X. MEMORY

X. MEMORYX. MEMORY

A. Memory as an information A. Memory as an information processing system.processing system.

1. Computer metaphor...1. Computer metaphor... 2. 4 steps or components.2. 4 steps or components. a. a. AttentionAttention: (info is remembered only if it is noticed.): (info is remembered only if it is noticed.)

b. b. EncodingEncoding: getting info into memory.: getting info into memory.

c. c. StorageStorage: keeping encoded info in memory.: keeping encoded info in memory.

d. d. RetrievalRetrieval: getting info out of memory.: getting info out of memory.

B. Overall process.B. Overall process.

C. Sensory MemoryC. Sensory Memory

Where we initially record sensory input or Where we initially record sensory input or stimuli into memory.stimuli into memory.

Stores ALL stimuli that senses registerStores ALL stimuli that senses register Holds LITERAL copies of those stimuli Holds LITERAL copies of those stimuli

but for fraction of second to 3 secondsbut for fraction of second to 3 seconds

KK ZZ R R Q Q B B

T ST S G GNN

How many letters can you recall?How many letters can you recall? Did information NEVER register?Did information NEVER register?

– (We can only register so much info. at once).(We can only register so much info. at once). Or – did the image fade before you had to Or – did the image fade before you had to

report letters?report letters?

MM XX O O C C WW

U QU Q PPSS

RR YY I I DD HH P P ZZ EE BB

C. Sensory MemoryC. Sensory Memory

1. 1. Iconic MemoryIconic Memory: : Fleeting photographic memory (visual stimuli).Fleeting photographic memory (visual stimuli).

2. 2. Echoic MemoryEchoic Memory: :

Fleeting auditory Fleeting auditory memory (sound).memory (sound).

– Why do we need sensory memory?Why do we need sensory memory?

D. Short Term MemoryD. Short Term Memory

1. Description:1. Description: Stores info from sensory memory before it’s Stores info from sensory memory before it’s

forgotten or is put into Long-Term Memory.forgotten or is put into Long-Term Memory. To get info from sensory memory to short term To get info from sensory memory to short term

memory:memory:– Only info that we pay Only info that we pay attention attention toto

But – we have limited attentional resources – so But – we have limited attentional resources – so short term memory is limited.short term memory is limited.

D. Short Term MemoryD. Short Term Memory 2. 2. Has limited capacityHas limited capacity. (7 +- 2). (7 +- 2)

– only small amount of info from sensory memory is only small amount of info from sensory memory is transferred to short term memorytransferred to short term memory

2. 2. Has limited durationHas limited duration..– 10-15 seconds10-15 seconds

To get info from sensory to short term – so that it To get info from sensory to short term – so that it can be put into long term memory:can be put into long term memory:– Use rehearsal/repetition: keep attention on stimuli.Use rehearsal/repetition: keep attention on stimuli.

(say numbers over and over again or visualize them)(say numbers over and over again or visualize them)

– Use tricks to group info to increase capacity.Use tricks to group info to increase capacity.

1 8 9 21 8 9 2 3 0 1 9 43 0 1 9 4 8 3 0 1 1 28 3 0 1 1 2 6 8 2 4 0 1 2 6 8 2 4 0 1 2 2 9 1 0 7 6 3 82 9 1 0 7 6 3 8 5 3 7 9 0 1 2 4 65 3 7 9 0 1 2 4 6


D. Short Term MemoryD. Short Term Memory 3. Comparison to working memory.3. Comparison to working memory.

– More “active” version of short term memory.More “active” version of short term memory.– Focus on attention part.Focus on attention part.– Two major systems: verbal sounds, Two major systems: verbal sounds,

visual/spatial visual/spatial – Filter out unimportant info, focus on important Filter out unimportant info, focus on important

info.info.

E. Long Term MemoryE. Long Term Memory

1. 1. DescriptionDescription::

- The stored representation of all that a - The stored representation of all that a person knows.person knows.

- Has unlimited capacity.- Has unlimited capacity.

