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Varjiram Mains POLITICAL SCIENCE TEST 1: Political Theory(Paper I Section A) With Detailed AnswerClick On The Image To View

Structure of Answers of the TEST SERIES -PAPER I - POLITICAL THEORY.------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------ ---Section A

1.(a) Radical Humanism

a. Concept by M.N.Royb. Believed that Communism haddegenerated into nationalism andauthoritarianism after WW IIc. Pleaded for new humanism based uponnatural reason and secular conscienced. Gave primacy to humans over states.Radical in thought as MN Roys ideologystreams through all other existing institutionslike Family,Community, Society and State.e. Believed that individual freedom needs tobe protected against totalitarianism.f. He proposed revolution by consent guidedby a philosophy with universal appealg. Radical Humanism was a failed ideologymainly due to Gandhian ideology prevalent atthat time and also because of politics beingdegenerated with time

------------------------------ --------------------------------------------------1. (b) Mandala Theory

a. Mandala Theory of State - KautilyasArthashastrab. Can be considered as the first treatise onforeign policy, balance of power conceptc. In good state, only good laws, administration, welfare and happiness doesnt suffice, there has to be goodrelations with states tood. Mandala theory is about how to keep good relations with other states through friendship and diplomacye. Six Fold (Guna) Policy Peace, War, Neutrality, Marching, Alliance and Double Policy & Territorial Relationsf. To pursue foreign policy, foreign rulers were considered of four kinds Ari (Enemy), Mitra(Friend),Madhyama(Mediator), Udasin (Neutral).g. The doctrine of mandala means circles of states.h. According to Kautilya, there are four basic circle of states Conquerors (Vijigishu) circle of state, Enemys (Ari)circle of states, Mediators (Madhyama) circle of states and Neutrals (Udasin) circle of statesi. The king has to preserve and expand his territory. For this he needs to embark on one of the six policies orgunas. If king is weaker, he should maintain peace. If king is superior, he should wage war. If both kings are on

equal footing, there should be neutrality. If king is well endowed, he should dwell on marching (preparedness forwar). If the king is weaker he should form alliance and if need arises to crush an enemy with the assistance ofsome other powerful king, he should follow Double policy.j. Kautilya, thus, envisages a brilliant theory of inter-state relations and lays focus on the external geographicalfactors for maintenance of peace and territorial consolidation.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------1. (c) Ashramas and Purusharthas

Ashramas are the four stages of life according to ManusmritiLife is very systematically and orderly arranged in Sanatana Dharma.There are four Asramas or stages in life, viz., Brahmacharya or the period of studentship, Grihastha or the stage ofthe householder, Vanaprastha or the stage of the forest-dweller or hermit, and Sannyasa or the life of renunciationor asceticism. Each stage has its own duties. These stages help the evolution of man. The four Asramas take manto perfection by successive stages. The practice of the four Asramas regulates the life from the beginning to theend. The first two Asramas pertain to Pravritti Marga or the path of work and the two later stagesthe life ofVanaprastha and that of Sannyasaare the stages of withdrawal from the world. They pertain to Nivritti Marga orthe path of renunciation.

The two concepts of Ashramas and Purusharthas are inexplicably linked to each otherThe Ashrama system is believed to be adhered to lead a fulfillment of the four aims of life that is Purasharths Dharma, Artha, Kaam, Moksha(1) Artha: The Sanskrit word artha means that which one seeks. Whatever activity and physical material a manneeds to support life can be considered as artha. Artha, in a broad sense, covers mans professional activities, job,business, wealth, property and all such earthly material helpful in maintaining his life.(2) Kama: Man seeks pleasure in various activities and material objects. Pursuit of happiness and pleasure is abasic, natural instinct in man. Man derives pleasures from relationships and material objects like food, drink etc.This is kama. Man largely accumulates artha for kama. But artha and kama should be closely linked with thedharma. They should be directed towards dharma.(3) Dharma: 'That which sustains' is dharma. The word dharma stems from the Sanskrit root dhr meaning tosustain or to support. Dharma sustains or maintains life. Dharma supports the society. Man lives in the societywith fellow-men and various life forms. Dharma lays down duties and obligations expected of man. An individualand the society, for their conduct and actions, get guidance from dharma. Man has obligation to his own self, to thefellow-men and to the society, in fact, to the whole environment of the world. All the mutual obligations of theseinter-relationships are spelt out by dharma.(4) Moksha: Moksha means liberation or total freedom. The Sanskrit word moksha is derived from the root muk.This root means to emancipate or to release or to free. Indian tradition considers moksha as the ultimate goalof life. The sufferings of man are due to avidya, his original ignorance about self. He has been oblivious of his trueidentity. He attaches himself to worldly objects. Tempted and pressed by everlasting lust and insurmountabledesires, he remains bonded to the mundane objects. When knowledge (vidya) dawns on him, he overcomes thedualities of the world and identifies himself as the infinite, eternal Being. Having been completely free from allattachments, expectations and desires, the liberated soul attains moksha.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------1. (d) Gandhi on Satyagrahaa. Important concept of Gandhis theory of spiritual politicsb. Related to social, cultural, political, economic and psychological conditions of Gandhis lifec. Believed supreme law governing societies is love and non-violence.d. Truth and non-violence was the supreme power. For Gandhi Satyagraha means urge for truth. It means holdingon to truth, hence truth-force.e. For Gandhi force is of two types physical and spiritual. We are acquainted with physical force but it consist ofviolence and weapon of brutes. The spiritual force is an invisible one. It is also called soul force.f. Satyagraha term was coined by Gandhi in South Africa. It was developed as a weapon of the strong andexcluded any violence.g. It is a method of direct action. It is also a weapon of social control based on ahimsa and moral persuasion.

