Napoleon m and.WIII' with Austria

Since Austrian a3ctrol of part of northern Italywu the greatest obstacle to Italian unity. Cavoursearched for IIIlica agaimt Austria. You willremember that Napoleon III had become unpop­ular ~th the Freach people and was seekingwaysto gain glory outside of France. Cavour proposedto him an alliance of France and Sardinia againstAustria. Napoleon was reluc:tallt at first to take

Italian nationalism became:u strong force in the this step. fearing that it would antagonize theearly 1800·s. Many think!:r!iand writers tried to pope and the French Catholics. However. herevive interest in Italy's traditions. This national. hoped that with Austria driven out of Italy.istic movement. whose gOlliswere liberation and F~ could dominate a weak confederation ofunification. became known as the ~to ltalian.states. ~vour. on the other hand. believed(ree-sor.jee-MEN.toh)-ltalillll for "resurp:nce:' that With A~a out. of Italy. the other ItalianBecause nationalists could not support their cause states w~uld JOInSardmia and make a strong alii­openly. they formed secret §(X.;etics.An carty aDOeagamst both France and Austria.group of this son was the Carbonari. One of its . Cavour and Napoleon made a secret agreementmost famous members. who had great influence In 1858.Na~.leon agreed that if Austria dec:taredon later Italian bistlXY.WIISGiuseppe Mazzini. w~ron Sardinl~. France would send troops to help

Mauini. born in 1805. had IIvision of a united dnve the Austnans out of Lombardy and Venetia.Italy. and to this goal he devot~d his ~ntire life. In retu?, for thi~ help. Cavour promised to giveMazzini was imprisoned and then ailed for his the regions of Nlc:eand Savoy to France.part in an unsucc:essfuluprising IIgainstSardinia in In 1859.Cavourbegan to make preparations forItI3O.In 1831he called for all Italian patriots to w~r. Feanng ~at Cavour planned to attack Am­join a new: movement. c:alled Young Ilaly. to !na.the.Aust~anem~rordeman<ledthattnemil­sp~d the IdealSof tbe Risorgimento amona tbe . Itary bulld~p In Sardim~ ~ stopped In.threeday~.hahaa people. M.azzi~i_refe~ Youna ltal~ as :Cavour .rejected ~u~tna s au~mpt to mterfere In"a brotherhood of Italians who believe in Prc)sri:ss : the affam of SardiIlUl.AUitna declared war.and DUlY." At fint the _r went acc:ordingto Cavour's

In 1848 there were liberal' and nlltionalistic pl~s. The combined Sardinian·Frenth forc:esrebellionsin several of the Italian states. Sardinia qUIcklydrove the Austrians out of Lombardy Indthe Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. and TUSl:an~ marched on into Venetia. Patriots in Tuscany.were forC!:dto grant constitulions to their sub. Modenl, and Parma overtbrew their Austrian rul­jects. and Austrian rule was overthrown in Lom- ers a~d asked to be annexed to Sardinia.bardy and Venetia. R~volutionaries seited Rome This w~ mote than Napoleon 1lI had plannedin 11149and set up IIrepublic that Wit..; governed by .on. He did not want a st~onSl.united Italy anyMauini himself and tWI)orher It:ader!i. All but ~morethan he wanted a united Germany. He wasone of these revolutiunary Inove:ments soon af~ that If the w~ lasted a Ions time. Prussia.

_00 • ..!~il~~:.l'h~-'o~.m.~.r~I~~.~.!=rc:r~.tu_rne.~.~!-,~~~t. f~r Its own ends. ~ght help Au~tria. ~apoleonand the constitutIons were revoked. Mazzini had --.nUt.~t~Uo gc·.inmJW'A.\'.1.I" •.••'3t.?'Io1;IJf.~.h'1!b •••

to flee the country once more. Only in Sardinia Austna and Prussia. In July 1859. only threewas the revolt successful. Sardinia remained ind.:. nonths after the war began. Napoleon broke thependent. with its own conslilution. 19reement with Cavour by signing a secret armi-

Despite the failure of the revolts of 1848 and nice with Austria. According to its terms. Sardin­Itl49.ltalian patriots continued their efforts. They ,a received Lombardy. but Austria kept Venetia.now agreed on their principal aim-a united Italy. t\ustrian rulers were restored to Tuscany. Mode·However. they coUld not,agree IJn how to achieve Ba. and Parma.unity or the ideal form of government after unifi- This was a severe setback fm (;avour and thecation had succeeded. Italian nationalists. Napoleon III had delivered

