This exam is marked out of 53 (including 3 SPAG marks)

The focus is upon how warfare has changed. You therefore need to be able to say things like:

X changed in this way. It changed because…

The questions will be based upon different themes. These themes are:

Technologies, weapons and Armies

Tactics and types of war

Media Reporting and Propaganda

Equipment

Civilians, effects of war and attitudes in society

Recruitment

Movement and Transport

Medicine and Causalities

Daily Life

Key Battles

You should therefore revise in themes!

TOP TIP!

Timelines, colourful, and possibly containing pictures, may well help you revise this topic, and help you see

how the changes happen over time.

Technology, Weapons and

Armies

Overview: c50AD – 1350 – Romans, Celts, Saxons and Normans

Infantry soldiers (soldiers who fight on foot) make up majority of army

Dagger, swords, spears, shields 1350 -1450 – SLOW CHANGE New Key Weapon = the Longbow 1450 -1700 - RAPID CHANGE! New Key Weapon = Gunpowder weapons 1350 – 1700 – Similarities = Infantry the biggest part of the army Hand to hand weapons Armies got bigger Differences = Standing armies emerged Uniforms appeared 1700 -1800 – Mainly SLOW CHANGE/CONTINUITY (1700-1790) Cannons were made lighter Armies grew Organisation of armies improved 1800 – 1900 – 1790 – 1815 = RAPID CHANGE 1815-1850 = STAGNATION 1850 – 1900 = RAPID CHANGE New Key Weapon = Rifles and machine gins 1900 – Present Day – RAPID CHANGE

c50AD – 1066 Roman soldiers:

Most Roman soldiers were infantry, foot

soldiers. Their main weapons were daggers

and swords. Soldiers used two-foot long,

double-edged swords; they were mainly used

for stabbing, but could also cut off limbs when

swung.

Most soldiers also carried two seven-foot

throwing spears with a throwing range of 30

meters.

Soldiers also carried a shield, round in shape,

over a meter long and a meter wide. They

were made of wood and edged with metal.

Soldiers would make a wall of these shields to

protect themselves from arrows or spears.

To protect themselves the Roman soldiers

wore light armour. This was made up of

interlocking metal plates and a metal helmet

with metal flaps to protect the neck and

cheeks.

Roman Armies:

Roman soldiers were known as Legionaries. They

were organised into legions of about 6000 men.

Each legion was led by several centurions (senior

soldiers) and an officer.

Each legion had specialist archers and 120

horsemen to act as scouts. It would have its own

medical staff, carpenters, vets, armourers,

surveyors and priests.

This meant that each legion was a self-contained,

flexible fighting unit.

In total there were 28 legions, meaning that

150,000 regular soldiers at any one time. The

Roman army also had about 150,000 auxiliary

troops, foreign soldiers from land then Romans had

conquered. Celtic weapons:

The Celts were skilled in metalwork. This meant that

the spear became the key Celtic weapon. They had

long spears for stabbing and smaller throwing spears.

Most Celtic warriors also had swords up to a meter

long, used for slashing the enemy, and large decorated

wooden shields, often covered in leather, with a metal

boss in the centre for defence.

Few Celtic warriors wore armour. Most wore normal

clothing for fighting – coarse trousers, shirt and cloak,

often dyed in bright colours.

The Celts had no standing armies, but some tribes

became wealthy enough to pay a few full time

warriors. These formed small war bands. They had

warrior training schools to practice their skills. They

claimed special powers from Celtic gods and held

religious rituals for new recruits.

Celtic ideology:

Celtic society was too poor to recruit large,

permanent paid armies. Nor did they need them,

They did not want to rule large areas of land, and

most fights were small raids into nearby villages to

steal cattle, valuables or slaves or to weaken their

enemies by killing family members and burning

villages and crops.

Sometimes Celts did all that they could to avoid

battle. Society relied upon their men to work the

land and could not afford to lose men in battle. SO

sometimes, a small number of men were chosen to

fight in a stage battle, which decided the outcome

of the war.

c50AD – 1066 Celtic warrior leaders:

With no standing army, there were no officers in Celtic

fighting. But Celtic society did have leaders who had

better equipment:

These warriors had better leather smocks and helmets; some had bronze or iron helmets, decorated with coral or even gold.

A few nobles fought on horseback. Their four cornered saddles gave them stability, meaning that they could use their swords and spears better.

In some Celtic tribes, noble warriors used battle chariots.

There were two wheeled vehicles, about four meters

long. A charioteer drove while the warrior threw his

spears, before dismounting and fighting on foot.

Saxon armies:

The Saxon King had two main kinds of

soldiers, the housecarls and the fyrd.

Housecarls:

These were professional soldiers paid for by

the King. They were recruited from a young

age from the strongest boys and trained to

use weapons. They were clothed, armed and

fed by their Lord. When fighting, they were

either fed by their Lord’s supply waggons or

lived off the land.

Fyrd:

These were an army made up of free men,

who were expected to volunteer in times of

danger. In early Saxon times the fyrd were

very disorganised and made up of farmers

with only scythes and axes for weapons. But

over time they became a hardened fighting

force. Because it was based upon local men,

the King could raise the fyrd in any part of

the country he needed.

Saxon weapons and armour:

Soldiers in the fyrd brought their own weapons. They usually had swords, a spear and a shield, and

some kind of protective clothing, like a helmet or leather clothing. However, some fyrdmen

arrived only with farm tools for weapons.

Housecarls were much better armed. For attack, they had swords, spears and sometimes a battle

axe. These had metal axe-heads, with cutting edges about 30cm long, mounted on a long pole. In

the hands of a strong man, these could easily behead an enemy. Some housecarls were also

trained as bowmen.