h. The aim of satyagraha is destruction of the evil and not the evil doer; sin and not the sinner. It leads to self-purification. Can be utilized by anyone to reach ones goal through non-violent means.i. Hence for Gandhi, satyagraha was also self-sacrifice. A satyagrahi can attain moral strength to fight any injustice.j. Gandhi employed Satyagraha technique in South Africa and in India to fight against the injustices of the BritishEmpire.k. Satyagraha is also different from passive resistance as in the latter, if circumstances so demand one may resortto violence but satyagraha is totally wedded to non-violence and truth. Satyagraha aims to bring about the changein heart of the sinner but killing the sin and not the evil doer or sinner.l. Satyagraha, for Gandhi, was the ultimate weapon of the strong and not of the weak. It was a philosophy for anew way of life to attain religious and moral objectives through truth and non-violence.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------1. (e) Overdeveloped State

a. Concept given by Marxist thinker Hamza Alavi after study of states like Pakistan & Bangladesh.b. Developed the concept to describe the nature of state in post-colonial societies.c. The colonial experience in these states brings about a structural change in form of developing a military bureaucratic oligarchy.d. These post-colonial states were not a part of the development history of its own society but had been imposedfrom outside in form of the structural changes.e. The original goal of the overdeveloped state was to further the economic and political goals of metropolitancountry.f. The military-bureaucratic apparatus controlled and subordinated the indigenous social class in support of thedominant indigenous class.g. Inherited state structures from the colonial powers merely continue the essence of the strategy of themetropolitan power.h. The political state becomes overdeveloped in comparison to the socio-economic state. State plays acommanding role in economy. The state gives an impression that it is working in the interest of the people.i. Three economic classes - metropolitan bourgeoisie, indigenous & feudal lords, tries to compete with each otherfor resources.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------2 (a) Gramsci Notion of War of Position and War of Manoeuvre , its effect on National Movement

War of manoeuvre: Frontal attack; The main goal is winning quickly; Especially recommended for societies with a centralised and dominant state power that have failed in developinga strong hegemony within the civil society (i.e. Bolshevik revolution, 1917).War of position: Long struggle; Primarily, across institutions of civil society; Secondly, the socialist forces gain control through cultural and ideological struggle, instead of only political andeconomic contest; Especially suggested for the liberal-democratic societies of Western capitalism with weaker states but strongerhegemonies (i.e.: Italy); These countries have more extensive and intricate civil societies that deserve a longer and more complexstrategy.According to Bipan Chandra in his book Indias Struggle for Independence, Gramscian notion of War of Positionand War of Manoeuvre provides an ideological tool to understand the emergence of nationalist movement and thestrategy adopted by the leaders to fight the alien powers.Excerpts from Bipan Chandras Indias Struggle for Independence where he discusses the Gramscian Theoryexplaining Indian National Movement is as follows The Indian national movement, in fact, provides the only actual historical example of a semi-democratic ordemocratic type of political structure being successfully replaced or transformed. It is the only movement where the