Many Italians. especially the Catholic dergy. only half of his side of the bargain-control of

wanted a ~ederation of Italian states headed by the Lombardy to Sardinia. However. he insisted onpope. Liberals. however. wanted an Italian receiving his full price-Nice and Savoy. Fearingrepublic. They opposed federation. panly be- to lose the panial victory. King Victor Emmanuelcause the papacy had turned against liberalism n agreed to the French terms.afrer 11149.Still others wanted a constitutional The Italian people refused to give up their

monarchy under the king of Sardinia. goals. Popular feeling ran far ahead of govern·mental caution. RebellioD5 in Parma. Modena.

and Tuscany again expelled the Austrian rulersand set up popular temporary governments. Thepeople of Romagna. a province in the PapalStates. also revolted. When elections were held inall these IlrellS. the votes were overwhelmingly in

\/or of joining Sardinia.Napoleon III was completely opposed to any

such arrangement. For a time there was a chance'of war betwee:n France and Sardinia in which theItalians would trytu regain Nice and Savoy. Then.in 1860, Cavour made another agreement. Francewas to keep Nice and Savoy. In return. Sardiniawas to be allowed to anne:x Parma. Modena. Tus­cany. and Romagna. Although it was difficult fortalians to give up Nice and Savoy. they thus took

long step toward Italian unity.

Garibaldi's \aed shldThe lower half of the Italian Peninsula. togetherwith the large island of Sicily. made up what wascalled the Kingdom of the Twu Sicilies. It wasruled by a barsh Bourbon king. francis n. Earlierrevolts there had been unsuc.:essful. but it nowbecame the target of tbe Italian nationalists. Giu­seppe Garibaldi. a man with a long history ofdevotion to !~lian. fre,!;Qom. led the ~ay:_ .

, Garibaldi was born in Nice in 1807. As a youth.I he joined Muzini's Young haly movement and in. 1834 had to flee for his life. He lived for several

Cawur in SardInIa Probiems of united Italy

Aitholllh Italy was politically united. many prob­lem, remained. Few Italians were experienced inself-government. and scandals were common. Thevarious regions of the country remained dividedby their own traditions and independence. Therewas tension between the nonh. which becameindustrialized. and the agricultural south. In Sici·Iy. local leaders organized a secret society knownas the Mafia. The society formed a kind of statewithin the state, which the c:entral governmentwas powerless to control.

The leaders of Italy admired the militarystrength of Germany and hoped to follow a similarcourse in their own country. Within a few years.Italy bad the third largest navy and the third larg­est merchant marine in the world.

Italy's buildup of military and naval strengthwas achieved by taxing its people heavily. This led

10 unrest. and there were peasanl uprisings. par­ticularly in Sicily. in the IR9!rs. Lookim! for victc1­ries 10 build the country's prc3ti@:c.Itlliy e~l!-a!leuin colonial ventures in Afnca .. There wer"

smkes and riots all through Italy dUring the nexiseveral years in protest allainst taxes and govern­mental' inefficiency. Unification had beenachieved. but stability was difficult to maintain .

FIM1 unification~ -In 1860 dectiofll were beld everywhere in Italyexcept m Veaetia and Rome. The people votede!erwbelminllY for natioaal unity under the kiD.onantiDia. Represeatatives met at a parlwnent

. In IDe CIty of Tuna In l'el!rUllry1861.They 0011-

firmed Vic:torEmmanuel 11as king of Italy ~bygrace of God and the will of the nation." Cavourdied four months later.

The new kingdom included every part of Italyexcept Venetia. wbich still belonged to Austria.and the western pan of the Papal States aroundthe city of Rome. which was ruled by the pope

. Ellropean governments nol\'had only two choices-to recognize the new staleor to light it. Most embarrassed of all wa.••Napo·leon Ul. He did not make war on the new country.

Dut he sent Ffencb troops"'m'1<om-e-~cnr,,{lIe­Italian nationalists from seizing it.

The unification of Italy was not complete in

1861. but the end was in sight. Ital~ was able. \0gain Venetia in the Seven weeks'a w you will read in the next section.

,When the Franc:o-P~:~ ::,"::::;e;in 187U.~ll!!on III had t c Rome.The Italians entered the city. and the citizens ofRome voted overwhelmingly for union with Italy.That same year. Rome was oroclaimed the capitalof. tit•• lri"I!t\n1ft nf Italy.

The DOpeorotested bitterly. He shut himself upin the Vatican palace. saying he would remain"the prisoner of the Vatican" until the PapalStates were restored to him. They never were. andrelations between the papacy and the Italian gov·ernment remained troubled for many years.

yean in Latin Americ:a. Returning to Italy. befouaJtt in the reWtlutions of 1848. Fon:ed to tleeapia. he IiYedin the United States for severalyears. retlll'ning onc:emore to Italy in 11!S4.