For defence, housecarls had a coat of chainmail, called a byrnie, a pointed helmet to deflect blows

and a wooden shield, usually a long one, to protect the legs as well as the body.

c50AD – 1066

The Norman Army:

The main difference between the Norman and Saxon armies were the Norman mounted knights.

These were usually men of wealthier families and they considered themselves the cream of the

fighting forces. The Saxons did not fight on horseback, whereas up to half of the Norman army

might be made up of mounted knights.

The Normans also had foot soldiers, infantry. These were usually professional soldiers, employed

by the leaders of the army.

The Normans also had large numbers of archers in their armies.

Norman weapons and armour:

For attacking Norman knights mainly used spears, but also swords, small axes and lances.

To defend themselves, they wore knee-length chainmail shirts, called hauberks. Sometimes they had

chainmail hoods and a pointed helmet, typically with a ‘nasal’ to protect the face. They also used shields

– usually kite shaped.

Norman foot soldiers also used spears, swords and axes. The bows they used were quite short and they

only drew the strings back to their bodies, not fully to the ear. The Normans also used crossbows.

Norman infantry were less likely to be wealthy than the knights. As a result, though they had helmets

and shields, they were less protected. Few wore chainmail; it was too heavy and expensive.

The Assize armies:

The feudal system provided large numbers of mounted knights and also some infantry, but

infantry was the biggest part of the medieval army.

By 1181 all freemen who owned a small amount of property had to provide their own arms

and fight for the king.

1066 - 1350

The early medieval army:

Between 1066 and 1350, the early medieval army was composed of knights and infantry:

Infantry:

They made up most of the army. Some were the permanent men-at-arms employed by knights. But most

were poorer men doing their feudal duty. Some were pike men. Pikes were three-to-six metre spears. Pike

men gathered around knights or archers and pointed their pikes towards enemy cavalry or infantry

charges. An axe-head fixed near the top of pikes made halberds to thrust and cut.

Mounted Knights:

These were the elite of the army. Made up of wealthy landowners, knights could provide their own horses,

swords, shields and lances. At first they had hauberks – chainmail tunics; then, armour developed. By

1300, metal breastplates and back plates were common. After about 1400, knights wore full suits of

armour, though these were soon seen to be impractical.

Archers:

Some shot crossbows; these were very accurate and so powerful their bolts could pierce armour. But

crossbows were slow to re-load so most archers used short bows, about 50cm long, with a 100 metre

range.

1066 - 1350 Siege weapons for attacking castles:

Siege engines:

These were designed to break down walls of towns or castles.

A mangonel was a catapult which worked by winding rope to create tension – like stretching an elastic band. It

had a long, flat trajectory. They hurled rocks at walls.

A trebuchet was like a large sling. It had a long beam on a pivot; the beam had a sling on one end and a heavy

weight on the other. When the weight dropped, the sling on the other end catapulted a rock, on a high trajectory,

over the walls. They also hurled spears and rotting dead animals over the walls to cause death and disease.

Rams, sows and penthouses:

Attackers also used battering rams to break down walls or castle doors. To get close, they advanced under a long

hut on wheels, called a penthouse or a sow. A metal-tipped battering ram was slung from the roof of the sow.

While defenders tried to kill them with arrows, rocks and fire bombs, attackers under the shelter swung the ram

against the walls.

Mining:

Sometimes attackers dug a mine under the castle walls. They propped up the roof of their tunnel with timber

props as they dug. Once under the walls, they would start a large fire. This destroyed the props, causing the

tunnel to collapse. The attackers hoped this would also make the walls above collapse, creating a weak point to

attack.

Storming the walls:

Once the walls were weakened, attackers had to storm the walls in a frontal assault. This was a very dangerous

task, since defenders used arrows, spears, rocks and swords to fight them off from above.

The simplest way for attackers to get to the top of the walls was to use ladders. But it was dangerous as only one

attacker at a time could climb the ladder. Defender frequently tipped the ladders, and attackers, back down onto

the ground.

Attackers also used wheeled siege towers, called belfries, to make a more concerted attack. These were made of

wood and covered in wet animal hides to prevent fire being used against them. Attackers could shelter in the

towers and then, many at a time, emerge from a platform at the top of the tower and leap onto the walls.

Who won?

Most sieges failed. Attackers often ran out of food, money or patience, or they fell ill from exposure or infected

water. Defenders suffered terribly from hunger in long sieges or were slaughtered if the walls fell, so many

decided to negotiate a solution.

Key weapons and make-up of the army:

Archers – especially the longbow

Mounted Knights: the rich and privileged of society. They would have good protective clothing such as metal

helmets, breast and back plates, arm and leg guards. They also carried shields and were well armed with

swords. They would take with them several horses and servants. They would fight on foot if needed.

Infantry: The foot soldiers were the biggest part of the army. They were mainly poor and provided their own

weapons such as daggers, swords, axes and clubs. They were therefore badly armed and poorly protected with leather padded tunics. Lucky ones had metal helmets

and chain mail. Some were pike men.

Small armies – 6,000 men

1350-1450

BIGGEST CHANGE IN THIS ERA –

KEY WEAPON: THE LONGBOW

Could fire 400m and terrified the enemy.

An archer could fire 15 arrows a minute, compare

to 3 for a French crossbow.

The arrows could pierce plate armour.

Knights could be pinned to their horses by arrows

that went through armour, chain mail, flesh and

bone and into the saddle.