broadly Gramscian theoretical perspective of a war of position was successfully practiced; where state power wasnot seized in a single historical moment of revolution, but through prolonged popular struggle on a moral, politicaland ideological level; where reserves of counter-hegemony were built up over the years through progressivestages; where the phases of struggle alternated with passive phases.The Indian national movement is also an example of how the constitutional space offered by the existing structurecould be used without getting co-opted by it. It did not completely reject this space, as such rejection in democraticsocieties entails heavy costs in terms of hegemonic influence and often leads to isolation but entered it andused it effectively in combination with non-constitutional struggle to overthrow the existing structure.The Indian national movement is perhaps one of the best examples of the creation of an extremely widemovement with a common aim in which diverse political and ideological currents could coexist and work andsimultaneously continue to contend for overall ideological and political hegemony over it. While intense debate onall basic issues was allowed, the diversity and tension did not weaken the cohesion and striking power of themovement; on the contrary, this diversity and atmosphere of freedom and debate became a major source of itsstrength.Today, over forty years after independence, we are still close enough to the freedom struggle to feel its warmthand yet far enough to be able to analyse it coolly, and with the advantage of hindsight.Analyse it we must, for our past, present and future are inextricably linked to it. Men and women in every age andsociety make their own history, but they do not make it in a historical vacuum, de novo.Their efforts, however innovative, at finding solutions to their problems in the present and charting out their future,are guided and circumscribed, moulded and conditioned, by their respective histories, their inherited economic,political and ideological structures. To make myself clearer, the path that India has followed since 1947 has deeproots in the struggle for independence. The political and ideological features, which have had a decisive impact onpost-independence development, are largely a legacy of the freedom struggle. It is a legacy that belongs to all theIndian people, regardless of which party or group they belong to now, for the party which led this struggle from1885 to 1947 was not then a party but a movement all political trends from the Right to the Left wereincorporated in it.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ -----------------2 (b) Behavioural Revolution

a. An approach in study of Political Science which believed that social theories should be constructed on the basisof observable behavior providing quantifiable data for research.b. Early to mid 20th Centuryc. Roots may be traced to General Systems Theoryd. In Political Science, roots of Behaviouralism can be traced in writings of Graham Wallace, Arthur Bentley,Merriam, Catlin and Lasswell.e. Originated as dissatisfaction with the traditional approaches which were too much value based and value laden.f. It criticized the normativism of the traditional approach relying too much on what ought to be rather than whatis. Political Scientists were not contributing to the global affairs like Environment, Disarmament, gender issuesetc. hence making Political Science irrelevant as a discipline.g. The APSA gave a call to break free from the traditional approaches and indulge in empirical research. It layemphasis on scientific methodologies as done by other social sciences.h. According to Robert Dahl Behavioralism is a protest movement.i. Focused on acts, attitudes, preferences and political behavior of man in the political context. Laid emphasis oncollection and examination of facts. Rejects the political institutions as basis of study as relied on the actualpolitical behavior of man.j. David Easton stressed on the mutual interdependence of theory and research. He laid the intellectual foundationfor the behavioral movement in Political Science on basis on the eight points Regularities, Verification,Technique, Quantification, Values, Systemization of Research, Pure Science and Integration.k. It widened the approach to the study of Political Science and accorded it importance among the social sciences.However, later criticized that it had constrained the study of the subject and limited it to too much of empiricism andfacts, preventing it from going beyond what is obvious.l. Political Scientists became obsessed with mere quantifiable data threatening to overlook the rich heritage ofnormative study of traditional approached and its significance. It was criticized as mindless empiricism.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ --------------------2(c) Power as a capacity to act in concert

a. This concept emanate s from the philosophy of Hannah Arendt and her views on Power and Civic Republicismb. She distinguished between violence and power and arrived at a constructive view of power.c. In her view, there is a difference in power on and power to. For her power is not the property of an individual.Power is not just to act but to act in concert.d. Hence she emphasized on the group dynamics of power.e. For her legitimacy of power is derived from initial getting together of people and is reaffirmed when individualsact in concert through the medium of speech and persuasion.f. Hence the capacity to yield power in only when individuals act in concert and not individually as singular acts ofviolence. Power relations are essentially cooperative. It belongs to a group and it remains so long as group istogether. So acting in concert is what gives capacity to act in power.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------------3 (a) Was fascism merely a product of specific historical circumstances of inter-war period? Is fascism dead?

