeptide chain. 1. Transcription: synthesis of a complimentary mRNA2. Translation: reading of the mRNA by tRNA and peptide bonding of the amino acids into the polypeptide chain.3. Ribosomes read the codons of the mRNA and match with the tRNA eg coordinate translation for proteins until a stop codon is read

Outline the structural characteristics of epithelial cells

Simple Epithelia: Comprised of a single cell layerStratified Epithelia: Comprised of two or more cell layers (stacked)

Outline the functional characteristics of epithelial cells

Simple Epithelia: Found where one needs a high level of absorption and filtration eg lungsStratified Epithelia:Found in high abrasion/protection areas, eg the skin and oral cavity

Squamous: Flattened and scale likeCuboidal: Boxlike and around as tall as they are wideColumnar: Tall column shaped, the nucleus conforms to this.

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Define a gland

List CT BloodBonesCT ProperCartilage

Name the functions of CT

A gland consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product – usually water based.

Differentiate between endocrine glands and exocrine glands

Exocrine: externally secreting sweat/oil/salivaEndocrine: internally secreting (ductless) hormones

Outline the common characteristics of connective tissue (CT)

Blood, Bones, CT proper and cartilage Common origin, degrees of vascularity from avascular to highly vascularised, extracellular matrix and largely nonliving to endure trauma and abrasion

Bone resists torsion, CT proper is Tension, Cartilage is compression and blood is transportation: Binding and support, protection, insulation, transportation

Describe the structure of Cutaneous membrane

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium firmly attached to a thick layer of dense CT (the skin)

Describe the function of Cutaneous membrane

Waterproof, stretchy, self repairing and protecting

Describe the structure of Mucous membrane

Either stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelia.

Describe the function of Mucous membrane

Line body cavities that are open to the external environment and absorbs and secretes.

Describe the the structure of Serous membrane

Simple squamous epithelium, found in closed ventral body cavities

Describe the function of Serous membrane

They double up on themselves and hold serous fluid. This cushions and slips to allow movement and reduce friction with no damage. Some names – pleura = lungs, pericardium = heart, peritoneums = abdominopelvic & viscera

Outline the general characteristics of the nervous tissue

1. main component of the nervous system2. highly cellular neurons (electrical signals)

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Osteology

Outline the 5 functions of bones 1. Support2. Protection3. Movement4. Mineral and growth factor storage5. Blood cell formation

Compare and contrast the general characteristics and locations of the three types of muscle tissue

Skeletal: Has tetanus, voluntary, most energy from, most energy from mitochondria. Forms the flesh of the body causes movement, holds posture, generates heatCardiac: Branching and connect at junctions called intercalated discs, striated, generally uninucleate cells, contain myofibrils with sarcomeres and T – Tubules, abundant mitochondria: Only found in the wall of the heart, contracts to propel blood, involuntarySmooth Muscle: Found mainly on the walls of hollow organs, Cells have no visible striations, involuntary, no T – Tubles Individual cells are spindle shaped and have one nucleus, they squeeze by contracting, eg bladder.

Name and describe the relative functions of the two major regions of the skeleton

Axial skeleton: Head and torso – protection of the brain, heart, lungs and some organs.Appendicular skeleton: Limbs – movement

Compare and contrast the structure of the 4 bone classes and give an example of each

Long: Femur – has a shaft (Diaphysis) plus two ends (Epiphysis) a medullary cavity and a membrane (periosteum)Short: Carpals/Tarsals – roughly cub shaped and have the membrane periosteumIrregular: Vertebrae – complicated shapesFlat: Scapulae – thin flattened and usually a bit curvedSesamoid: Bone inbeded in a tendon

Outline the compensation of bone together with properties conferred by its organic and inorganic components

Osteogenic cells – organic – mitotic stem cell found in CTOsteoblast cells – organic – bone forming cells, secretes osteoid cells (matrix!)Osteocytes – organic – mature bone cellsOsteoclasts – organic – bone destroyingOsteoid – organic – unmineralized bone matrix

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24 moveable vertebrae7 – cervical12 – thoracic5 – lumbarsacrumCoccyx

Name the curvature of the spine Cervical – concaveThoracic – convexLumbar – concavesacrum – convex

Nervous System

CNS = Brain and spinePNS = Cranial and spinal nerves

Hydroxyapatite – inorganic – calcium saltsOsteon – structural – what compact bone is calledCT membrane endosteum which is inside the bone and periosteum outside the bone

The extra cellular matrix is made up of mainly collagen fibers and hydroxyapatites giving it extreme tensile and compressional force. Bone does not resist torsion well and so the most common fracture is the spiral one

Name and locate the principal bones of the skeleton

Cranium, spine, clavicle, scapulae, humorous, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, ribs, sternum, coccyx, hip, femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals phalanges.

Describe the general structure of the vertebral column

With the exception of C1 and C2 all vertebrae have: A body, two transverse processes, two superior and two inferior articular processes, a spinous process and a vertebral arch

Name the components of the vertebral column

List the basic functions of the nervous system

Major responsibility for maintaining homeostasis

Outline the structural divisions of the Nervous System

Outline the functional divisions of the Nervous system

Sensory Division (afferent) to the CNS and Motor Division (efferent)

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Major biosynthetic center of the nueron

Describe the function of a neurons axon

Describe the function of a dendrite

Outline the formation of the myelin sheath

List the types of neuroglia and list their functions

CNS – Astrocytes – Make exchanges between capillaries and neurons they also control the chemical environment around neurons mopping up leaked potassium and released neurotransmittersCNS – Microglia – Monitor neurons health and can also become special types of macrophageCNS – Ependymal – Line the central cavities of the brain and spine creating a fairly permeable covering and the beating of their cilia helps circulate cerebrospinal fluid.CNS – Oligodendrocyte – produce myelin sheathsPNS – Satellite Cells - Surround neuron bodies in the peripheral neuron systemPNS – Schwann Calls – Surround and form myelin sheaths f the larger nerve fires in the peripheral nervous system

Describe the structural components of a neuron

Neurons have a cell body and cytoplasmic processes called axons and dendrites.