- Is long-lasting.- Is long-lasting. 2. 2. EncodingEncoding: how we get info from ST to : how we get info from ST to

LT memory.LT memory.

E. Long Term MemoryE. Long Term Memory2. Encoding2. Encoding

a. a. RehearsalRehearsal: conscious repetition.: conscious repetition.

Ebbinghaus’Ebbinghaus’ research research- rehearsed nonsense syllables .- rehearsed nonsense syllables .

(BAZ FUB TUV LEQ VUM)(BAZ FUB TUV LEQ VUM)

- more rehearsed – more remembered.- more rehearsed – more remembered.- is effective in getting info from ST to LT memory?is effective in getting info from ST to LT memory?

- Spacing rehearsal over timeSpacing rehearsal over time


b. b. ElaborationElaboration: : Rehearse/understand info at deeper Rehearse/understand info at deeper level. How?level. How?

i. i. Differences in how info is encoded.Differences in how info is encoded.

– Craik & Tulving (1975)Craik & Tulving (1975)» visualvisual

» acousticacoustic

» semantic (meaning)semantic (meaning)

Use images/stories Use images/stories

E.E. Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory2. Encoding2. Encoding

i. Differences in what/how info is encoded.i. Differences in what/how info is encoded.– Self-Reference EffectSelf-Reference Effect: :

Tend to remember things that are related to Tend to remember things that are related to ourselves better.ourselves better.


ii. Using organization to better encoding.ii. Using organization to better encoding.– ChunkingChunking: put information into meaningful : put information into meaningful

units or chunks.units or chunks.– HierarchiesHierarchies: Chunk information into broad : Chunk information into broad

categories that are divided into narrower categories that are divided into narrower categories.categories.

» Your class outlinesYour class outlines

Nervous System

Central(brain and

spinal cord)

Nervoussystem

Autonomic (controlsself-regulated action of

internal organs and glands)

Skeletal (controlsvoluntary movements of

skeletal muscles)

Sympathetic (arousing)

Parasympathetic (calming)

Peripheral


c. Forgetting in the encoding stage.c. Forgetting in the encoding stage.– Draw a penny…Draw a penny…– Encoding failure.Encoding failure.

If encoding is successful, and information If encoding is successful, and information goes from ST to LT memory…goes from ST to LT memory…– Goes to Goes to ““storagestorage” phase.” phase.


E. Long Term MemoryE. Long Term Memory 3. 3. StorageStorage

a. a. Two types of memories:Two types of memories:i.i. Implicit or proceduralImplicit or procedural: memories that allow for learning.: memories that allow for learning.

– Motor and cognitive skillsMotor and cognitive skills

– Skills do not require conscious recallSkills do not require conscious recall

ii.ii. Explicit or declarativeExplicit or declarative: memories that let us know info and : memories that let us know info and state that we know info.state that we know info.

– Facts/general knowledgeFacts/general knowledge

– Personally experienced events.Personally experienced events.


3. 3. StorageStorage b. Forgetting in the storage stageb. Forgetting in the storage stage

– Decay TheoryDecay Theory: If never use or work on info : If never use or work on info stored in LT memory, may be forgotten.stored in LT memory, may be forgotten.

E. Long-Term MemoryE. Long-Term Memory 3. Storage (what/where is it in the brain?)3. Storage (what/where is it in the brain?)

c. Neurobiology in memory.c. Neurobiology in memory.

i. Brain structure:i. Brain structure:– HippocampusHippocampus

» is essential for is essential for encodingencoding newly acquired information (explicit). newly acquired information (explicit).