a. Fascism can be described as political opportunism manifestation of pure power politics with complete disregardfor ethics.b. The term is used in generic sense to describe social and political system established in inter war period inEurope under Mussolini in Italyc. It is against rationalism and the foundation of Fascist politics is not in reason of man but in passions.d. To a greater extent fascism can be said to be a product of specific historical circumstances of inter war period.e. Fascism which emerged in the post WW I period used the existing crisis to further its goals.f. Mussolini and Hitler were alike in their hatred against the allies and for this reason Italy was denied its principalterritorial claims at Paris Conference in 1919 and Germany was declared guilty of war and therefore made victimof severe indemnification which included loss of overseas colonies, cessation of its bordering territories to France,Poland, Denmark and Belgium, huge war bills was to be paid to the allies coupled with national humiliation.g. The economy of both the countrys were shattered and political and social conditions were in a bad shapeh. The youth were jobless and disillusioned and all strata of society were at the receiving end.i. This led to the rise of demagogue leaders like Mussolini and Hitler who based their politics on sheer populism.They appealed to the people on a promise to redeem the lost pride and prestige. They promised the people tocapture what was not given to them and take back what was taken away through Treaty of Versailles.j. The Falangists in Spain in 1930s, Salazars right wing authoritarian government in Portugal in 1930s, theAustrian Nazis around 1944 and the Vichie regime in France during WW II are other examples of Fascism whichemerged due to the social and political conditions prevailing at that time.k. Fascism as an ideology breeds upon crisis and insecurity among peoplel. Sense of relative deprivation also leads to the rise of demogogues.m. In contemporary world fascism exist in form of religious fundamentalism, can be understood in terms of identitypolitics. Sense of identity crisis felt when there is an attack on what Amartya Sen calls stress on singular identity,helps a demagogue to consolidate his power.n. No, fascism isnt dead. There is a whole ideology called neo-fascism, and all they do is implement Fascisticpolicies in modern governments. Discuss Iran, North Korea egs to highlight neo-fascism and gives opinionsaccordingly.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------3 (b) Do you think power is essentially contested concept?

m. For Bertrand Russel power is the production of intended effects and for Robert Dahl power is a kind ofinfluencen. Different scholars have defined power in different wayso. Important perspectives on power I. Class perspective Karl Marx, Lenin, Rosa Luxemberg, Mao and other MarxistsII. Neo-Marxists like Antonia Gramsci define power in terms of HegemonyIII. Elitist school - Pareto, Mosca, Michels, Max Weber, C. Wright mills

IV. Gender perspectiveV. Group Perspective Alexis de Tocqueville, Robert Dahl, Charles LindblomVI. Constructive View of power - Hannah Arendt, C B MacphersonVII. Post Modernists Foucault

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------3 (c) How the concept of hegemony complicates the concept of legitimacy?

a. In political science, legitimacy is the popular acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a rgime.b. Gramsci used the term Hegemony to describe how the domination of one class over others is achieved by acombination of political and ideological meansc. Against the political force which is coercion, to maintain domination Gramsci proposed the concept ofhegemony.d. According to him, ideology plays an important role in winning the consent of dominated classe. Hegemony for Gramsci was a form of control exercised by dominant class when a class succeeds inpersuading the other classes of society to accept its own moral cultural valuef. The notion of hegemony thus complicates the very idea of legitimacyg. For Gramsci hegemony is a form of control exercised primarily through the societys superstructure as opposedto its base or social relations of production of a predominantly economic character.h. For Gramsci civil society which includes church, trade unions, schools etc. helps in perpetuating the dominancethrough hegemonyi. Through the concept of hegemony the very idea of legitimacy is challenged as the consent which is the base oflegitimacy is questioned.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ -------------------------4 (a) Power is everywhere: Foucault

a. Michel Foucault, the French postmodernist, has been hugely influential in shaping understandings of power. Hebelongs to post modernists tradition that believes that truth is always contested.b. Foucault to a great extent re-conceptualized the notion of power. For him power is not obstructionist rather is aproductive notion.c. He contest the idea of single origin of power rather treats power as capillary flowing throughout the system.d. Foucault moved away from the analysis of actors who use power as an instrument of coercion, and even awayfrom the discreet structures in which those actors operate, toward the idea that power is everywhere, diffusedand embodied in discourse, knowledge and regimes of truthe. Power for Foucault is what makes us what we are, operating on a quite different level from other theories:f. His work marks a radical departure from previous modes of conceiving power and cannot be easily integratedwith previous ideas, as power is diffuse rather than concentrated, embodied and enacted rather than possessed,discursive rather than purely coercive, and constitutes agents rather than being deployed by.g. Foucault challenges the idea that power is wielded by people or groups by way of episodic or sovereign actsof domination or coercion, seeing it instead as dispersed and pervasive. Power is everywhere and comes fromeverywhere so in this sense is neither an agency nor a structure. Instead it is a kind of metapower or regime oftruth that pervades society, and which is in constant flux and negotiation. Foucault uses the termpower/knowledge to signify that power is constituted through accepted forms of knowledge, scientificunderstanding and truth:h. Foucault is one of the few writers on power who recognise that power is not just a negative, coercive orrepressive thing that forces us to do things against our wishes, but can also be ai. Power is also a major source of social discipline and conformity. In shifting attention away from the sovereignand episodic exercise of power, traditionally centred in feudal states to coerce their subjects, Foucault pointed toa new kind of disciplinary power that could be observed in the administrative systems and social services thatwere created in 18th century Europe, such as prisons, schools and mental hospitals. Their systems of surveillanceand assessment no longer required force or violence, as people learned to discipline themselves and behave inexpected ways.j. A key point about Foucaults approach to power is that it transcends politics and sees power as an everyday,socialised and embodied phenomenon. This is why state-centric power struggles, including revolutions, do not