Describe the function of the neurons cell body

Each neuron has a single axon, a long axon is called a nerve fiber, it is the conducting region of the neuron generating nerve impulses and transmitting them

Main receptive/input regions. They provide an enormous surface area for receiving information from other neurons and then convey these messages around the cell.

Explain the importance of the myelin sheath

The myelin sheath protect and electrically insulates the nerve fiber along with increasing the speed of impulse transmission

Myelin Sheaths in the PNS are created via a schwann Cell and the CNS is the oligodendrocyte. These indent to receive an axon and then wrap themselves around it in a jelly roll fashion. This starts off loose, but due to constant squeezing becomes tightly rolled.

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Outline the structure of the myelin sheath

Describe resting membrane potential

Outline refectory periods.

Much less protein than regular membranes to assist with their job as an electrical insulator. the nucleus and cytoplasm usually bulge to one side when rolled around an axon. The exposed part of the plasma membrane is the neurilemma and due to myelin sheaths not touching each other along an axon there are gaps called nodes of ranvier

A resting neuron exhibits a resting membrane potential which is -70mV (inside is negative). This is due to both differences in sodium and potassium ion concentrations inside and outside the cel and the differences of permeability of the membrane and these ions.

Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons.

1. Depolarizing phase: increase in sodium permeability – local depolarization (this can be from just an increase of 10mV) opens voltage-gated Na+ channels; at threshold (- 55mV) depolarization becomes self-generating (drive by Na+ influx) The membrane potential is then reversed to approx +30mV (inside positive)2. Re-polarizing phase: Closing of Na+ channels opening of K+ channels3. Hyper-polarization phase: increase in potassium (K+) permeability 4. Resting state: All gated channels closes -70mVRe-polarization occurs during stages 2 and 3

Explain how action potentials are propagated along neurons.

For unmyelited neurons the action potential is generated by the influx of Na+. This establishes a local current that depolarizes adjacent membrane areas in the forward direction (away from the origin of the nerve impulse) this in turn opens voltage gated channels in triggers a further AP eg once initiated an AP is self propagating Myelited neurons work through saltatoy conduction

Absolute refractory period: When an Ap is being generated and the voltage gated Na+ channels are open the neuron can not respond to another stimulus until the Na+ channels close.

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Outline the chemical synapse

Identify the major structures of the brain Frontal LobeParital LobeOccipital LobeTemporal LobeCerebellumPonsMedulla OblongataSpinal CordGyri of insula

Cerebral HemispheresDiencephalonBrain Stem (pons, midbrain and medulla)Cerebellum

Relative refractory period: The interval following the absolute refractory period where re-polarization is occurring A weak stimulus would not reopen the Na+ gates, but a strong one would meaning that another AP could be generated.

Define Saltatory conduction and contrast it to unmyelinated conduction

In myelinated nerves local currents give rise to propagated AP that jump from node to node. Ap are generated only at the nodes by the current flows along the entire axonIn an myelinated axon voltage gated sodium (Na+) channels are located only at the nodes of Ranvier, instead of along the entire length of an unmyelinated axonMyelinated conduction is approx 30x fasted than unmyelinated conduction

Chemical synapse are sites of neurotransmitter release and binding

Outline the mechanism of information transmission in a chemical synapse

When an impulse reaches a presynaptic axon terminal voltage gated Ca2+ enters the cell and mediates neurotransmitter release. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and attach to post-synaptic membrane receptors. This opens ion channels . After binding, the neurotransmitters are removed from the synapse via enzymatic breakdown or by re-uptake into the presynaptic terminal or astrocytes

What is an Excitatory Transmitter and its effect

Causes depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane therefore triggering an AP

What is an inhibitory transmitter and its effect

Inhibits a post-synaptic neuron ability to generate an AP

Identify the major functional regions of the brain

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Outline the general structure of a nerve

Classify sensory receptors by structure

Classify sensory receptors by function

Name and locate the ventricles of the brain (draw)

Lateral ventricles – one deep within each cerebral hemisphere. Third Ventricle – in the diencephalonFourth Ventricle – In the hindbrain dorsal to the pons and superior to the medulla.

Outline the nuclei and the white matter of the brain

White matter in the CNS is the axons and the neurogila the function is a conductor (just like axons)

Outline the anatomy and organization of the spinal cord.

Protected by bone, meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.Single layered spinal dura matter. Inferiorly the cord terminates in a cone shaped structure called the conus medullaris. the collection of spinal roots at the caudal end of the cord is called cauda equina

List the components of the peripheral nervous system

Sensory (afferent) pathways that provide input from the body into the CNS.

Motor (efferent) pathways that carry signals to muscles and glands (effectors).

Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to the cell body. The cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles typical of eukaryotic cells. The axon and schwann cell (may or may not be myelinated) conducts messages away from the cell body. Individual nerve fibers covered by CT covering endoneuriumFibers arranged in Fasciculi which in turn are covered by the CT perineuriumEntire nerve surrounded by the epinuerium

The sensory receptor may be a specialized portion of the plasma membrane, a whole cell associated with a neuron ending, or a group of such cells.

The sensory receptors involved in taste and smell contain receptors that bind to specific chemicals. Odor receptors in olfactory receptor neurons, for example, are activated by interacting with molecular structures on the odor molecule. Similarly, taste receptors (gustatory receptors) in taste buds interact with chemicals in food to produce an action potential.