Impact of the Longbow:

1. A decline in mounted Knights. The Knights were no longer the most powerful regiment on the battlefield. Knights could now be brought down in large numbers and as more fell others fell on the

bodies, this brought them into hand to hand conflict and equalled them. 2. The rise of Mercenaries. Because the Longbow needed strength and training, only full time soldiers had

the time to perfect its use. Through this training, units of 100 men could be taught to fire and re-load in unison so that they could land showers of arrows on small areas and this had a deadly effect.

3. The end of chivalry. The spirit of war changed. Face to face combat started to decline, there was little honour in death from an arrow fired from an unidentified archer.

1450-1700 The age of Gunpowder weapons:

The cannon, the matchlock and the flintlock.

The Cannon:

Problems: They were inaccurate so could only be

used against large targets such as town walls. They

only had a range of 100m. This made them vulnerable

to capture. They often went wrong and backfired,

killing those who were operating them.

Advantages: Trunnions were introduced which made

it easier to change the range of fire. Quadrants were

used to improve aim. Specialist cannons, such as

mortars and howitzers, which lobbed cannon balls

over wall, were developed. The ‘Mad Margaret’

cannon was developed which had a long aim. By 1500

field gins were developed which were smaller (light

artillery) and could be pulled around the battlefield by

horses. They were no longer stationary and could be

used against the infantry.

IMPACT of the cannon: In 1415 the French town of

Harfleur resisted Henry V’s siege for 5 weeks. In 1449

its walls were destroyed by cannon in 2 weeks.

The Matchlock (A musket gun):

Advantages:They could kill at 400m, which was

further than the longbow, pierce armour at 200m

and the operators did not tire in battle like

archers did.

Problems:They were inaccurate and frequently

misfired making them useless in the rain. They

weighed over 10kg (heavy!) and they had to be

balanced on a stick. They caused smoke when

fired which made aiming difficult and took two

minutes to re-load.

The Flintlock: Invented in 1700:

By 1700 the flintlock replaced the Matchlock. The

Flintlock used flints to create a spark to fire the

weapon and this meant that they could be pre-

loaded and a soldier could carry lots into battle

and fire rapidly, without having to reload. They

could also be used by the Cavalry. Matchlocks

could not be carried on horses, but the Flintlock

could. New ‘Dragoon’ units were created. There

were men on horses who also used the Flintlock.

Impact of gunpowder weapons:

1. Changes in infantry: Musketeers gradually replaced archers in the infantry. Pike men began to disappear as musketeers attached long knives, bayonets, to the end of their guns which turned

them into thrusting weapons. 2. The decline of the cavalry: Cavalry charges were easily cut down. After 1450 the cavalry still existed,

but was weaker. 3. Infantry lines: Lines of Muskets replaced Infantry Squares. By 1600, lines of 10 men were used. They

would fire and then retreats, letting another line of 10 men step forward and fire. This achieved a constant volley of fire. The need to re-load quickly led to increased discipline and training.

Larger armies. At the Battle of Naseby, Oliver

Cromwell had an army of 22,000 men.

1700’s – 18th Century Highlights:

Mainly a time of continuity:

Infantry made up 75% of most armies.

Muskets continued to be used. The English ‘Brown Bess’ flintlock musket, which came into service in 1715,

remained in service for 130 years and 7.8 million were made, but re-loading times fell to 30 seconds.

The cavalry continued to decline.

BUT:

Changes were made to light artillery (small cannons). They were now made of bronze to make them lighter.

The carriages were also made lighter. These were then pulled by horses and became an effective part of

18th century armies. (Example – in 1709 British field guns swept whole ranks of French off their feet using

exploding canisters at the Battle of Malplaquet

The size of armies also grew. Even in peace time

armies of 50,000 were common. They were

permanent, paid armies. During wartime, extra

troops were also recruited. During the Spanish

War of Succession in 1709 the British Army was

150,000 strong. 80,000 of these troops were

mercenaries.

This increase in the size of armies saw three

other changes:

1. Central administration. In 1722 a new War Office was created to run the British Army. It was in charge of army administration, finance and supplies.

2. Standardised weapons and uniforms. The British Red Coats was the most famous!

3. Regiments. These were smaller units within the large army. Each had its own base, emblems and staff (some of the bases and emblems still exist today!)

1800’s – 19th Century A century of two halves:

1800-1850 = A time of continuity (little change)

1850-1900 = A time of rapid change

1815-1850: The core of the army was well-drilled infantry

who wore bright colours. Cavalry continued to decline, but still supported

the infantry. New technology like the telegraph was used

from the 1830’s. This was however ignored by the army.

The growth of artillery actually slowed. Numbers of men in the army fell.

WHY?

Napoleon had been defeated and there was no threat from France so no need to bring in

changes Most army officers saw no reason to change

things Cavalry, although weak, was still admired by the

upper classes

1850-1900: Rifles:

These replaced muskets as the spiralled grove inside the barrel of the gun made the bullet spin and therefore fly further and straighter.

By the 1860’s they could kill from a mile away. Percussion cartridges replaced the need for

flints and sparks, meaning that soldiers could fire well in damp weather.

Conical bullets could be loaded into the gun through a magazine containing many bullets. Soldiers could now reload quickly, lie down and fire several shots in quick succession.

Machine Guns:

Gatling guns were small cannon like weapons which had several small revolving barrels that allowed up 150 bullets per minute to be fired.

By the 1880’s machine guns had become smaller and lighter.

Cannon:

These were now made form steel which improved their strength. Shells developed

which made cannon’s more deadly. 10 shells a minutes could now be fired that explode on

impact.