always lead to change in the social order.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------------4 (b) Man is embedded self Charles Taylor

a. Charles Taylor belongs to the communitarian school.b. Against the atomistic notion of individual put forward by the liberals, communitarians advance the concept ofsituated self. It means the individual is constituted by his social roles practices and situationsc. For them, individual is identified through his social contextd. Taylor supported the views of another champion of communitarian view MacIntyre who rejected the liberalnotion of individual as atomized creatures.e. Taylor argued that atomistic type of individualism promised freedom for human actors but ultimately failed torealize the human beings constantly reflect on their life in order to find its meaning.f. Communitarians insist that each of us as an individual develops an identity, talents and pursuits in life only asmember of the community and by sharing

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----------------------------4 (c) One is not born, rather becomes a woman

a. Simon de Beauvoir made this observation I her work The Second Sexb. She belonged to the Radical school of feminism and made a clear demarcation between gender and sexc. While sex is a biological category, gender is a social constructd. Beauvoir challenged the Sigmund Freuds famous dictum Anatomy is Destiny by ascertaining that a women isnot born but made.e. She argued that the dependent, derivative status of women as the other of man was the product of herupbringing in society.f. She exhorted women to strive to transform their status and life style across all social and cultural referencepointsg. According to this school, when we use the term sex, its scope is limited to biological differences such asreproductive function and secondary biological characteristics but the term gender refers to cultural ideas thatconstruct images and expectations of both females and males.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ --------------------------Section - B

5. (a) Dialectic Materialism

a. Dialectics is a process of enquiry used by different political and social philosophers.b. However in the works of Hegel and Marx the theory assumes political dimensions. According to them, a newidea emerges after the contradiction between thesis and anti-thesis, which is termed as synthesis.c. Philosophy of Marxism that provides the scientific and comprehensive world outlook.d. Basis this philosophy, Karl Marx explained the gradual movement of history.e. Karl Marx starts with Hegelian Dialectics but commented that he made dialectics stand on his head. He,therefore, rejected Hegels idealism and considered matter as the ultimate driving force of societies.f. Social institutions were the manifestation of changing material conditionsg. Three laws of dialectic materialism are Law of quantity into quality, law of unity of opposites, and law ofnegation of negation.h. For Marx, everything in existence is a unity of opposites; every phenomenon, the thesis, gives birth to its anti-thesis there is thus the law of negation of negation; these opposites must interpenetrate with each other andthen begins the law of transformation from quantity to quality, the new mode of production is the synthesis which,with the passage of time, becomes thesis in relation of production. Thus, the process of social development keepsmarching ahead.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----------------------------5 (b) Multicultural Citizenship

a. Against the traditional concept of citizenship which ignores the cultural and social differences, multiculturalcitizenship takes note of it and attempts to address the concerns related to it.b. Liberal notion of citizenship is criticized to be colour blind as it ignores the cultural differences.c. Contemporary debates on citizenship and rights have questioned the idea that citizens can enjoy the rightsindependent of the context they belongd. Main proponents Will Kymlicka, Bikhu Parekhe. According to Kymlicka cultures are valuable and distinct and provide a context in which individuals are providedwith meaning, orientation, identity and belonging. He identifies three kinds of minority rights self-governmentrights, poly-ethnic rights and special representation rightsf. Bhikhu Parekh argues for a pluralist perspective on cultural diversity. Writing from both within the liberal traditionand outside of it as a critic, he challenges what he calls the "moral monism" of much of traditional moralphilosophy, including contemporary liberalism.He defends his pluralist perspective both at the level of theory andin subtle nuanced analyses of recent controversies. Thus, he offers careful and clear accounts of why culturaldifferences should be respected and publicly affirmed.g. He argues for a dialogic interplay between human commonalities and cultural differences. This will allow,Parekh argues, genuinely balanced and thoughtful compromises on even the most controversial cultural issues inthe new multicultural world in which we live.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----------------------------5 (c) Decline of Political Theory