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Classify sensory receptors by stimulus

Cervical nerves – C1 – C8Thoracic Nerves – T1 – T12

Sacral Nerves – S1 – S5Coccygeal Nerves – C0

CranialDorsal VagalSacral

Cervical to the end of the Lumbar

Other receptors such as mechanoreceptors and photoreceptors respond to physical stimuli. For example, photoreceptor cells contain specialized proteins such as rhodopsin to transduce the physical energy in light into electrical signals. Some types of mechanoreceptors fire action potentials when their membranes are physically stretched.

adequate stimulus is the stimulus modality for which it possesses the adequate sensory transduction apparatus. Adequate stimulus can be used to classify sensory receptors:Ampullae of Lorenzini respond to electric fields, salinity, and to temperature, but function primarily as electroreceptorsBaroreceptors respond to pressureChemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuliHydroreceptors respond to changes in humidityMechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stress or mechanical strainNociceptors respond to damage to body tissues leading to pain perceptionOsmoreceptors respond to the osmolarity of fluids (such as in the hypothalamus)Photoreceptors respond to lightProprioceptors provide the sense of positionThermoreceptors respond to temperature, either heat, cold or both

Name the distribution of spinal nerves by their origin

Lumber nerves L1 – L5 cauda equina starts halfway down here

Parasympathetic nervous system nerves come from:

Sympathetic nervous system nerves come from:

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Define a reflex

Describe the components of a reflex arc A reflex arc has 5 components1. receptor2. sensory neuron3. integration center4. motor neuron5. effector

Outline the types of reflex's

Fight or flight

A reflex is a rapid, involentary motor response to a stimulous.

Somatic spinal reflex's: include stretch, superficial reflex's, golgi tendon flexor and crossed exstensorStretch: maintain muscle tone and body position: initiated by stretching muscle spindles and causes contraction to occurGolgi Tendon Reflex: Causes relaxation of the muscle/tendon to prevent damage: Initiated by the stimulation of the golgi tendon organs by excessive muscle tension.Flexor Reflex's: Protective in nature: These occur through painful stimuli.Crossed extensor reflexes: a combination of a ipsilateral flexor reflex and a contralateral extensor reflex.Superficial reflex: Protective in nature: elicited by cutaneous stimulation, these require a functional cord.

Define autonomic nervous system and outline its role

The Autonomic Nervous System is that part of PNS consisting of motor neurons that control internal organs. It has two subsystems. The autonomic system controls muscles in the heart, the smooth muscle in internal organs such as the intestine, bladder, and uterus. The Sympathetic Nervous System is involved in the fight or flight response. The Parasympathetic Nervous System is involved in relaxation.

What is the arrangement of the Sympathetic nervous system

These nerves originate in the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord

What is the arrangement of the Parasympathetic nervous system

These nerves emerge from the brain and sacral spinal nerves (craniosacral)

What is the general function of the Sympathetic nervous system

More complex than the parasympathetic and it innervates more nervesMobilse body energies for dealing with increased activity viaGeneral constriction of cutaneous arteriesIncreased blood supply to the heart, muscles and brain

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cardiac accelerationIncrease in blood pressureContraction of SphinctersDepression of peristalsis

Rest period of the bodyCardiac slowing

Conservation of body energy!!

Sympathetic:EyesRespiratory systemHeartLiverStomach/intestinesKidneysSexual organsParasympathetic EyesRespiratory systemHeartDigestiveLiverUrinary and reproductive

Outline the Visceral Reflexes To do with visceral organs

Respiratory

What is the conducting Zone

What is the respiratory Zone

Describe the gross anatomy of the lungs 2 lungs

What is the general function of the parasympathetic nervous system

Increase in intestinal glandular and peristaltic activity

List the organs innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves

The reflex arcs have the same components as somatic reflexsCell bodies of visceral sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia, sensory ganglia of the cranial nerves or autonomic ganglia

Visceral afferents are found in spinal nerves and virtually all autonomic nerves.

is the respiratory passageways, this includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles

Is the site of gaseous exchange: This includes the respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct and sac plus the alveolus

Identify the organs forming the respiratory passages from the nose/ mouth to the Alveoli

Nose, mouth, Phrarynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct and sac plus the alveolus.

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Then becomes segmental BronciThen become terminal bronchi

Then the single Alveoli

Describe the blood supply of the lungs

Describe the pleura of the lungs

Describe the respiratory membrane

Right side 3 lobes, left side 2 lobed with cardiac notch (these lobes are divided by fissures), each segment has its own vein, artery, nerves and segmental bronchus. The base rests on the diaphragm, superior end extends above the clavicle, Lobar Bronchi descend from the trachea. It splits into 3 on the right hand side and 2 in the left hand side (lung)

Then becomes Bronchioles (these have no cartilage but loads of elastic)Then then becomes the alveolar duct which is surrounded by capillariesThen the alveolar sac which is surrounded by capillaries

The Pulmonary trunk (artery) brings blood into the lungs, this steadily becomes smaller until it becomes capillary beds to help with O2 and CO2 diffusion. It is then eventually returned to the heart via 4 pulmonary veins

Parietal and visceral pleura. Adherent to thoracic wall and diaphragm by CT by the parietal layer. Visceral (inner) layer attaches to lung surface. Anteriorly the lungs finish at rib 8, but the pleura drops to rib 10.

The walls of the alveloi are composed of a single layer simple squamous epithelial cells called type 1 cells surrounded by a basement membrane. Together, the walls of the aveloi and the basement membrane make up the respiratory membrane.

Relate the structure of the respiratory membrane to its function

The structure of the membrane is very thin and creates the air-blood barrier with air flowing on one side and blood on the other.Gas exchange happens easily through simple diffusion due to its thinness

Relate Boyles law to inspiration and exportation

Gases travel from an area of higher pressure to lower pressure: therefore when we expand our lungs increasing the volume and the pressure drops. This then causes air to rush inWhen we relax and the lungs recoil (tho air exportation is mainly passive) there in is a pressure increase and so air is ejected.