» H.M.: anterograde (can’t form new LT memories)H.M.: anterograde (can’t form new LT memories)

(has short-term/working memory, and implicit memory)(has short-term/working memory, and implicit memory)

vs. retrograde amnesia (can’t retrieve existing LT memories)vs. retrograde amnesia (can’t retrieve existing LT memories)

» NOT only structure involved in memory.NOT only structure involved in memory.

ii. ii. NeuronsNeurons– ACH (Alzheimer’s)ACH (Alzheimer’s)

E. Long Term MemoryE. Long Term Memory 4.4. Retrieval:Retrieval:To actually remember info and use it, need to To actually remember info and use it, need to

retrieve it from LT storage (put it into ST or retrieve it from LT storage (put it into ST or working memory).working memory).

a.a. LT memory has “LT memory has “web-likeweb-like” structure” structureimportance of cuesimportance of cues

primingpriming: the activation of particular : the activation of particular associations in memory.associations in memory.


4. Retrieval4. Retrieval

b. Influences on retrieval.b. Influences on retrieval.

Encoding SpecificityEncoding Specificity: Cues that are : Cues that are prominent in person’s mind during original prominent in person’s mind during original encoding into LT memory are the most encoding into LT memory are the most effective cues at retrieval.effective cues at retrieval.

E. Long Term MemoryE. Long Term Memory Examples of Encoding Specificity:Examples of Encoding Specificity:

i. i. Context EffectsContext Effects: B: Being in context similar to eing in context similar to encoding at time of retrieval may facilitate encoding at time of retrieval may facilitate remembering (e.g. smells)remembering (e.g. smells)

ii. ii. State-Dependent MemoryState-Dependent Memory: H: Have better ave better recall if we are in same state at retrieval as we recall if we are in same state at retrieval as we

were in encodingwere in encoding..

iii. iii. Mood Congruent MemoryMood Congruent Memory: : Mood also Mood also serves as a retrieval cue.serves as a retrieval cue.

E. Long Term MemoryE. Long Term Memory c. c. Forgetting in the retrieval stage. Forgetting in the retrieval stage. i.i. Tip of the Tongue PhenomenonTip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Retrieve : Retrieve

parts of memory that must be put into a whole.parts of memory that must be put into a whole. ii. ii. InterferenceInterference: Learning new info can : Learning new info can

interfere with retrieving old info.interfere with retrieving old info.- - Proactive InterferenceProactive Interference: something learned : something learned earlier disrupts recall of info learned later.earlier disrupts recall of info learned later.- - Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference: new info makes it : new info makes it harder to recall something learned earlier.harder to recall something learned earlier.

F. Are memories carbon copies F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences?of our experiences?

Discussed reason why we “forget” Discussed reason why we “forget” information.information.

But, when we do recall information, is it But, when we do recall information, is it always correct? always correct?

Retrieving memories involves Retrieving memories involves RECONSTRUCTION.RECONSTRUCTION.


1. 1. Motivated “Forgetting”Motivated “Forgetting”:: What we do & do not remember is biased What we do & do not remember is biased

by what we want & expect to see.by what we want & expect to see.– ConsistencyConsistency– ImprovementImprovement


2. 2. Memory ReconstructionMemory Reconstruction..– Importance of schemas - filling in gaps of Importance of schemas - filling in gaps of

memory.memory. What happens if “fill in gaps” with What happens if “fill in gaps” with

incorrect information?incorrect information?– Loftus & Palmer (1974)Loftus & Palmer (1974)


Misinformation Effect:

Incorporating incorrect information into our memory of an event.

Are these people lying?


B. ApplicationsB. Applications Eyewitness TestimonyEyewitness Testimony Repressed Memories DebateRepressed Memories Debate How can we tell true from false memories?How can we tell true from false memories?

3 key parts3 key parts 4 key processes4 key processes How to better remember info:How to better remember info:

– rehearse rehearse rehearse (space rehearsal)rehearse rehearse rehearse (space rehearsal)– encoding stage: elaborate, deeply encode infoencoding stage: elaborate, deeply encode info

» use meaning, self as cue, images, etc.use meaning, self as cue, images, etc.

» use chunks, hierarchiesuse chunks, hierarchies

» test to see you encoded info at alltest to see you encoded info at all

– retrieval stageretrieval stage» avoid interferenceavoid interference

» reinstate the context (state, mood, etc.)reinstate the context (state, mood, etc.)

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X. MEMORY