j. David Easton and American political scientists in 1953 asserted that political theory was based on merespeculation and was devoid of acute observation of political reality. Easton argued that traditional political theorywas the product of turmoil that characterized the past ages and had no relevance in contemporary society. Heappealed in building up a behavioral political science closer to other social science to take its due place in decisionmaking process. He urged political scientists to focus on building causal theory to explain political behaviors.However in 1969, he changed his views and launched post-behavioural revolution.k. Stress on scientific investigation to enable the contemporary societies to solve the prevailing crisisl. Renewed concern for values which was ignored in behavioural approach.m. Alfed Cobban in 1953 argued that political theory has lost its significance in capitalist as well as communistsystems. According to him, capitalist system was characterized by overwhelming role of bureaucracy and creationof huge military machinery and political theory had practically to play more roles in sustaining the system. Even incommunist system new forms of party organization and rule of small oligarchy has been established leave no rolefor political theory.n. S.M. Lipset argued that values of contemporary society have already been decided and political theory has norole to play.o. However, political theorists like Leo Strauss denied the irrelevance of political theory and attributed too muchfocus on positivist approach for the decline of political theory.p. Political theory got a new lease of life in the works of Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss, John Rawls, C.B.Macpherson, Herbert Marcuse, Robert Nozick etc. they all revived the grand tradition of political philosophy bydwelling into normative issues and not just focusing on making political theory a natural science.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------5 (d) Iron Law of Oligarchy

a. Robert Michels an important proponent of elitist theory propounded the important concept of iron law ofoligarchy.b. In his theory he stated that every organization, whatever its original aim, is eventually reduced to oligarchy i.e.Rule of the chosen few who tend to use their authority in self-interest. He held that majority of human beings areapathetic, indolent and slavish. They are permanently incapable of self-government so they have to bank upontheir leaders for pursuing social objectives. Trade unions, political parties and other organizations are the vehiclesof such leadershipc. Michels point out that an organization may be set up with democratic aims but as organization grows in size andcomplexity its management is left to professional experts. These experts or leaders become indispensable fororganization , very difficult to replace them,

d. In exercising their undisputed power they set aside the original aim of organizatione. Iron law of oligarchy rules out the concept of circulation of elites as envisaged by Pareto and Mosca.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ------------------------5(e) Equality of Capabilities

a. According to the proponents of equality of capability, like Amartya Sen and Martha Nassbaum, equality ofresources, as proposed by positive liberals is not a sufficient condition to ensure equality and justice. According tothe supporters of equality of capabilities, equality of resource is not sufficient as it is an external means. Stateshould also ensure internal abilities to people. State should help to develop capabilities of man.b. Means to ensure this is to invest in promoting literacy for all, universal healthcare, education, food etc. which isessential for human development.c. According to the supporters of this thought, in the absence of capabilities the presence of opportunities will notbe a enough to ensure real equality.d. Amartya Sen develops this concept in his book Development as Freedom.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ --------------------------6 (a) Would you say that liberal society affirms moral and cultural diversity but desires shared political values.

a. The question needs to be discussed in the context that liberal societies affirms certain political values likepolitical equality, democracy, liberty and requires its universal applicationb. When it comes to appreciating cultural and moral diversity like religious practices, lifestyle etc. it is moreaccommodative. However, when it comes to certain political values it desires them to be shared universallyc. Example, most of the liberal societies are accommodative enough to provide space to its citizens to practicetheir sexual preferences (recognition of LGBT rights).d. However, when it comes to political rights like equality of opportunity the same countries are not thataccommodative. Example, US while recognizing LGBT rights rolled back its policies promoting affirmative action.

6 (b) Can affirmative action be defended on the grounds that it will promote a more just society in future

e. Affirmative action is one of the most effective tools for redressing the injustices caused by our nation's historicdiscrimination against people, and for leveling what has long been an uneven playing field.f. Arguments in favour of affirmative action1. Past historical indiscrimination had severely limited access to educational opportunities and job experiences.2. To ensure a just society mere equality of opportunity will not help rather equality of capability will also berequiredg. Justification of Affirmative action can be found in Rawls theory of justice in his deference principle where hestates that any departure from quality should be only made when it is in the benefit of the least advantage sectionsof society.h. Its support can also be found in Gandhian thought in form of Gandhis Talisman. I will give you a talisman.Whenever you are in doubt, or when the self becomes too much with you, apply the following test. Recall the faceof the poorest and the weakest man [woman] whom you may have seen, and ask yourself, if the step youcontemplate is going to be of any use to him [her]. Will he [she] gain anything by it? Will it restore him [her] to acontrol over his [her] own life and destiny? In other words, will it lead to swaraj [freedom] for the hungry andspiritually starving millions? Then you will find your doubts and yourself melt away."i. Treating unequal as equals will not lead to a just society hence affirmative action is required .