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State Daltons Law of Particle pressure

Therefore in air:

State Henrys Law of Gas solutions

Explain the relative roles if the respiratory muscles and lung elasticity in producing the volume changes that causes air to flow in and out of the lungs

inter -Costal muscles contract, diaphragm decends and rib cage rises – lungs stretched to create lower pressure for inspirationInter -Costal muscles relax, diaphragm ascends back to resting place and rib cage falls – lungs contract passively to create higher pressure for expiration

Outline and compare the various lung volumes and capacities

1. Tidal volume – the resting rate of inspiration (around 500ml)2. Inspiratory reserve volume - The amount of air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume (around 2100 – 3200 ml)3. Expiratory reserve volume – The amount of air that can be expired (forcibly) after a tidal expiration (about 100, 1200 ml)4. Residual volume - the amount of air remaining in the lungs after expiration (around 1200 ml)

Outline the pulmonary function test using these volumes

FVC – Forced vital capacity – measuring the amount of expelled gas when a subject takes a deep breathFEV – Forced Expiratory volume – measures the volume exhaled in the first second (checks on restriction)

Outline why atmospheric air and alveolar air differs in comparison

Alveolar air/gas contains more CO2 and H2O vapor, plus less O2 than atmospheric air

Dalton’s law states that in a mixture of different gases, such as air, the sum of the partial pressures of all the gases equals the total pressure.The Partial Pressure of a gas is that pressure exerted by a single gas in a mixture of gases (shown as the prefix P).

PO2 + PN2 + PCO2 + PH2O = 760 mm Hg (normal atmospheric pressure).

Thus as O2 is 20.9% of air it exerts 159 mm Hg partial pressure.

Pressure differences move gases in and out of solution.The law states: ‘the amount of a gas in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas’.

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Describe O2 transport in the blood

Outline CO2 transport in the blood 7% CO2 dissolves in the plasma.

23% of this combines with the Hem.

Outline the neural controls of respiration

Why does Pco2 matter?

Endocrine System

Example: a bottle of soda water has CO2 under high pressure and therefore contains a large quantity in solution when the top is removed the ‘holding’ pressure is released and the CO2 is now super-saturated at atmospheric pressure and fizzes out of solution until it reaches its equilibrium.

Each RBC contains four Hæm units (each with an atom of iron) and can bind four molecules of oxygen forming oxyhæmoglobin (bright red).Of the oxygen carried in the blood, about 85% can be extracted from the hæmoglobin, but normally only about 25% is extracted by tissues, leaving the Hb about 75% saturated on return to the lungs.

The remaining 93% diffuses into the RBC as a solution.

The remaining 70% is converted to bicarbonate ion and dissolves in the plasma to be transported as a solution

Medullary respiratory centers are responsible for the rhythm of breathingThe pons influences the activity of the medullary centers.

PCO2 is the partial pressure of CO2 (the amount of carbon dioxide gas dissolved in the blood) as PCO2 levels rise, blood pH levels will decrease, becoming more acidic as PCO2 decreases, pH levels will rise, making the blood more alkaline.Because of the differences in partial pressures of oxygen & carbon dioxide in the systemic capillaries & the body cells, oxygen diffuses from the blood & into the cells, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the blood.

Define the endocrine system and a hormone

Coordinates and directs the activity of the calls of the body via hormones in conjunction with the nervous systemEndocrine system is usually slower acting – like growthThe major components of the endocrine system are glands and organs that secrete hormones into extracellular space, they are ductless and highly vascularized

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Define a hormone

Amino acid based (e.g. proteins)Steroid-synthesized from cholesterol

Stimulated by other hormones e.g. testis

Outline the structure of the hypothalamus

Outline the structure of the pituitary gland

A hormone is a chemical messenger released into the blood or lymphatic system. It will then travel to a specific target organ/cell and will bind to its specific receptors to stimulateIt will then increase or decrease the rates of normal cellular process

List the chemical classification of hormones

Outline two major mechanisms of hormone action on target tissue and the control of hormone release

Negative feedback Internal/external stimulus – Hormone secretion – rising hormone levels – inhibition of further hormone levels

Stimulated by critical ions and nutrient (eg calcium)Stimulated by neural nerve fibers e.g the adrenal glands

is located below the thalamus, just above the brain stem. This brain region occupies the major portion of the ventral diencephalon.In humans, it is roughly the size of an almond.

Outline the function of the hypothalamus and its relationship to the pituitary gland

The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of the Autonomic Nervous System. It synthesizes and secretes neurohormones, often called hypothalamic-releasing hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones.

The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity in the pituitary fossa. It has two lobs, the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary

Outline the function of the pituitary gland and its relationship to the hypothalamus

The anterior pituitary synthesizes and secretes important endocrine hormones, such as ACTH, TSH, prolactin, growth hormone, endorphins, FSH, and LH. These hormones are released from the anterior pituitary under the influence of hypothalamic. The hypothalamic hormones travel to the anterior lobe by way of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system.

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The Digestive System

The hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary are Oxytocin, where the majority is released from the paraventricular nucleus in the hypothalamus Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin and AVP, arginine vasopressin), the majority of which is released from the supraoptic nucleus in the hypothalamusOxytocin is the only pituitary hormone to create a positive feedback loop. For example, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which in turn increases uterine contractions. This positive feedback loop continues until the baby is born.

List three examples of a pituitary hormone and their target organs

Growth Hormone: Stimulates most cells of muscles, tissue and bone to increase in size and replicate hypo-secretion would create a dwarf, hyper-secretion would create a giantATCH – Adenocorticotrophic Hormone: Stimulates to cortext of the adrenal gland to release corticosteriod hormones which helps the body to resist stressorsOxytocin: Stimulates the let down effects of the mammary glads and uterine contractions

Outline the micro anatomy of the pancreas

It is both exocrine (secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon,Under a microscope, stained sections of the pancreas reveal two different types of parenchymal tissue. Lightly staining clusters of cells are called islets of Langerhans, which produce hormones that underlie the endocrine functions of the pancreas. Darker staining cells form acini connected to ducts. Acinar cells belong to the exocrine pancreas and secrete digestive enzymes into the gut via a system of ducts.