Impact of rifles, machine guns and developments in cannons (cannons are also known as heavy artillery).

Battles were transformed!

The army with the newest rifles and cannons would win a battle.

Frontal attacks upon an enemy were now useless,

defensive weapons now dominated the battlefield.

These new weapons also finally brought an end to the cavalry; horses could not withstand these bullets.

Why rapid change? 1. New science and technology made steel cheaper to

make. 2. Conveyor-Belt production (mass production).

1900’s – 20th Century

The 1900’s were dominated by two World Wars and the Cold

War

New weapons were introduced during World War One (1914-1918) – planes, tanks, gas and

submarines.

Old weapons continued to have a big impact on the battles –

artillery, rifles and machine guns.

TANKS: First used during the Battle of the Somme in 1916.

Advantages:

Able to cross rough ground easily, this made crossing shell holed no-man-land which was covered with barbed wire a doddle!

Able to crush machine gun positions with ease.

Equipped with machine guns they were able to fire upon the enemy.

At first they scared the German who had no idea what they were!

Disadvantages?

The broke down easily

They were slow

During the Battle of Amiens 534 tanks were used. After four days only 6 hadn’t broken down.

Tactics: Troops would advance behind the tanks, giving them extra

protection from the machine guns.

Aircraft: Advantages:

At the beginning mainly used for spying over enemy lines

Used for dropping bombs

Bomb sights were developed which made aiming better.

Disadvantages:

Pilots were then given pistols to fire at each other. This was inaccurate!

Initial bombings were really inaccurate.

When fitted with machine guns, the guns would often rip through the propellers, destroying them.

Tactics: Were increasingly used in support of

advancing infantry by bombing tranches and no-mans-land.

Gas: First use at Ypres in 1915.

Advantages:

Could kill and injure lots of people all at the same time.

Terrified soldiers. Disadvantages:

Gas masks were able to combat the effects of the gas.

Were reliant upon the wind. If the wind changed direction the attackers would feel the effects!

Tactics: Used against trenches before an infantry attack. The

advancing infantry would all be wearing gas masks and protected from its effects. The enemy would hopefully be caught off guard as they tried to put on their own masks

and disoriented from the gas.

Submarines:

Advantages:

Were able to attack ships with a sense of surprise, especially at the beginning when detecting them was very difficult!

Were used to starve a country into defeat by sinking their food supply ships.

Allowed the weaker Germany Navy to inflict damage upon the stronger British Navy

Disadvantages:

Submarines could not always tell who were the enemy and who were on their side.

Had to resurface often to recharge their batteries – putting them at risk.

Tactics and types of wars

Overview:

c50 – 1066 – Roman tactics and simple defensive/attacking methods 1066 – 1350 = Siege warfare 1350 – 1450 = Feigned retreat and sieges 1450 – 1700 = Sieges 1700 = Sieges 1800 = 1900 = Total War, trench warfare, war in the air

c50AD - 1066 Roman army tactics:

Roman generals would normally position infantry in the centre of their armies, with the cavalry at the sides

and archers and spear throwers behind the infantry. Their attacks would follow this pattern:

A hail of arrows and spears would be sent over the infantry to disrupt the enemy

The infantry would drive forwards into the enemy, forming a wedge shape or a series of wedges, protected by their shields

This would force the enemy backwards and crush them together, allowing the Roman soldiers to stab at their enemy between their shields

The cavalry would then cut down the retreating enemy troops

When attacking towns the army changed tactics:

Legions used their engineers to build artillery: catapults to throw rocks or large spears at the enemy

The engineers also built towers, sheds and latters to attack the fortified walls

The Wedge:

Type: ATTACKING

When used: Used aggressively to divide the enemy.

How it works: The centurion is at the front of the ‘V’ and the

legionaries form the sides of the ‘V’. They have to stay close

together to stop the enemy from breaking the line. As the wedge

advances, more soldiers join on at the ends to divide the enemy

even further. Breaking the enemy formation was key to winning on

the Roman battlefield!

The Orb:

Type: DEFENSIVE

When used: If part of the army

had been split off from the main

group or encircled by the enemy.

How it works: The legionaries

form a circle around the officers

and the archers (these were the

most important people!) using

their shields as protection. Seen

as a ‘desperate last stand’.

Celtic army tactics:

The Celts rarely fought large-scale wars, but sometimes they had no choice. As the Roman Army fought its way

across Europe and Britain, the Celts were at constant war with the Romans. Sometimes the tribes joined forces to

fight the Romans (see Boudicca Revolt).

But Celtic warriors were not suited to large battles. There were several reasons for this:

Celtic society produced very few permanent, trained soldiers, and none of them were drilled in fighting in large groups.

Celtic society valued heroic individual warriors; so they had no interest in fighting as units.

Celtic society had no written language, so it had no war manuals to spread information about battlefield manoeuvres or tactics.

There were no clear leaders in Celtic society. Celtic armies formed up in trial groups, warriors fighting alongside those they knew. These groups did not all have the same weapons or equipment.

c50AD - 1066

Celtic tactics two:

So, Celtic tactics were simple – mainly mass attacks. One simple tactic they used was to try to frighten the enemy:

Before battles, warriors beat their weapons against their shields, shouting blowing horns and beating drums.

They destroyed the enemy’s sacred sites to show they were not afraid of their gods.

Some warriors fought naked, with their bodies pained in dye, their long hair dyed blond with lime and with beards and droopy moustaches

When they attacked they often centred their attacks upon one point, but this cramped them for space, and Celtic warriors needed to swing their swords.