Witb flDII1CiaIusiuance secrelly furnished byCavour. Garibaldi recruited an army of 1.100101·

diers. They were caned Red SIlins bec:auseof thtUIIiformtbey wore mto battle_ In Ihe sprina of1860. Garibaldi and his Red Shirts invllded theisltlndof Sic:ily.where they were welcomedby thepeopte. Crossingto the Italian mainland. Garibal­di and his force seized Naples. the capital city. anddrove Fnncis II and his forces nonh to the borderof the Papal States.

Garibaldi now planned to conlinue nis marchnorthward and capture Rome and then Venetia.

Cavour was afraid that Ff~~:~ ::~tel the t"nnAi~ a(!.sI mil ... tset \IIIa reoublic. An army wassent south to stopGaribaldi', advllllCC.and most of the territory oftbe Papal States was annexed to Sardinia. Cavourleft tbe city of Rome under the control of thepope.

in the fall of 1860.Garibaldi and Cavour met inNaples. Garibaldi was reluctant to abandon hisplan for conquest of the entire Italian peainsulli.However. Cavour rsuaded him to a FCC to th,e JIIeDtof e kin m0 italy. with..Y.U:t.or

o a as Its

The conquests of Napoleon I bad liven the Italianpeninsula sometbing resembling unity for a fewyean. Italians. inspired by liberal and nationalideals. had overthrown many rulers of the Italianstates. However. after the Congress of Vienna in1815. Italy was again divided. Lombardy andVenetia were annexed by Austria. The rest of ita­ly was divided into several large and smaDstates

. Most of them were domioat­cd by Austria. and most were ruled byreacUonar­ieswho tried to wipeout any advanc:esmade dur­in! Napoleon's tiine.

Early movements fur unUkadon

The kingdom of Sardinia included not only theisland of Sardinia but also the mainland regions ofSavoy. Piedmont. and Nice (see map. this page).It was Ibe only state in nonhern Italy not domi-'nated by Austria. The constitution of Sardiniaprovided for a parliament, whose elec:ted repre­sentatives had considerable influence in the gov­ernment. The Sardinian king. Victor EmmanuelII. was sympathetic to liberal aims.

However. it was not the king of Sardinia but hischief minister. Count Camillo Bensa di Cavour.who actually led the nation. Born in 1810. Cavourwas an aristocrat. well educated and widely trav·eled. He edited a nationalist newspaper in 1847.took part in the revolutions of 1848. and in 1852becamc premier of Sardinia.

Cavour disliked absolutism and admired theBritish system of parliamentary government. Hewanted Italy to be both united and industrialized.Cavour hoped to make Sardinia strong and liberalso that it could become a leader among the forcesof nationalism in Italy.

Cavour reorganized and strengthened thearmy. He helped to establish banks. fac:tories. and

11, _ X+t6tL",V After yeuw af MrugIe, Italy Imlroada. eocourqeQ lbipbuilding. and negotiat-hee.-- • aaIfW IIIIdaa ed treaties with other countries to increase uade.Uader the slogan "a free church in a free state'"he tried to reduce the inftllCllCCof the RomanCatholic Church in politics. The politicallypower­ful Jesuit order was expeUed from the country.

Bismarck's antisocialist campaignBy 1877 the Social Democrats were receiving half

a million votes. Every gain in socialist votingstrength-and every demand for reform­alarmed Bismarck. The chancellor decided to use

all of his power to fight the socialists. His oppor­tunity came in 1878, when there were twoattempts 10 assassinate the emperor. Neither ofthe would-be assassins had any connection withsocialism. and Bismarck knew this. However. he

took advantage of the public excitement to accuscthe Social Democrats of plotting the attempts.The emperor and the Bundesrat dissolved theReichstag and called for new elections. There fol­

lowed a widespread campaign against socialistsand their ideas.

The election did not change the strength of theSocial Democrats In the Reichstag. Bismarck,however. was able to push through laws aimed atrepressing the socialisls. The new laws made it

unlawful to spread socialist ideas through newspa­pers. books. or pamphlets. Socialists were forbid­den to hold public meetings.