Outline the function and the interrelationship of the two major pancreatic hormones

Glucagon is released when the glucose level in the blood is low (hypoglycemia), causing the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream. The action of glucagon is thus opposite to that of insulin, which instructs the body's cells to take in glucose from the blood in times of satiation

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Six processesIngestion (intake of food)

musoca, sub muscosa, muscularous,

Differentiate between the glands of the alimentary canal (Gastrointestinal tract) and the accessory digestive tract

GI Tract: The upper Gi tract consists of Mouth (as an orifice), Pharynx, Oesophagus. The lower GI tracts consists of Stomach, small intestines, Large intestines and anusAccessory Digestive Tract: The upper ADT consists of Teeth, Tongue, Salivary glands. The lower ADT consists of the Liver and pancreas.

List and define the major processes occurring during the digestive system activity

Propulsion (movement of food through the tractMechanical digestion (physical mixing and breaking down of food)Chemical digestion (breakdown of food by enzymatic actionAbsorption (transport of nutrients into the blood)Deification (excretion of undigested residues)

Describe the arrangement of the four layers of the alimentary canal

Describe the function of the four layers of the alimentary canal

Muscoa – Secretion/Protection against the acidity in the stomach. Sub Mucosa - Dense CT with elastin, lots of lymph. Muscular layer – responsible for churning and helps form the spinchtors

Identify the structural modifications of the wall of the stomach that enhance the digestive process

Rugae: folds of the lining which allows expansion in volume of the stomach without increased pressureSmooth Muscle: Lies first length ways then cross ways, this allows for the churning ability of the stomachMucosal Barrier: Stops the stomach from self digesting

Identify the structural modifications of the wall of the intestines that enhance the digestive process

Three main regions of the small intestine: Duodenum, Jejunum and the Ileum. The bile duct and pancreatic duct join to form the hepaticpancreatic ampulla and empty their secretions into the duodenum via the hepaticpancreatic sphincter.Villi and Micro-villi: circular folds increasing the surface area for digestion and absorption

Duodenal submucusa: Contains mucus-secreating glands (Brunners glands)

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Define metabolism

Define catabolism

Define anabolism

0. Glycolysis

Peyers Patch: Part of the lymphatic system to ingest and kill pathagonsLiver: Secretes bile into the hepatic duct

State the roles of bile and pancreatic juice in digestion

Bile is made in the liver by hepatocytes and stored in the gall bladder. upon eating is discharged into the duodenum where the bile aids the process of digestion of lipidsPancreatic juice is a juice produced by the pancreas and contains a variety of enzymes. Pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature due to the high concentration of bicarbonate ions. This is useful in neutralizing the acidic gastric acid, allowing for effective enzymic action.

List the major functions of the large intestine

The large intestine: Dries out indigestible food, stores fecal material and provides a suitable area for the bacterial colony

Outline the process of absorption and the processing of foods stuff within digestion

Almost all foodstuff, water and electrolytes are absorbed in the small intestine. Except for fat digestion products, fat soluble vitamins and most water soluble vitamins (which are absorbed through diffusion) most nutrients are absorbed through active transport (membrane transport processes run by ATP, such as solute pumping and endocytosis

Sum total of the chemical reactions occurring in the body cells

Process in which living cells break down substances into similar substances

Energy requiring building phase of metabolism in which simpler substances are combined to for more complex substances

Outline how glucose is used by a cell to produce energy by oxidation

How it gets into cells

Glucose enters the tissues cells by facilitated diffusion (this is enhanced through insulin). immediately upon entry to the cell glucose is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate.

Glucose + ATP = glucose-6-PO4 + ADP

Oxidation of glucose

Glucose is catabolized through the reaction: C6H1206 (glucose) + 6O2 (Oxygen) becomes 6H2O (Water) + 6CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) + 38 ATP + Heat

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Define Glycogenesis Formation of glycogen from glucose

Define Glycogenolsis Breakdown of glycogen to glucose

Define Glyconeogenesis

Draw

Forming new glucose from non carbohydrate molecules

Outline how fats are metabolized for energy

The products of fats and amino acids are transported in lymph in the form of a fatty protein called Chylomicrons. These are eventually are hydrolyzed by plasmas enzymes and the resulting fatty acids and glycerol are taken up by body cells and processed in various ways

Glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde-PO4 and enters the Krebs Cycle or is converted to glucoseFatty Acids are oxidized by beta oxidation into acetic acid fragments. These bind to coenzyme A and enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA. Dietary fats not needed for energy or structural materials are stored as adipose tissueBreakdown of fats and fatty acids and glycerol is called Lipolysis

Outline the synthesis of proteins (?) I think amino acids Metabolism

Amino acids are converted to keto acids that can enter the Krebs cycle. This involves transamination, oxidative deamination and keto acid modification

Outline the bodys management of cholesterol

Managed through the liver as it synthesizes, catabolizes and secretes it in the form of Bile saltsLiver controlled through negative feedback: Therefore if you eat a high cholesterol diet your liver does not produce as much. But you can see this would not have a huge effect on cholesterol in the body as if you reduce dietary intake of cholesterol then your liver will up in producing it again.

Identify the major regions of the abdominopelvic cavity and locate the major organs

Outline the main enzymes involved in chemical digestion, the foodstuffs they work on and the products we produce

Proteases digest protein - hydrolyse the amino acid chains (protein) into smaller molecules

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Outline the Krebs cycle

Reproductive and Renal system

Locate the male sexual organs Internal Genital organs

Amylases digest carbohydrate - hydrolyse the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucoseLipases digest fat – overt triglyceride substrates found in oils from food to monoglycerides and free fatty acids.

Name the membrane surrounding the organs and the body cavity

Visceral – around organs, Parietal – around the frontal body cavity

In aerobic organisms, Krebs cycle is part of a metabolic pathway involved in the chemical conversion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water to generate a form of usable energy.