The Repel-Cavalry:

Type: DEFENSIVE

When used: To combat a cavalry charge.

How it works: The soldiers form a line, with the men at the front crouching down with their shields in front of

them and their spears stick out of the gaps. The men behind put their shields over the top of the men in front,

and have their spears ready to throw. The spears would stop horses from running at the soldiers, often

causing them to retreat. Those retreating would then knock into the cavalry behind them, causing a domino

effect and making themselves easy targets for archers.

The Tortoise:

Type: DEFENSIVE

When used: To advance but remain protected from spears, arrows, etc.

How it works: The Tortoise is square. The men at the front hold their shields in front of them. The men at the

sides hold their shields to the sides. The men in the middle hold their shields above them. The men had to move

in close formation to ensure that the shields were touching so that no missiles could get in and injure any

soldiers.

Saxon warfare:

Saxon armies were usually used for

defence against invading forces, such as

the Vikings, or rebellions. Their tactics

involved:

Forming a defensive front line of housecarls behind a wall of shields

Strengthening this defensive line with fyrdmen behind the housecarls

Rebuffing attacks with this shield wall

Using spears and arrows, from behind the shield wall, to weaken the enemy.

Moving forwards in formation, using swords and axes to attack enemy lines

Norman warfare:

Norman armies were more aggressive than the Saxons.

Spears, arrows and cavalry charges were often used to

soften up the enemy before the infantry moved

forward. The cavalry were often deadly when chasing

fleeing enemy foot soldiers.

Another difference between Norman and Saxon

warfare was the development of castles. These stone

fortresses were common homes and military bases for

wealthy knights in Europe, long before they were

introduced in Britain.

1066 - 1350 Limited warfare

The feudal system produced small armies. William the Conqueror’s army of 8,000 men at the Battle of Hastings in

1066 was considered large. King Henry II had only 6,000 knights in the 12th century.

The campaigning season was limited too. Fighting was only possible from the late spring, after crops had been

sown, until the autumn, after which the weather could make it impractical to move troops and fight battles.

These factors meant that this was an age of limited warfare.

The aims of most wars were limited too. Rulers often used their armies like private possessions – to force a rival

to give him land or money, or to settle a dispute between royal families. Unlike in later wars, rulers rarely

destroyed their enemy’s army or conquered their country.

Fighting was also limited. In feudal societies, rulers had good reasons to avoid battles. At a time when rulers led

armies, losing could mean that they were killed, or they could be captured. If they were captured it usually meant

paying a large ransom in exchange for freedom. So, instead of fighting, commanders might spend most of their

time manoeuvring their armies to avoid a battle or to trap their enemy in a hopeless position. This manoeuvring

might involve skirmishes or raids. Occasionally an army would just plunder an area, either to destroy an enemy’s

food supplies or capture a town to steal valuables.

Even if you wanted a battle, it was not easy. It was difficult to know where your enemy was. Commanders relied

on intelligence from scouts using imperfect means like smoke signals, church bells or pigeons. If the commander

of a feudal army wanted to fight, he would have to hold a council of war with his leading noblemen to get their

agreement.

1066 - 1350 Battlefield tactics:

Preparing for battle:

Generals would try to draw up their armies in positions which were difficult to attack – on the top of slopes or

protected at the back and sides, perhaps by woodland, marches or rivers. They would then try to weaken the

enemy by using arrow or the cavalry.

Cavalry attack:

Knights considered themselves the elite of feudal society, and they liked to take the leading role in battles.

They were the tanks of medieval warfare. They would form into a tightly packed group and charge, hoping to

burst through the enemy defences. A mounted knight (150lb), his armour (60lb) and weapons (40lb) required

a sturdy horse. At a top speed of about 15 miles per hour, probably as fast as you could run, the combined

weight of the knight and horse made a colossal impact.

Defence:

The defending infantry would try to weaken the cavalry attack. They would:

Fire arrows into the attacking cavalry

Position troops behind spiked posts

Put troops in tight squares, protected by spikes

Lay caltrops on the ground to injure the attacking horses

The infantry charge:

Befitting their place in society, the attacking infantry followed the mounted knights, to exploit gaps in the

enemy defences. If necessary, knights dismounted and also fought on foot.

Once hand-to-hand combat began, fighting was like a frenzied butchery. Face-to-face, men tried to smash an

opponent’s skull or arms with a mace or axe, or to pierce his armour joints, or slash his belly or cut the

tendons in arms or legs with an axe or a sword.

Retreat:

Sometimes mounted knights charged and then pretended to retreat; this sometimes tricked infantry into

chasing them. Once they were away from their protective spears or spikes, the knights then turned upon the

disorganised infantry.

The same was true at the end of the battle. In hand-to-hand fighting, once one side turned and fled in

disorder, it usually led to slaughter. It was common for soldiers more to be killed in the final retreat than in

the battle itself.

Leadership:

There was usually little difference in the size of medieval armies or their weapons. Often the outcome of a

battle was therefore determined by the quality of leadership or the discipline of the troops.

1066 - 1350

Castles:

The Normans began building castles in 1066 to replace the forts once built by the Romans. Castles were a big

change from the past. They had several functions:

A safe place for the Norman barons to live amongst the hostile Saxon population

A stronghold which could be defended against attack by another baron or foreign enemy

A military base from which to launch attacks

The nobles could only build a castle with the permission of the King. At first a key consideration was speed. The

Normas needed to be safe after defeating Harold Godwinson. So, cheap, plentiful materials, wood and earth,

were used for the first castles. They were motte and bailey castles.