Despite such restrictive laws. the socialists can·

tinued their efforts. By 1884 SOCial uem!Xratlcrepresentation in the Reichstag had increased to

24 despite the restrictions. As he did in the I<.u/·

rurkampf. Bismarck had 10 examine hiS tactics andsee how 10 achieve what he wan led against grow­

ing opposition.Smce n:presslon had failed. the Iron Chancellor

was forced to try something else. He decided togrant many of the reforms the sociahsts had pro­posed. If the government granted reforms. Bis­marck believed. people would have less reason 10join the sociahsts. and the party would thereforelose strength.

lodU8Uiallzatioo and socialismcreated opposition to Bisnwrck

Because Bismar~k could not at tirst ge:t the: abso·

lute monarchy he wanted. he tried 10 achieve it In

other ways. However. in the ye:ars afte:r the tor·mation at the Germafl Empire:. he had to a~cept

maflY compromises to make the political systemwork. Even though the constitution did not give:

the people much voice in their own affaIrS. theirdemands had to be taken into account.

Opposidon to BismarckIn spite of rigid control by the anstocratic Prus·sians. the new German federal !!overnment soonran into difficult problems. Dlssallsl1ed groups

formed political parties that opposed Bismarck'spolicies. Some wanted the government to be moreliberal and democratic and to enact socIal

reforms. Others kared Bismarck's military polICYand the ever-growing. army and navy.

Deputies trom the south German states. espt"cially from Bavaria. resented the: interference 01

the federal government in what they considered tllhe their local affairs. They thoughtthe:ir own slatl'governmenh should de:al wilh su~h mailers

Relations with the Roman Catholic Church prl"

sented special problems for Bismarck. The long'standing claim of the pope to administer Churchproperty seemed like foreign interference in Ger·man domestic affairs. Bismarck came to feel thaithe Catholic Church was a threat to the GermanEmpire:. The fact that the south German states

were Catholic made this feeling stronger. In 1872diplomatic relations between the government and

the papacy were broken off. Then there beganwhat was called the Kullurkampf--German for

"war of civilization." This was a bitter strugglebetween the Roman Catholic Church and theGerman government.

Germany passed strict laws to control the Calh·olic clergy and Catholic schools. The Jesuits were

expelled. All the Catholic cle:rgy had 10 be Ge:r­mans. educated in German schools. Any memberof the clergy. who opposed_these_measures.was­

imprisoned or banished. This religious policystirred up a great deal of opposition. A Catholicpany was formed to oppose the KullurkampJ andto work for other changes. Many non-Catholic lib­erals also joined the opposition. By 1880 Bis­marck began to modify the Kulturkampf becausehe needed the support of the Catholic pany. Inaddition. hc thoughl Ihat the menace from

Catholicism was no longer real. Diplomatic n:la­

tions were reestablished with the papacy. and thelaws against Cat holies were repealed. By 1887 theKullurkumpf was ended.

Industrial development under Bismarck

'rhe Zollvereinl as you have read. had aided in­dustrialization beginning in 1819. Political unifica­

tion after 1871 helped it further. The victory overFrance in the Franco-Prussian War had bloL:ghtwith it the rich iron mines of the Lorraine: regionas well as a billion dollars in gold for capital.

The German government owned the railroadsand managed them in order to promote industria!

development. A system 01 canals provided cheal"er. though slower. transportation. Germanv wa,rich in natural resources. North of Lorraine werl'

the great coal deposits of the Ruhr Valley. A hugt:sle:el industry developed in Ihis are:a because at

the availability 01 Iron and coal.The fact that industrialization came later In

Germany than in Great Britain and France provedto be an advantage. German industries could usethe best methods and most improved machlner~

developed elsewhere. German SCientists workedout further changes and Improvements.

Under Bismarck's leadership. the government

helped industry in many ways. All mone:y andbanking laws became uniform throughout theempire. Postal and telegraph services-the mea",of communications by which so much business is

conducted-were ce~ualized. The gover'nmentencouraged German industrialists to lorm cartels.

a type of business organization about which vouread in Chapter 19. In addition. a high-tariff p ••I·

icy was adopted to protect German industne~from foreijln competition.

\Vlth all of these influences al work. Germam

rapldl\' became an industrial nation. It exponedmanufactured goods and Imponed food and rawmalerials. By 1900 it was threatening the pos\lion~01 leadiflg producers of steel and machinery. suchas Great Brilain and the United States. Germanywas also rlvahng these nalions for leadership inworld trade.

AgTiculture did not decline: in Germanv asmdustr\' mcreased. Through the application 01 sel'entlllC methods and the use of fertilizer~. e\'en the

poor ",il ot northern Germany was made produl"live. Like its manufactured goods. German farmgoods were protected by tariffs.