The citric acid cycle begins with acetyl-CoA transferring its two-carbon acetyl group to the four-carbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate).The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing first one, then a second carboxyl group as CO2. The carbons lost as CO2 originate from what was oxaloacetate, not directly from acetyl-CoA. The carbons donated by acetyl-CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle. Loss of the acetyl-CoA-donated carbons as CO2 requires several turns of the citric acid cycle. However, because of the role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism, they may not be lost since many TCA cycle intermediates are also used as precursors for the biosynthesis of other molecules.[4]Most of the energy made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle is transferred as energy-rich electrons to NAD+, forming NADH. For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle, three molecules of NADH are produced.Electrons are also transferred to the electron acceptor Q, forming QH2.At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and the cycle continues.

Vas Deferens - Continuation of epididymis, Runs upward in the spermatic cord then enters the lesser pelvis

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External Genital Organs

Internal Genital organs

External Genital Organs

Internal Genital organs

Seminal Vesicles - The seminal vesicles are 2 sacculated and contorted tubes that are placed between the bladder and rectum Ejaculatory ducts - enters the prostatic urethra.Prostate - surrounds the commencement of the urethraBulbourethral Glands – Posterior and lateral to the membranous portion of the urethra at the base of the penis

Testes – inside the scrotum outside the body below the penisEpididymis -narrow, tightly-coiled tube connecting the efferent ducts from the rear of each testicle to its vas deferensPenis – external to the pelvic region

Outline the structure of the male sexual organs

Vas Deferens – tube that allows for travel of spermSeminal Vesicles – Tubular glands Ejaculatory ducts – the junction of the Vans Deferens and Seminal VesiclesProstate - firm, partly glandular and partly fibromuscular bodyBulbourethral Glands - each approximately the size of a pea. They are composed of several lobules held together by a fibrous covering

Testes – testis contains very fine coiled tubes called the seminiferous tubules. The tubes are lined with a layer of cells that, from puberty into old-age, produce sperm cellsEpididymis - narrow, tightly-coiled tube connecting the efferent ducts from the rear of each testicle to its vas deferensPenis – has a root and a body. Skin is thin and loose. it is made up of three columns of tissue: two corpora cavernosa lie next to each other on the dorsal side and one corpus spongiosum lies between them on the ventral side.

The end of the corpus spongiosum is enlarged and bulbous-shaped and forms the glans penis. The glans supports the foreskin or prepuce, a loose fold of skin that in adults can retract to expose the glans. The area on the underside of the penis, where the foreskin is attached, is called the frenum (or frenulum).

Outline the function of the male sexual organs

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External Genital Organs

Internal Organs

External Organs

Vas Deferens – Passage for sperm from the testisSeminal Vesicles - They secrete a significant proportion of the fluid that ultimately becomes semen. About 60% of the seminal fluid in humans originates from the seminal vesicles.Ejaculatory ducts – unites Vans deferens and Seminal vesiclesProstate - The main function of the prostate is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline (pH 7.29) fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluidBulbourethral Glands - During sexual arousal each gland produces a clear, viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate. This fluid helps to lubricate the urethra for spermatozoa to pass through, it neutralizes traces of acidic urine in urethra

Testes – formation of spermEpididymis -tube for passage of spermPenis – urination and reproductive organ

Outline the location of the female sexual organs

Vagina – extending from the cervix of the uterus to its external opening, the vestibule of the vagina Uterus - anteflexed so that the body of the uterus lies across the superior and posterior surfaces of the bladder.Uterine Tubes - extend laterally from the uterine horns and open into the peritoneal cavity near the ovaries close to the lateral pelvic wallsOvaries - located close to the lateral pelvic walls

Mons Pubis - rounded fatty prominence anterior to the pubic symphysisLabia Majora - prominent folds of skin that lie at the sides of the pudendal cleftLabia Minora - surround the vestibule of the vagina Clitoris - located where the labia minora meet anteriorlyVestible of Vagina - the space between the labia minoraBulbs of Vestibule - lie alongside the vaginal orificeGreater Vestibular Gland - two glands located slightly below and to the left and right of the opening of the vagina

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Internal Organs

External Organs

Internal Organs

External Organs

Outline the structure of the female sex organs

Vagina – elastic muscular tube Uterus - thick walled pear –shaped, hollow muscular organUterine Tubes - hollow muscular tube, transports the ovaOvaries - almond shaped glands

Mons Pubis – Rounded fatty pad protects the pubic boneLabia Majora - prominent folds of skinLabia Minora – fat free hairless skinClitoris – erectile organ - commonly about the size of a pea that is visable. Following from the head back and up along the shaft, it is found that this extends up to several centimeters before reversing direction, branched resulting in a shaped like an inverted "V", and extending as a pair of "legs" Vestible of Vagina - contains the openings of the urethra, vagina and ducts of the vestibular glandsBulbs of Vestibule – mass of erectile tissueGreater Vestibular Gland - two glands

Outline the function of the female sex organs

Vagina – Path for menstrual blood, sexual activity, channel for childbirthUterus - The main function of the uterus is to accept a fertilized ovum for reproduction of children Uterine Tubes - hollow muscular tube, transports the ovaOvaries – produce eggs (ova)

Mons Pubis – protects the pubic boneLabia Majora - protection for the urethral and vaginal orificesLabia Minora – protectionClitoris – erectile/sensory organ for pleasureVestible of Vagina - contains the openings of the urethra, vagina and ducts of the vestibular glandsBulbs of Vestibule – mass of erectile tissue – sensory/pleasure organGreater Vestibular Gland – secretion of mucous for reduction of friction and protection

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Outline the ovarian cycle

Outline the Uterine cycle

Otherwise known as sex steroids

Follicular phase (1-14) the lining of the uterus thickens, stimulated by increasing amounts of estrogen. Follicles in the ovary begin developing via hormones. At 14 days (approx) the oocyte follicle (dominant) releases an ovum or egg in an event called ovulation. It takes one to two weeks to travel down the fallopian tubes to the uterus. Luteal Phase: (15-28) After ovulation the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium (uterine lining) changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will die, causing sharp drops in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. These hormone drops cause the uterus to shed its lining in a process termed menstruation.