Motte and bailey castles:

The motte was a mound, made of layers of earth. It

usually had a circular wooden barrier at the top,

with wooden barrier at the top, with wooden huts

leant against the inside walls. It was the last place of

refuge in an attack.

The bailey was the courtyard below the motte. It

provided the housing and storage for normal life,

but it was also surrounded by a wooden barrier on

an earth bank, as the first line of defence.

Ideally, a castle was sited high up, with views all

around and wells to provide water in the bailey and

motte. Sometimes, water in the ditch around the

bailey strengthened the defences of the castle.

Changes in castle design:

As wooden castles were easily attacked by fire

and easily rotted, improvements were needed.

Stone Keeps:

One solution was a circular stone tower, or

keep, on the motte. A circular stone tower, or

keep, on the motte. But circular keeps were

too small for lavish living space for barons. So

the nest solution was tall, square keeps. But

these were too heavy to sit on the motte, so

they were usually built inside the bailey.

Stone curtain walls:

From about 1000 onwards, the wooden

barriers around castles were replaced with high

stone walls – curtain walls.

1066 - 1350

Later changes to castle design:

Over time, castle designers found ways of changing the features of castles to make them easier to defend.

There were many changes:

Crenellation and shutters:

Curtain walls were topped with Crenellations which had gaps through which defenders could fire arrows.

Overtime, wooden shutters were out in place for offer greater protection.

Bratticing and machicolations:

Later, castle designers found ways to build overhangs on the outside of the top of the walls, so defenders could

fire arrows or drop rocks on attackers at the base of the wall. At first, these structures were wooden, but were

eventually made of stone.

The glacis and towers:

Tall, thin walls could easily be breached. The first solution was to make the base of the wall thicker, and sloped,

to make attack harder. This sloe was called the glacis. Towers were another improvement to defence. From a

tower, a defender could shoot along a wall at any attackers trying to breach it. At first the towers were square.

Soon, designers realised that rounded towers were less easy to attack.

Gatehouses:

Castle designers also realised that the weakest point of a curtain wall was the large hole designed into every

one – the entrance. To counter this, they began to develop gatehouses around the entrances. Gatehouses

included lots of defensive features such as towers, drawbridges, portcullises and a killing ground – a heavily

defended space that attackers would have to cross to get to the entrance.

Ditches and concentric castles:

To stop attackers easily getting to the castle walls, designers began to put a series of concentric ditches aound

the walls. Eventually, this idea turned into concentric walls. These replaced single curtain walls with double

rings of walls – low external ones and higher internal walls for extra security.

1066 - 1350

Siege technology:

A full front attack upon a castle or town walls was never a first option. Attackers usually decided

upon encirclement, then battery, then negotiation and finally attack.

Encirclement:

This meant cutting the castle or town off from reinforcement and supplies (including water).

Sometimes this was enough to starve the castle or city into surrender, unless a relief force drove the

attackers away.

Battery:

This involved weakening or breaching the walls. This was done in a variety of ways, such as using

siege engines, battering rams, fire and mines.

Negotiation:

If the defenders thought that their position was hopeless then they might agree to surrender. This

would usually involve paying the attacking army large amounts of money either to go away or, at

least, not to kill those behind the walls.

Attack!

If negotiations failed, after weakening the walls, attackers could then launch a full assault. They used

ladders and siege towers. It took great bravery and discipline. Attacking armies were often bigger

than defending forces so, once inside, the result could be a slaughter.

1350-1450 Main tactics:

Archers and Cavalry dominated attacks

Pikes and shields were the main form of defence

Infantry was still the deciding force

Feigned retreat – Parts of armies would pretend to run

away to draw defending forces away from key defences.

When the troops had followed, those running away would

turn and attack.

Sieges – Attackers would surround a castle or a town that

had barricaded themselves in behind strong defences. The

attackers would let no people, food or water in or out. The

people inside would eventually run out of food and water

and be forces to surrender.

Types of warfare:

Medieval Warfare where Feudal armies were led by Kings.

Limited war – limited in their aims such as to take riches

from foreign land and to capture enemies for ransom

Warfare was mainly raids, sorties and skirmishes rather

than battles. Kings led armies, so they avoided battles if

possible (they could be killed!) Henry V only fought at

Agincourt because he had no choice.

Key Battle and the tactics that won the fight: Agincourt, 1415.

1. Surprise attack – Henry V sent archers to hide in trees and fire into

French lines. 2. The use of the Longbow. Henry ordered his archer’s to fire when the

French were 200m away. 3. The choice of a narrow battlefield

(More detail about this battle in the Battles

section of this revision booklet).

1700’s – 18th Century

1450-1700

New Siege tactics were introduced

as towns used cannons to defend

their walls. (After they had

strengthened the walls to take their

weight!) Sieges became longer and

trenches were built by the attackers

around the towns they were

besieging to shelter troops from the

cannon fire.

Limited war continued.

Armies were led by rulers rather than generals.

Rulers fought for limited gains and were happy with an

agreed peace rather than total defeat of the enemy.

Sieges and skirmishes were still more common than battles.

1800’s – 19th Century Key Battle and the tactics that won the fight: The Battle of Waterloo, 1815 and the

Crimean War of 1854-6.

1. Setting up key defensive positions. 2. Heavy bombardment.

3. Use of infantry squares/lines. 4. Use of cannon in the infantry squares.

(More detail about this battle in the Battles section of this revision booklet).

1900’s – 20th Century

World War One: In World War One (1914-1918) the scale of the war was total. 80% of the word’s population were formally at

war. The armies were larger than ever seen before. Germany had an army of 877,000 by 1914.