Berlin increasingly became the center 01 Ihe

ne:w t:mpire. Connected with all pariS of Ge:rmanvby rail and canal. it grew into a major commerc;,,1city with a rapidly expanding population.

Socialism in Gennan~'

With the growth' of German industry. cities

increased greatly in population. and a class of fac­tory workers appeared. German laborers. likeIhose in other nations. wanted decent working

conditions. Some people believed that the canelsled to lower wages for workers and higher prices

for consumers. Many thought that these variousproblems needed government action. Theywanted the government to pass laws to benefitworkers and regulate industry.

Socialist reformers went even funher. advocal'

ing government ownership of all major industnes.German socialists banded together in 1869 \0 formthe Social Democratic Party. The pany gre'"quickly. with most of its members coming fromthe ranks of the city workers. In 1871 it was able toelect two members to the Reichstag. By 1877 thatrepresentation had increased to twelve.

Even if the Social Democrats had had a much

greater representation. they could have done verylittle. The Reichstag was powerless to pass any

laws that the Bundesrat opposed. Since Ihe Bun­desrat represented the hereditary rulers. therewas little chance that it would propose or pass thelaws thaul1e_socialists_wanted. _The_Reichstag.however. made a good public forum in whichsocia lis I members could express their grievancesand complaints.

Bismarck's new policy was called "steahng thesoclahsts' thunder." He said that he wanted to

pass laws that would help workers so that theSocial Democrats "will sound their bird call in

vam." Beginning in IR83. he put through severalfar-reaching relorms. first came insurance againstsickne~s. then insurance against accidents-both

paid lor ny employers. Other laws hmucd hoursand provided for certain holidays from work. Thefinal step was a law that proVided for pa\'ments toworkers when they were phystcallv disabled or 10"

old to work.Germany thus adopted a pioneering program of

~overnmcnl-dlrected social reforms. The retorm~did not wipe oul socialism in Germany. but the\'did remove many of the workers' grievances. ThiS

program of social legislalion was later copIed Inmany other industria~ nations.

Bismarck's foreign poU~'Bismarck's foreign policy was based largely onGerman military strength. He once declared:"We Germans fear God. but nothing else in the

world." The military draft was adopted through·

out Germany. The army constantly increased insize and used the most modern weapons and

equipment. Professional soldiers held importantpositions in nonmilitary branches of the govern·ment as well as in the army. However. after uni·

fication the country pursued a policy of peacerather than war.

Bismarck's greatest worry was that some dayGermany might have to fight a war on the easternand western fronts at the same time. Therefore.hc did not want France (on the west) and Russi~

(on the east) to become allies. He worked 10 keep

strong the friendship between Germanv and I{u,sia. Bismarck considered Au~tna a n~tural alii

even though Prussia had displaced Austria a~ [hlleader of GermarJ\'.

Prussia had helped Italy gain Ve:m:tw in IXho.

an action Ihal brought (jermany the tru:ndshlp 01Italy. Bismarck strengthened this fm:ndl\ rei ••tionship. and Germany and Ital\' bc~amc ,illes. InIH!<2 Bismarck succe:eded in fur~l1n~ an dlhaIKl'~'

torma!!! ~alled the: Triple Alhanl·e~··math.: up 0;(jt:rman~. Austria. and Ital!

'fb!: resignation of Biliman:k

Emperor William I.died in IM!!M. HIS SUII rClgl1<:<.Ionly a few months belore he diel!. and "'as sUe

ceeded in turn by his son. William II Tht: ~UUI\~

monarch and the old chancellor soon diW[!let:1lviolently. William II felt that Bismarck wa~ \0,.

powerful. Hismarck believed that thl' ~()UII~e:mpcror was taking away the powers the chaned·lor had used wisely for year~. He aho leared thdl

William was too rash and undlsdphned II' use hi'considerable authority wilh wisdom.

For a long time Bismarck had thuu[!ht hllnscllindispensable to Germany. Huwevcl. III 11<'10 WdIiam forced him to resign. which he diU "'lIh "

gn:at deal of bitterness. Although hc and Willian,II were later reconcilc:d pe:rsonally. BlSlnal~~ diunot serve Germany again.

With Bismarck gone. William II sc:t out to huild

up Germany's colomalc:ntplre. He lII~r..:ascd the

sIZe and strc:ngth ot the German army and Dcgan

to build up the German navy. This mU\~ broU!!hlGermany II1tOcOIlt1ict with (jreat Brllalll Which

was Iht: world's strongc~t naval fJU\H:; /'lie"agreements with neighbonng naltons Wt:t<:slgnc:uand by the early 19OU'~vermany WdS 'tlUn~l'ithan ever before.