Menstrual phase: (1-5) the function layer sloughs off in mensesProliferative phase: (6-14) rising estrogen levels stimulate regeneration and is receptive ti ova implantationSecretary Phase: (15-28) uterine glands secrete glycogen and endometrial vascularity increasesThe last few days with a combinations of hormones and blood supply reduction causes menses to occur

List the sex hormones and summarize their effects

androgens: stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics1. testosterone : include enhanced libido, increased energy, increased production of red blood cells and protection against osteoporosis2. androstenedione : Prohormone for converting into testosterone or estrogen3. dihydrotestosterone: DHT is produced by males in utero and is responsible for the formation of male sex-specific characteristics4. dehydroepiandrosterone: Prohormone for converting into testosterone or estrogen

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What is Mitosis

What is Meioses

Describe the anatomy of the kidney

5. anabolic steroids: They increase protein synthesis within cells, which results in the buildup of cellular tissue, especially in muscles. Anabolic steroids also have androgenic properties, including the development and maintenance of growth of the vocal cords and body hair.estrogens: stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of female characteristics1. estradiol: Estradiol is critical for reproductive and sexual functioning, but also affects other organs including bone structure2. estrone: Estrone is relevant to health and disease due to its conversion to estrone sulfate, a long-lived derivative of estrone. Estrone sulfate acts as a pool of estrone which can be converted as needed to the more active estradiolprogestagens: Effects similar to those of progesterone1. progesterone: Involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis2. progestins: SYNTHETIC: The two most frequent uses of progestins are for hormonal contraception (either alone or with an estrogen), and to prevent endometrial hyperplasia from unopposed estrogen in hormone replacement therapy. Progestins are also used to treat secondary amenorrhea, dysfunctional uterine bleeding and endometriosis, and as palliative treatment of endometrial cancer, renal cell carcinoma, breast cancer, and prostate cancer.

Creates a new cell (eg skin repair) is the process by which a cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei

The splitting of a cells in half to create gametes with only 23 chromosomes (46 in normal cells)

renal capsule: The membranous covering of the kidney.cortex: The outer layer over the internal medulla. It contains blood vessels, glomeruli (which are the kidneys' "filters") and urine tubes and is supported by a fibrous matrix.hilus: The opening in the middle of the concave medial border for nerves and blood vessels to pass into the renal sinus.

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Describe the nephron

renal column: The structures which support the cortex. They consist of lines of blood vessels and urinary tubes and a fibrous material.renal sinus: The cavity which houses the renal pyramids.calyces: The recesses in the internal medulla which hold the pyramids. They are used to subdivide the sections of the kidney. (singular - calyx)papillae: The small conical projections along the wall of the renal sinus. They have openings through which urine passes into the calyces. (singular - papilla)renal pyramids: The conical segments within the internal medulla. They contain the secreting apparatus and tubules and are also called malpighian pyramids.renal artery: Two renal arteries come from the aorta, each connecting to a kidney. The artery divides into five branches, each of which leads to a ball of capillaries. The arteries supply (unfiltered) blood to the kidneys. The left kidney receives about 60% of the renal bloodflow.renal vein: The filtered blood returns to circulation through the renal veins which join into the inferior vena cava.

renal pelvis: Basically just a funnel, the renal pelvis accepts the urine and channels it out of the hilus into the ureter.ureter: A narrow tube 40 cm long and 4 mm in diameter. Passing from the renal pelvis out of the hilus and down to the bladder. The ureter carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder by means of peristalsis.renal lobe: Each pyramid together with the associated overlying cortex forms a renal lobe

Each nephron is composed of an initial filtering component (the "renal corpuscle") and a tubule specialized for reabsorption and secretion (the "renal tubule"). The renal corpuscle filters out large solutes from the blood, delivering water and small solutes to the renal tubule for modification.This is under high pressure with the small filters like a coffee filter

Describe the location of the urinary organs and their location

Kidney, ureter, bladder plus prostrate for men, urethra. The urethra passes through the UG (muscular diaphragm)

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Integumental System

Identify the nephron parts responsible for filtration, reabsorption and secretion

Filtration: cortex: Glomerular filtration: The outer layer over the internal medulla. It contains blood vessels, glomeruli (which are the kidneys' "filters") and urine tubes and is supported by a fibrous matrix.Reabsorption: The proximal tubule is the portion of the duct system of the nephron leading from Bowman's capsule to the loop of Henle. Takes back things like saltsSecretion: renal pyramids: The conical segments within the internal medulla. They contain the secreting apparatus and tubules and are also called malpighian pyramids.

Outline the mechanisms for the nephron cortex/glomerular filtration

The glomerular membrane is highly permeable and allows fluid and small molecular weight solutes to pass into Bowman's space. The glomerular capillary tuft with its interconnected loops increases available surface area. Finally, arterioles at both ends of the glomerulus modulate intraglomerular pressure.

Outline the mechanisms for the nephron Proximal Tubual

Sodium potassium pump on the micovilli. Reabsorption involves both passive and active transport mechanisms. Passive transport includes osmosis and diffusion while active transport mechanisms, such as primary and secondary transport and endocytosis, require the use of energy to move substances against an electrochemical gradient.

Outline the mechanisms for the nephron Renal pyramid

Tabular secretion is the movement of solutes from the peritubular capillaries into the tubular system. It is the process by which the body secretes unwanted or excess substances. Like reabsorption, secretion occurs by both passive and active transport mechanisms. As with reabsorption, secretion of substances is regulated by a number of factors, many of them hormonal in nature.

List the kidney functions that contribute to homeostasis

Filtration, reabsorption and secretion which regulates blood volume, its composition, PH of the blood and eliminates nitrogenous metabolic waste from the blood.

Describe the normal physical and chemical properties of urine

A clear yellow and aromatic. Slightly acidic, 95% water, should never be proteins in it such as erythrocytes

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What is the function of the dermis

What are the layers of the dermis

What is the function of the epidermis protects the body from the environment

What are the layers of the epidermis

Name the tissue type composing the epidermis

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basal lamina.