In World War One the fighting was different from what had gone before. Defensive weapons were more powerful to attacking weapons. The defenders dug into defensive positions and used rifles and machine guns

to mow down attacking infantry. Both sides dug trenches and the war lasted for four years.

A ‘total war’: All aspects of society went towards winning the war: Economically: Britain produced 170 million shells during the war and Woolwich Arsenal in London had

100,000 workers.

Politically: The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) gave the government power to direct the war effort. It controlled railways, shipping and mines, introduced rationing and censored what papers printed about the

war.

Trench Warfare: Trenches were 2 meters wide and 2 meters deep. These were the front line

Support trenches were built further back. These were for off duty soldiers and supplies. Reserve trenches were further back again. This is where the troops rested and ruched to the

front line if needed. Trenches were dug in zigzags so that the enemy could not fire along them if they were captured.

Rival trenches werenormally dug anything from 50m to 800m apart. The space between them

was known as ‘no-mans-land’. This area would have barbed wire across it as extra defence.

‘Going over the top’: The only tactic to take the trenches was by ‘going over the top’. This involved the infantry walking towards enemy fire. It soon became clear that machine guns could easily kill the

attackers. But generals had no other tactics, they just sent more men! If they did reach and get into the enemy trench fighting became hand-to-hand, although hand grenades and flame

throwers helped as well.

Artillery: Artillery was used before mass attacks in the hope of weakening the opposition defences.

Approx. 70% of all World War One causalities were caused by artillery fire, but the trenches withstood the barrage and the shells ploughed up no-mans-land, making it harder to cross.

Gas:

Gas was a new tactic/weapon of World War One. It was first used by the Germans on 22nd April 1915 at the Battle of Ypres against the Canadians. Hundreds were killed.

Creeping Barrage: First used at the Battle of the Somme, a creeping barrage involved artillery fire moving forward in stages just

ahead of the advancing infantry. By autumn 1916 the Allied forces developed a system where the barrage moved forward at 50 metres per minute. To work, the strategy required precise timing by both the heavy

artillery and the infantry. Failure to do this would result in the artillery killing their own soldiers.

Although creeping barrage was sometimes successful when the commander had limited objectives, it failed to provide the means to end the stalemate on the Western Front.

Artillery barrage:

A barrage is a term used to describe extensive artillery fire against enemy positions. Barrages were classified as light, moderate or heavy. A light barrage amounted to six or seven shells every ten minutes. A moderate barrage

was thirty shells a minute and a heavy one, fifty to sixty shells a minute. There were several different types of barrage used during the First World War.

Tunnelling:

On the Western Front during the First World War, the military employed specialist miners to dig tunnels under No Man's Land. The main objective was to place mines beneath enemy defensive positions. When it was

detonated, the explosion would destroy that section of the trench. The infantry would then advance towards the enemy front-line hoping to take advantage of the confusion that followed the explosion of an underground

mine.

The Gulf War, 1991: This was a limited war for the British; they wanted Saddam Hussain, who had invaded

Kuwait, to withdraw his troops back to Iraq.

It was also an Asymmetrical War (when larger countries fight for smaller countries).

An airwar: The main tactic in this war was bombing. During a five week bombardment 100,000 sorties

were flown which dropped 88,000 tons of bombs.

These planes included stealth bombers (planes that did not show up on radar) dropping laser guided bombs and cruise missiles which were fired from up to 1,500 miles away.

Second phase: land war:

British Challenger tanks were far superior to Iraqi ones. They could travel at 45 miles an hour, were protected by Chobham armour and fired depleted uranium shells.

Media Reporting and

Propaganda

Overview:

1350-1700 – No Media reporting or propaganda. EXCEPTION! – English Civil War of 1640’s 1800’s – KEY INVENTION! – The Telegraph.

Made communication easier. Key War = Crimean War.

1900’s – Propaganda plays key part in World War One.

War Reporting becomes instant and effects the way that wars are fought.

1350-1700

During this time people were not as informed about wars as today for three main reasons: 1. Armies were small and few people had a direct experience of fighting.

2. Communication was limited. There was no radio, television or the internet. Even the impact of written pamphlets was reduced by low levels of literacy.

3. Kings did not need to inform or consult people about their wars. They were not elected by the public and they used royal armies, not public ones.

But, as always, there are exceptions:

During the English Civil War both sides needed the support of the people as their military bases and food supplies would be weakened without it. They both therefore supplied and used propaganda.

KEY INVENTION:

The Telegraph! This changed wartime communication. Whilst it was impractical for soldiers to use it during battles, the

government and general staff used it with generals on campaign.

Newspapers took advantage of the telegraph and throughout the Crimean War the public were kept up to date on the war through the daily newspapers. The public found out about the lack of provisions that the army

faced, the poor weather that the soldiers had to endure and the injuries suffered by the soldiers. The public put pressure upon the government to provide better supplies and care for the soldiers and public support for

Florence Nightingale soared.

At the beginning of the war, The Times, used an officer in the British Army for war reports. Sent by horse and ship, the letters took a week to arrive.

The most famous reporters of the Crimean War was William Russell who used telegraph to report on a daily

basis. His writing outraged the public and helped to cause reforms of the army, especially in the areas of medical care, but it did not reduce the popularity of the war.

1800’s – 19th Century

1900’s – 20th Century World War One:

Propaganda was a key part of World War

One. The British government used propaganda for a number of reasons:

1. To boost support for the war. 2. To get men to join the war

through: a. Guilt b. Excitement c. Love of their country

3. To instil a hatred of the enemy. 4. To get women into the factories. 5. To encourage people the grow

vegetables and work the fields.