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------------6 (c) Ideology is false consciousness - Karl Marx

a. Karl Marx in German Ideology and A Contribution to Critique of Political Economy dwelled in the nature ofideologyb. According to him, ideology is the manifestation of false consciousnessc. According to Marx, in the process of social development material needs of people advance but their socialconsciousness lags behind.d. This distorted consciousness or false consciousness is reflected in their ideology

e. Dominant class at any stage of social development make use of ideology to maintain its authorityf. For eg. Makers of the French revolution raised the slogan of equality, liberty and fraternity to enlist support of themasses but settled for liberty which served their interest that is the interest of the new entrepreneurial class ofthose days.g. Marx held that ideology is an instrument for protecting the interest of dominant class. This bourgeoisie classneeds ideology to maintain itself in power.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ----------------------------7 (a) Do you think it is liberating to believe that gender, both masculine and feminine is product of particular socialcultural and economic formations. Explain.

The answer needs to be conceptualized and discussed in the context of the points mentioned in Ans 4 (c). Furtherhow masculinity and feminity is defined is understood to have certain social context. What is defined as feminity ina particular social set up might not be the same in another. For example, how masculinity ids defined in a rural setup would be different from what it might be construed in an urban social setup.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ ---------------------------7(b) Some men by nature are free others slave. Comment.

a. The study of slavery constitutes a very important part of Aristotle approach to state.b. He dwelled in to the relevance and use of slavery both from the point of view of slave and master.c. According to Aristotle, the institution of slavery is a necessary condition of a civilized life and of a civilized socialorder because there are some men so inferior to their fellows as to be naturally serviled. Aristotle distinguished between natural slave and conventional slave. Natural slave according to him lackedreason and had to be under permanent subordination of master.e. Aristotle justified slavery on four grounds i.e. natural inequality, aristocratic rule racial superiority and specialfunctions.f. According to him, those persons who are endowed with higher degree of reason and capacity for virtue mustcommand and direct those who possess little or no such capacity. The former are by nature masters, and the latterslaves.g. Another basis of justifying slavery is its functional utility as masters are relived of menial jobs and can focus onintellectual pursuits and slaves can share the virtuous and good life of master and in course of time gain wisdom.h. Aristotle also put forward psychological argument that when several parts combine to form a whole the inferiormust be subordinated to the superior for the attainment of a particular end.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ -----------------------------7 (c) Justice is the first virtue of social institutions as truth is of system of thought.

John Rawls one of the important proponents of the notion of justice held that Justice is the first virtue of socialinstitutions, as truth is of systems of thought. According to Rawls A theory however elegant and economical mustbe rejected or revised if it is untrue; likewise laws and institutions no matter how efficient and well-arranged mustbe reformed or abolished if they are unjust. Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that eventhe welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For that reason justice denies that the loss of freedom for someis made right by a greater good shared by others.Thus the role of justice according to Rawls is to provide a way of assigning rights and duties in the basicinstitutions of society and they define the appropriate distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation.(TJ, 2) social justice equality of resources.Rawls argues that self-interested rational persons behind the veil of ignorance would choose two generalprinciples of justice to structure society in the real world:1) Principle of Equal Liberty: Each person has an equal right to the most extensive liberties compatible with similarliberties for all. (Democratic.)2) Difference Principle: Social and economic inequalities should be arranged so that they are both (a) to thegreatest benefit of the least advantaged persons, and (b) attached to offices and positions open to all underconditions of equality of opportunity.Important points in Rawls theory of justice that needs to be remembered