Name the tissue type composing the dermis

Connective tissue proper – both areolar and dense irregular CT

Name the tissue type composing the hypodermis

consists of adipose tissue, loose connective tissue and small bundles of smooth muscle cells

he main functions of the dermis are to regulate temperature and to supply the epidermis with nutrient-saturated blood.

The Papillary Layer: The upper, papillary layer, contains a thin arrangement of collagen fibers. The papillary layer supplies nutrients to select layers of the epidermis and regulates temperature. The Reticular Layer : The lower, reticular layer, is thicker and made of thick collagen fibers that are arranged in parallel to the surface of the skin. The reticular layer is denser than the papillary dermis, and it strengthens the skin, providing structure and elasticity. It also supports other components of the skin, such as hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.

he Basal Cell Layer : The basal layer is the innermost layer of the epidermis, and contains small round cells called basal cells. The basal cells continually divide, and new cells constantly push older ones up toward the surface of the skin, where they are eventually shed. The basal cell layer is also known as the stratum germinativum due to the fact that it is constantly germinating (producing) new cells. The basal cell layer contains cells called melanocytes. Merkel cells, which are tactile cells of neuroectodermal origin, are also located in the basal layer of the epidermis.

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Pacinian corpuscles (deep touch)Meissner's corpuscles (light touch), Merkel's discs (Texture)Ruffini corpuscles (skin stretch).Sweat gland

Eccrine GlandSebaceous GlandHair follicles

The stratum spinosum Layer : This squamous cell layer is located above the basal layer, the cells are held together with spiny projections. Within this layer are the basal cells that have been pushed upward, however these maturing cells are now called squamous cells, or keratinocytes. Keratinocytes produce keratin, a tough, protective protein that makes up the majority of the structure of the skin, hair, and nails.The Stratum Granulosum & the Stratum LucidumThe keratinocytes from the stratum spinosum layer are then pushed up through two thin epidermal layers called the stratum granulosum and the stratum lucidum. As these cells move further towards the surface of the skin, they get bigger and flatter and adhere together, and then eventually become dehydrated and die. The Stratum Corneum : Is the outermost layer of the epidermis, and is made up of 10 to 30 thin layers of continually shedding, dead keratinocytes. The stratum corneum is also known as the “horny layer,” because its cells are toughened like an animal’s horn. As the outermost cells age and wear down, they are replaced by new layers of strong, long-wearing cells.

List and locate the organelles found in glabrous skin

There are four main types of mechanoreceptors (sensory receptors) in the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans

List and locate the organelles found in hirsute skin

List the glands found in skin and their functions

Eccrine Gland/Sweat gland – temperature regulation through water secretionSebaceous Gland – Oil producing gland for sebum softens and lubricates skin and hairCeruminous Glands – of the ear producing ear wasMammary Glands – secrete milk

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Pacinian corpuscles (deep touch)Meissner's corpuscles (light touch), Merkel's discs (Texture)Ruffini corpuscles (skin stretch).

Outline how the skin accomplishes at least 5 different functions

Protection against infection: Intact skin forms a primary barrier against pathogens. Surface is always being shed, the stratum Corneum is also resistant to penetrationProtection against dehydration: Keratin in the epidermous and the sebum released helps to waterproof the skin and prevent evaporationRegulation of Body temperature: Blood supply and sweatCollection of sensory information: Nerve ending in the skin relay messages back to the brainVitamin D synthesis – from its precursors under the effect of sunlight and introversion of steroids.

Name and outline the neural receptors of the skin

There are four main types of mechanoreceptors (sensory receptors) in the glabrous (hairless) skin of humans

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Ligaments – FibroblastCartilage – more elastic fibres but little collagen

Check out page 14 number 5

Tendon connects to bones and muscle

Ligaments connect to just bone

Hyaline cartilage – The only fibre in their matrix is fine collagen fibers

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The motor neuron will be stimulated. At the axon hillock, this will cause Na+ to rush into the axon, triggering an action potential. This will propagate down the axon until it reaches the terminal button. Here, Calcium will enter the cell and travel across the synaptic cleft and bind on receptors located on the motor end plate. This will cause Na+ to rush into the muscle cell, triggering an action potential.This action potential will travel through a network of T-tubules, causing a release of Ca++ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This Ca++ allows for muscle contraction to occur.

A spontaneous self-propagating change in membrane potential Action potentials are triggered when the cell's membrane potential depolarizes Voltage sensitive ion channels cause an in influx of sodium ions (making the inside more positive = depolarization) followed by potassium efflux (making the outside more positive). The potassium efflux brings the membrane potential below the threshold and thus to rest.

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There are three main types of extracellular matrix (ECM): loose connective tissue (Tendons, dermis, etc.), dense connective tissue (cartilage, bone) and basement membranes (underlie any epithelia and form special structure like molecular filter of the glomeruli).Each type of ECM is made of many types of glycoproteins but each is primarily made of examples of three types of proteins that are specific for each kind of connective tissue:1) collagens for the fibrous foundation of all types of connective tissue.

2) proteoglycans and GAGS (small proteins with lots of carbohydrate attached to them) that bind to lots of water and growth factors and swell to fill much of the space occupied by connective tissue. For example, proteoglycan is responsible for the squishy cushioning properties of cartilage.

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3) multi-adhesive proteins like laminin and fibronectin, which tie things together by being able to bind to collagens, proteoglycans and to cells.

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Active – energy required, Passive – no energy required

Deoxyribose – upright rungs sugar and phosphate

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12 ribs half of the vertebrae 7 of which are true ribs

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C.A.M.E.O

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1. The motor neuron will be stimulated. At the axon hillock, this will cause Na+ to rush into the axon, triggering an action potential.

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1. Calcium channels open in the presynaptic Nerve. 2. Neurotransmitter is released 3.Neurotransmitter binds to post-synaptic receptor.

4. Ion channels open in post-synaptic membrane. 5. Neurotransmitter effects are terminated.

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references

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Preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to break down starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through the churning of the stomach and mixing with enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with excretion

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Big to small

Small to big

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