Post-World War Two: The Gulf War:

Support for warfare during the Two World Wars was very high, but

afterwards dropped. This is generally because of the memories of WW1

and WW2, the fear of nuclear war and a greater knowledge of the horrors

of war which have been publicised by the new methods of communication

such as radio, television, films and the internet.

The reporting of wars and the impact that this has had upon society has

changed the way that wars have been fought. Due to the high levels of

media coverage which discuss all casualties, armies try to avoid as many

deaths as possible as if the public believe that too many people are dying

the war may have to be halted.

Commanders are now more accountable for their actions during wars. The

Geneva Convention and Hague Conventions set out how wars should be

fought, and since then several leading war leaders have been tried and

executed for atrocities during warfare. Individual soldiers have also begun

to be held account for their actions. In 2007 a British soldier was jailed for

mistreating an Iraqi civilian and the government paid the civilian £3 million

in compensation.

Reporters today tend to report the events, not the propaganda of previous

wars. Due to the mass media in war zones it is now harder to censor

information.

They also made films of the war.

The film ‘The Battle of the Somme’ was

released a few days after the battle started. But it had been faked, and the details of the British losses

were not shown.

World War One Propaganda

Equipment Overview:

1350-1450 – Soldiers provided their own equipment. 1450-1900 – Government’s provide for armies

Baggage trains Uniforms

1900’s – Royal Logistics Corps

c50AD - 1066 Roman equipment:

The Roman army were provided with the fighting equipment that the soldiers required. They were made in

specially built army weapon factories. Uniform was standardized and again provided for the soldiers. Medical

care was provided by each legion.

Soldiers travelled with generous rations: 3lb of bread, 2lb of meat and two pints of wine a day.

Roman forts had fresh water and safe ways to dispose of sewage. Larger forts also had hospitals, doctors, herbal

medicine for routine illnesses and opium for dealing with pain.

Celtic equipment:

The Celts provided their own weapons and armour for battle. This therefore meant that each man carried very

different equipment than the man standing next to them.

As Celts rarely fought large battles, they went home after the battle for food and rest.

Saxon equipment:

The housecarls were clothed, armed and fed by their Lord. When fighting, they were either fed by their Lord’s

supply waggons or lived off the land.

In early Saxon times the fyrd were very disorganised and made up of farmers with only scythes and axes for

weapons that they provided themselves.

Medieval provisioning:

The feudal system provided men for an army; but food and supplies had to be provided in other ways.

Baggage trains of carts, mules and horses carried supplies. Each man in the army needed about 3lbs of food per day and each horse 20lbs of fodder (grass or hay). River water caused illness amongst soldiers, so armies carried mead, beer or wine instead.

Supply by river or sea made it easier to carry heavy goods. An army supplied by ships could move at about 20 miles per day.

Plunder was common. Soldiers were sent to forage as it marched slowed to about five miles per day. Foraging left a wasteland that could cause more civilian deaths from starvation than deaths in battle.

1350-1450

During Feudal times, Kings did not have the money to provide food and weapons for their

armies. Neither did they have a big enough civil service to store and distribute weapons

and food. Feudal armies were therefore expected to provide their own weapons and

protective clothing. They also ‘lived off the land’ which meant stealing food from fields and

stores of the local population where they were fighting.

When armies became permanent they went on longer campaigns, both of these factors meant that the King had to

make better arrangements for feeding their troops. The development of gun powder weapons meant that standardized

weapons were needed.

To provide food, weapons and other supplies commanders began to use baggage trains. This included the wagons,

stores and people that followed the armies around. These people tended to be women and children, often of the

soldiers, women who earned a living doing the soldier’s cooking, washing and sewing. Other women were prostitutes

and STD’s were common within armies. Men also followed the armies earning a living as doctors, blacksmiths

carpenters, tailors and cobblers.

The introduction of permanent armies led to the introduction of uniforms. Uniforms had been unpopular because

soldiers associated them with servants, it was difficult to mass-produce the items and it was expensive to replace them.

But first of all coloured sashes were introduced (blue for the French and orange for the Dutch) and were followed by the

New Model Army introducing Red Coats for its troops in the English Civil War.

As the armies got bigger, so did the baggage trains. An army of 30,000 men required 25,000 horses and large quantities

of gunpowder and shot. It also needed 20 tons of bread and the equivalent of 1,500 sheep every day.

The baggage train was vital to armies. If the baggage train was destroyed then the army was fatally weakened. This is

why the Royalists were so keen to destroy Parliament’s baggage train at Naseby.

1450-1900

1900’s – 20th Century

Modern technology has changed provisioning for armies. Because food and supplies can be stored centrally and then moved very quickly by land or air whenever needed, there is no need now for an army

to travel with what it needs.

During World War One over 3 million tons of food were sent from Britain to the troops in the trenches. Some 300,000 British personnel were employed to store, distribute and cook it in the fields.

When on active duty today, troops are given emergency rations that they carry and cook as best they can. British troops in Afghanistan in 2009 were issued with ration packs containing pre-packed food such as

corned beef, fruit dumplings in custard,chocolate, and even tikka masala, providing up to 4,000 calories a day. The Army has a separate Royal Logistic Corps to arrange its transport, catering and supplies. It

employs about 16,000 soldiers.

Civilians, effects of war and

attitudes in society.

Overview:

1350 – 1450 – Little impact once mercenary armies were common 1450 – 1900 – Gunpowder weapons divided society. Gunpowder weapons create jobs. 1900’s - Freedom lost during World War One.