What basic liberties is he talking about?The Priority of LibertyThe principles of justice are to be ranked in lexical order and therefore liberty can be restricted only for the sake ofliberty. There are two cases:(a) a less extensive liberty must strengthen the total system of liberty shared by all;(b) a less than equal liberty must be acceptable to those with the lesser liberty.The Priority of Justice over Efficiency and WelfareThe second principle of justice is lexically prior to the principle of efficiency and to that of maximizing the sum ofadvantages; and fair opportunity is prior to the difference principle. There are two cases:(a) an inequality of opportunity must enhance the opportunities of those with the lesser opportunity;(b) an excessive rate of saving must on balance mitigate the burden of those bearing this hardship.Rawls specifies what he regards as basic liberties: "freedom of thought and liberty of conscience; freedom ofassociation; and the freedom defined by the liberty and integrity of the person as well as by the rule of law; andfinally the political liberties" (Rawls 1982, 162), which is not meant to be a complete list.What is the ordering of the principles like? What does it mean to say that there is a lexical order between them?Rawls himself suggests a division of labour between economics and political philosophy when he proposes alexical order between the two principles as stated in the first priority rule. The role of economics is strictly withinthe constraints of the system of basic liberties.Note that the first principle of justice, which is lexically prior to the second, is about the distribution of liberties whilethe second principle is about opportunities, income and wealth. Thus, we may well say that the primary goods arehierarchically ordered, liberties being in the top category.What are primary goods? What role do they play in Rawls theory?According to Rawls liberties are primary goods and a comparison of goods is assumed to be unproblematic.Primary goods are what "every rational man is presumed to want. These goods normally have a use whatever aperson's rational plan of life." (Rawls 1971, 62)Primary goods fall in different categories. The basic types of primary goods are "liberty and opportunity, incomeand wealth, and the bases of self-respect" (Rawls 1971, 62). Note that the first principle of justice, which islexically prior to the second, is about the distribution of liberties while the second principle is about opportunities,income and wealth. Thus, we may well say that the primary goods are hierarchically ordered, liberties being in thetop category.What is the principle of efficiency? What are efficient distributions like? What is the problem with the principle?The principle of efficiency comes from economics and primarily it was meant to evaluate the efficiency of aproduction (nevertheless in can be applied to distribution too). Essentially, the principle says that a change isallowed only if it makes somebody better off without making somebody worse off, i.e. if it leads to a more efficientstate.The principle of efficiency used by Rawls holds that a distribution is optimally efficient if no other distribution existswhich will improve the situation of one or more persons without worsening the position of at least one otherperson. The principle of efficiency is applied to the basic structure of society.What does the system of natural liberty add to the principle of efficiency?The principle of efficiency is realized when it is impossible to make one person better off without making anotherperson worse off. Many different distributions, however, may be efficient. So the principle of efficiency must besupplemented by some other principles. In the system of natural liberty, the principle of efficiency works against abackground of equal liberty and careers open to talents. This means formal equality of opportunity: everyone haslegal access.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ -------------------------8 (a) How is it possible for the idea of human rights to encompass both the values of cultural diversity andimposition of universal standards.

a. The existence of pluralistic society poses a serious challenge towards the imposition of universal standards incontext of human rights.b. Multiculturalists have questioned the relevance and value of universal rights in multicultural societiesc. The challenge before the nation states is to ensure political equality while keeping socio-cultural differences inmind.

d. According to multiculturalists the difference is the essence of true equality. They stress on accommodatingcultural differences and providing group specific rights.e. If special rights are granted to specific groups it hinders the enforcement of universal rights common toeveryone.f. The conflict between ensuring equality and accommodating differences can be resolved within the framework ofliberal multiculturalismg. The solution can be found in the works of multiculturalists like Will Kymlicka and Bhikhu Parekh.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ --------------------------8 (b) What are the flaws in the end of ideology thesis? Why post modernists proclaim the death of metanarratives?

a. In 1960s, in western liberal democracies, it was declared that age of ideology has come to an end. Thesecountries looked as ideologies as a tool of totalitarianism which had no place in open societiesb. End of ideology implied that at the advanced stage of industrial development a countrys socio-economicorganization is determined by the level of its development and not by its political ideology. IT means that capitalistand communist countries were bound to evolve similar characteristics irrespective of their ideological differences.c. Daniel Bell in his book The End of Ideology asserted that post-industrial societies are prone to similardevelopment irrespective of their ideological differences.d. According to him, all the post-industrial societies there will be lesser proportion of workers in industry than inservices. At the advance stage of development in any country the service sector expands at faster rate than themanufacturing sector. It will also be characterized by the increasing dominance of technical elites. Further, S.M.Lipset in Political Man observes that in western democracies the difference between the left and right are notprofound, the only issues before politics are concerned will marginal increase in wages, marginal rise in prices andother social welfare benefits.e. End of ideology thesis itself is an ideologyf. C. Wright Mills said that upholders of this thesis are advocates of status quo. It is criticized as an ideology ofpolitical complacency as it denies the relevance of human and political ideasg. Another point of criticism is that proponents of the end of ideology debate appear to have confused the declineof Marxism, radicalism, and revolutionary politics with decline of the end of ideology.h. Post modernists criticize and proclaim death of meta narratives for its totalizing tendenciesi. Attempt to construct grand theories tend to ignore the existing differences, chaos and disorder.j. According to some post modernists thinkers meta narratives are created and reinforced by power structures andare considered untrustworthy.

------------------------------ ------------------------------ -----------------------------8 (c) Discuss Socialism after Karl Marx.a. Following schools of socialism have to be discussed:i. Evolutionary socialism of Eduard Bernstein who suggests parliamentary road to socialism.ii. Syndicalism which visualizes social order under the working classes.iii. Guild socialism of GDH Cole who talks about economic and political parliament and democracy in industry.iv. Fabianism or democratic socialism of Sidney web graham wallas which aims to bring socialism throughconsent.

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